Chapter No. 3 HISTORY OF VISUAL MERCHANDISING
3.1 - History of Visual Merchandising:
Visual Merchandising has been around since the dawn of civilization, since humans started
selling merchandise to a customer. When a vendor arranged his goods to be more attractive
for a customer, or when a farmer put the biggest and ripest apples on top of the basket for
consumers to see and touch, that is visual merchandising.
Sarah Marie (2008)122 lays down the history of visual merchandising in her article “A
history of visual merchandising in retail stores” as per her “In our current, consumeroriented culture, people do not shop merely to obtain items they need, but also to satisfy their
wants. Frequently, shopping does not even involve making a purchase. For consumers,
window-shopping has become a popular pastime. Visual merchandisers create "miniature
worlds" for merchandise in an effort to attract the attention of consumers, draw them into the
store and keep them coming back in the future. Despite the advanced techniques seen in
visual displays, visual merchandising is not a new concept or art. As early as the 18th century,
merchandise was staged in interesting and unique arrangements to attract consumers”.
The Early Stores
Prior to the late 18th century, when the contemporary methods of visual merchandising began
to evolve, store owners and managers cared little for the appearance of their stores and the
presentation of merchandise. Very little merchandise was displayed within the store. Rather,
a customer would enter the store and speak with the retailer, who would then present
merchandise that was kept in a back room. "Sales talk" and an ability to persuade were very
important in convincing a customer of the quality of a product and making a sale. The
evolution in store design brought about a new "process" of shopping. It was no longer a
verbal engagement between retailers and customers, but now a "sensory experience". The
first step in the evolution of store design occurred when small stores began to display their
merchandise openly to the public, instead of keeping it stored in back rooms. Eventually, the
deliberate displaying of goods became an important tool for retailers. What were once
122
Sarah Marie (2008), A history of visual merchandising in retail stores, retrieved 6th Oct 2012 from
http://hubpages.com/hub/A-History-of-Visual-Merchandising-in-Retail-Stores
135
unattractive stores that were not meant to visually appeal to consumers slowly became
exciting shopping venues.
The Development of Arcades
Arcades, or passages, were covered streets that were constructed using iron and glass.
Historically, they can be traced back to bazaars of the Arabian Peninsula and Asia Minor.
The experimentation with the second step in the evolution process occurred in Europe during
the beginning of the 19th century with new materials greatly improved the aesthetic qualities
of the shops that were housed within the arcades. The main features of the arcades were their
glass skylights, which often stretched the entire length of the passageway. The skylights
created a completely enclosed, visually stimulating shopping environment.
Image – 3.1 – Grand exposition
The Establishment of the Grand Expositions
The establishment of the Grand Expositions marked the next advance in the evolution of store
design. The Grand Expositions, which began in London in 1851 with the Crystal Palace
Exposition, were originally meant to present and demonstrate new technology. The
exposition soon became huge, crowded fairs in which merchandise was displayed in exotic
and elaborate settings. The retailers learned that they would be more successful if they
displayed their merchandise openly and in a strategic manner to the public. They also
observed that it was better to not place objects directly on the floor, but rather on platforms or
pedestals - raising the merchandise closer to eye level. This emphasis on deliberately
displaying merchandise in a manner that would be pleasing for the consumer was an
important innovation in the development of visual merchandising. Displays were often
themed. For example, the 1899 Paris Exposition included a replica of a street in Cairo, Egypt,
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complete with belly dancers. The retailers wanted the people coming into the exposition to
feel as if they had just stepped into another world.
Image – 3.2 – An example of departmental store of 19th century
The Rise of the Department Store
The rise of the department store, or grand emporium, in the 19th century brought more
changes in store design and visual displays. The early department stores continued with the
idea of displaying merchandise in elaborate and luxurious setting. Techniques that were
previously used in small dry goods stores, expositions, and arcades were experimented with,
and either used or rejected. The department stores of the 19th century transformed the concept
of visual merchandising in four ways. In doing so, merchandise display was made one of the
most important aspects of the shopping experience.
The department stores were open every day, with the exception of religious holidays. The
second transformation that the early department stores made was in the use of luxurious store
interiors. By displaying ordinary commodities, such as a bolt of inexpensive cloth, in a
luxurious setting, these ordinary pieces of merchandise became signs of affluence and wealth.
The newly derived value came from staging the product in a luxurious environment. Despite
not selling luxury items, this method of visual display led customers to believe that average,
everyday products can also be the symbols of wealth and luxury.
Some owners in those enjoyed frequently "hiding" merchandise that customers purchased on
a regular basis, therefore encouraging them to search the entire store and, possibly, come
across merchandise that they did not originally intend to buy. Goods were also displayed in
large volumes. The potential for customers to want, buy, and spend more was great. By
displaying merchandise in large quantities, retailers made sure that the desires of the
consumer were never fulfilled. At this point in time, shortage and scarcity were still threats to
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large portions of the population. The "endless" supplies in the department stores created a
symbolic meaning of surplus. Lastly, the department stores of the 19th century continued and
perfected the use of themed displays, similar to those that were used in the World
Expositions. Also, merchandise was displayed in "real" scenes. For example, rather than
displaying a lamp on a shelf, it would be displayed in a replica of a living room, which would
include a mannequin family.
3.2 - The Evolution of Visual Merchandising
As per a research by Ken W. Parker123 (Centre for Social Change Research
Queensland University of Technology) on The Evolution of Visual Merchandising named
as “An Examination of Visual Merchandising in the Grand Emporiums (1846 – 1900)” puts a
bright light on the history and evolution of visual merchandising. According to him,
Contemporary techniques of visual merchandising began to evolve in retail establishments in
the 18th century. In small boutiques the first tentative steps were taken to display goods
openly to the public. Previously, retail outlets kept their visual display to a minimum.
Shopkeepers cared little for the outward appearance of their stores and only rarely presented
merchandise for consumers to view. Instead of displaying merchandise on fixtures retailers
would, upon the customers’ request, retrieve products hidden away inside cabinets or out of
drawers. Under these conditions ‘sales talk’ became vital to the selling process, as the retailer
relied on their ability to persuade the consumer that the merchandise in question was of
excellent quality.
However, this version of the development of visual merchandising has been challenged. In
contrast to Laermans (1993), Walsh (1999: 47-51) has called for a revision of retail history by
claiming that sophisticated and extravagant techniques of visual merchandising existed in the
18th century. Yet, although Walsh’s (1999) argument is quite persuasive a deeper analysis
highlights two potential flaws. Firstly, Walsh’s work only examined a small number of
London-based boutique stores whose retail practices may not have been indicative of general
pattens (Hilton, 2000). Secondly, the validity of Walsh’s research on use of images from a
small boutique store recorded in 1809 must be questioned. Walsh (1999) asserted that the
image demonstrated that the merchandise of stores prior to the grand emporiums was clearly
displayed for customers to view. However, the image used by Walsh in 1999 depicted a store
123
Ken W. Parker (Centre for Social Change Research Queensland University of Technology) on The Evolution
of Visual Merchandising named as “An Examination of Visual Merchandising in the Grand Emporiums (1846 –
1900)” retrieved 25th sept from proquest.
138
where every consumer pictured was stringently attended by a watchful salesperson. Here the
merchandise is not freely available for the consumer to browse but instead produced only
upon request. The images depicted in Walsh’s (1999) work are far removed from the
environment of free wandering and browsing encouraged later in the 19th-century department
stores. Nevertheless, through a gradual evolution in retailing ideology the interior
arrangement of stores and the deliberate displaying of goods became an integral tool for retail
managers. During this period of change, stores were slowly transformed from cluttered and
unattractive factory outlets to magnificent, exciting, and opulent shopping worlds, where
goods were not just displayed but celebrated in an environment of glass, steel, and iron.124
The second major step in the evolution of store design was the development of the Arcades
or passages predominantly in Europe during the first part of the 19th century. The arcades
were covered streets or boulevards that can be traced historically to the exotic bazaars of Asia
Minor and the Arabian Peninsula. Yet, what made the European arcades of the 19th century
critical to the development of store interiors were their experiments with iron and glass
construction, which dramatically improved the aesthetic qualities of small boutique shops that
they housed. The central features of the arcades were their glass skylights, which in their
most spectacular form covered the entire length of the passage. Although incredibly
expensive and fraught with technical difficulties, the glass skylights provided the arcades
with a fully enclosed, comfortable shopping space and a very beautiful, even dazzling
consumption site. However despite the incredible adornments outside the visual delights
presented by the arcades did not extend into the boutiques that they contained. In most cases
the internal arrangements of the stores progressed little from earlier incarnations. As such, the
arcades became more associated with the strolling observer, the flaneur, a figure made
famous in the writings of French poet Charles Baudelaire125
The third advance in visual merchandising occurred following the establishment of Grand
Expositions, which began with the Crystal Palace exposition of London in 1851. Although
originally intended to demonstrate new technology, the expositions soon became huge fairs,
where goods were exhibited in elaborate and often exotic Surroundings126. The sensory
124
Walsh, C. (1999) 'The Newness of the Department Store: journal -A View from the Eighteenth
Century. Retrieved 25th oct 2012 from proquest.
125
Benjamin, W. (1989) Charles Baudelaire: A Lyric Poet In The Era Of High
Capitalism. New York: Verso Publishers.
Benjamin, W. (1999) The Arcades Project. Cambridge, London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University press
retrieved 15th oct 2012 from proquest
126
Williams, R. (1982) Dream Worlds: Mass Consumption in Late Nineteenth - Century
France. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Retrieved 15th sept from proquest.
139
bombardment that became the hallmark of expositions commenced as soon as the public
approached the exposition, the entrances to the expositions were spectacular and dramatic,
inside the gates of the exposition the sensory delights continued with monuments, fountains,
and marble statues lining the exposition floor’s interior. The Grand Exposition’s contained,
Hindu temples, savage huts, pagodas, souks, Algerian alleys, Chinese, Japanese, Sudanese,
Sengalese, Siamese, Cambodian quarters. It was a bazaar of climates, architectural styles,
smells, colours, cuisine, and music. However, even most significantly, the retailers of the
expositions learned that sales were increased when their products were openly and
strategically displayed to the public. The best exhibits make use of two quite distinct
systems: display under glass or open display. The idea of placing goods where people could
view them easily was a major innovation in the development of visual merchandising because
it placed an emphasis on the staging of goods in extravagant and exciting displays to increase
the appeal of the merchandise. Following the developments of the expositions consumers
expected to be presented with a bounty of visual pleasures every time they entered a retail
outlet. For consumers, stores now had to stimulate and excite them as well as provide the
basic necessities for life. Finally, while visual merchandising may not have been an invention
of the 19th-century department stores, the grand emporiums embraced the idea of staging
goods in luxurious and astonishing environments like no other retail institution.
3.3 - History of Visual Merchandising- Departmental stores: The reason Visual
Merchandisers exists today has to do with the “invention” of the Department Store, and not
the little general merchandise store. Visual Merchandising exists because one man had the
foresight to take all the general merchandise and stick it under one roof.
Aristide Boucicaut came up with the idea of creating a
store that sold all sorts of merchandise, attracted crowds,
and would allow people to wander freely about; “a town
within a town”. In 1838 he opened Le Bon Marché, in
Paris – but it became the world’s first department store
because of his innovation with distribution of goods in
1852.
Image – 3.3 – Le Bon Marche-Departmental store 1838
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It wasn’t long before this idea caught on overseas and others followed in soon:

Macy’s, New York in 1858

Marshall Fields, Chicago in 1865

Bloomingdale’s, New York in 1872

Wanamaker, Philadelphia in 1876
Aristide Boucicaut may have come up with the “town within a town”
idea, but it was American entrepreneur Gordon Selfridge who
revolutionized it! Gordon Selfridge took what he had learned from
working at Marshall Fields and applied it to his own store which he
opened in London, a place where the department store concept had not
yet caught on; Selfridges opened on March 15, 1909 for $700,000. He
is credited with coming up with the phrase “Only shopping days until
Christmas”, leaving the lights in the store window on at night, and
adding a soda fountain.127
( source: Visual Merchandising, by Tony Morgan)
A window display from Selfridges in the 1920s: Even then displays weren’t only about the
merchandise but in creating a whole elaborate scene reflective of the times. Moreover, the
early department stores did not just copy previous techniques from the dry goods stores,
arcades, and expositions, but instead transformed the concept of visual merchandising in four
distinct ways making the display of merchandise one of the most integral components of the
shopping experience.
Firstly, the early department stores made the techniques of visual display introduced by the
World Expositions a normal part of shopping. Although incredible, the World Expositions
were irregular events, only occurring every few years in a handful of major metropolises
across Europe and later in the United States. In contrast, the grand emporiums operated
virtually every day of the year, only stopping for religious holidays. Following the evolution
of the early department stores, consumers experienced the sensory delights found in the
exposition every time they went shopping. While still remaining a fabulous and astonishing
experience, shopping in the fantastic world created by the early department stores became the
127
Visual Merchandising by Tony Morgan
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normal form of consumption for many people in the 19th century. Secondly, the early
department stores used incredible and luxurious store interiors that exceeded those of even
the most opulent arcade. Like the arcades before them, the 19th-century department stores
created an extraordinary consumption site by experimenting with glass roofing, creating
unusual effects with natural light, and incorporating the ‘outdoors in the indoors128.’ The
experiments in glass and iron construction created a truly amazing consumption space, as
Miller described in the case of Paris’ Bon Marche, 11‘the iron columns and expanse of glass
provided a sense of space, openness and light. Immense gallery opened upon immense
gallery, and along the upper floors ran balconies from which one could view, as a spectator
the crowds and activity below.’ Huge chandeliers hung from the ceiling, while marble tiles or
oriental carpets often covered the floor.
The early retail giants presented a stately and even regal image, as a statement by one
observer, recorded by Williams (1982: 93), demonstrated, ‘On entering Durayel’s store by
the principle door, it seems as though you are entering a palace rather than a shop.’ Indeed,
Miller (1981: 168) in describing the interior of the Bon Marche, provided a more detailed
account of the opulence of the stores, ‘everywhere merchandise formed a decorative motif
conveying an exceptional quality to the goods themselves. Silks cascaded from the walls of
the silk gallery, ribbons were strung above the halls of ribbons, and umbrellas were draped
full blown in a parade of hues and designs. Oriental rugs, rich and textural, hung from
balconies for the spectators below.’
Thirdly, the 19th-century department stores perfected the use of chaotic and excessive
displays of merchandise. Moreover, in an act that at first seems counterproductive, the Bon
Marche’s owner Aristide Boucicaut is said to have enjoyed ‘hiding’ popular goods in
unexpected departments to encourage shoppers to search the entire width and breadth of his
gigantic store to find the products that they desired. By presenting commodities in massive
quantities, department storeowners like Boucicaut and Wanamaker indicated to consumers
that the emporiums’ supplies were virtually endless.
Finally, the 19th-century department stores continued and refined the use of special and often
exotic themed displays, which had originally been employed in the World Expositions. In
many cases, the merchandise of the 19th-century department stores was not simply presented
to potential consumers on fixtures. Instead, the emporiums’ goods were grouped together in
128
Hendrickson, R. (1979) The Grand Emporiums: The Illustrated History of America's
Great Department Stores. New York journal retrieved 12th sept 2012 from proquest.
142
‘real’ scenes. For example, a saucepan would not be displayed on its own, but placed within a
context by exhibiting it in a replica kitchen complete with a mannequin family. Perhaps the
most impressive themed display conducted by any of the 19th-century department stores was
the Bon Marche’s legendary ‘white sales’. In these understandably infrequent events, the
entire store was festooned in white. All merchandise that was not white was temporarily
removed and as Miller explained, replaced by, ‘White sheets, white towels, white curtains,
white flowers, all forming a single blanc motif that covered even stairways and balconies.
The transformation in store architecture and merchandising, which had been initialized by the
arcades and World Expositions and expanded by the early department stores, changed
consumption into a visual pursuit.
After the evolution in store design, shopping was no longer a verbal engagement between
merchants and customers contesting the value and quality of goods. Instead, buying was
transformed into a sensory experience and became an entirely new social practice. Indeed, as
per Marx (1990) “it is reasonable to assert that the advances in store architecture and visual
merchandising that occurred in the 19th-century department store transformed, the means of
consumption”
3.4 - History of Visual Merchandising –Today
Today displays in museums are referred to as exhibitions, while displays in stores are referred
to as "Visual Merchandising. Essentially, visual merchandising is the selling of a store's
goods through visual means, incorporating advertising, and window displays, and interior
sales floor design and display. Throughout the twentieth century, well-known artists such as
Salvador Dalí and Andy Warhol created window displays, while other artists who are lesser
known were commissioned to design unique objects specifically for visual merchandising
purposes.
1. Sell by showing and promoting the product. 2. Create an emotional connect between the
viewer and the display. 3. Encourage the shopper to enter the store. 4. Get the customer to
pause and “shop” the selling floor. 5. Establish, promote, and enhance the store’s visual
image. 6. Entertain customers and enhance their shopping experience. 7. Introduce and
explain new products.
The role of visual merchandising is an ever changing one. Just as brands exist within a store,
the stores themselves have become brands. The customers don’t expect to see the same
merchandise at shoppers stop as one would at Life style.
This is important for the visual
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merchandiser because he is given the task of communicating the store’s image through the
displays. And this is becoming harder visual merchandisers to do. Why? Because they are
being faced with unprecedented competition. Retailers are under a lot of pressure to attract
and keep customers coming into their stores when shopping from home has become so
convenient and price competitive. Visual merchandisers are key in attracting and keeping a
customer’s attention. Luckily online shopping is still not very popular in India as shopping is
a social activity and many people do like to go out just to see what’s new! We have come a
long way from stock piling a table in front of the store with goods, to having live models
posing in windows. Creativity and innovation continue to push the boundaries in retail field.
Here are some things customers might see today:

DJ spinning music or a house band

Café or bistro as part of the store

Lounge areas for perusing look books and sipping champagne

Plasma TVs showing latest catwalk show

Mannequins and glossy photographs of supermodels
Improvements in technology and with major fashion houses having unlimited budgets,
window dressing have grown into massive productions of display. If we talk about Visual
Merchandising in context with store fronts. Years ago it was not uncommon for the store
owner to just display their wares on tables in front of the store to lure in customers. Many
still do that today! Windows were small back then as glass was not a ready-made nor easily
available product; that all changed in the 1840s – glass could be mass-produced. This had a
profound effect on the building industry.
Image 3.4 An example of store front - Image- 3.5 -An example of store front –today
1934
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The store windows no longer simply allowed natural light to shine in the building or act as
storage space for stock; they became important venues to attractively display the store's
merchandise. Gradually, the design aesthetic used in window displays moved indoors and
became part of the overall interior store design
3.5 - HISTORY OF COSMETICS AND PERFUMES
3.5.1 - INTRODUCTION
Cosmetics are products that are created for application on the body for the purpose of
cleansing, beautifying or altering appearance and enhancing attractive features. Cosmetics are
not the same thing as medicines and cosmetics cannot be used to alter a body’s functions or
performance.
The word “Cosmetic “ is rather broad term targeted towards many market sectors, its
dictionary definition is;
“ A Powder , lotion, lipstick, rough, or other preparation for
beautifying the face, skin, hair, nails, etc.
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) which regulates cosmetics in the United
States defines cosmetics as “ intended to be applied to the human body for cleansing,
beautifying, promoting attractiveness, or altering the appearance without affecting the body’s
structure or functions. FDA specifically excludes soap from this category129
With growing ecological and health awareness, modern cosmetics are available in the form of
organic cosmetics, mineral cosmetics and even environmentally friendly cosmetics. The
Indian cosmetics industry includes a long list of cosmetic products buyers, importers,
wholesalers, distributors and manufacturers.
Beauty cosmetic s and toiletries like skin creams and lotions, Perfumes, lipsticks and lip
gloss, nail varnish, deodorants and eye and face make-up products like lip balm, lip liner,
lipstick, lip gloss, lip conditioner, lip boosters, foundation, concealer, blush or blusher,
mascara, eye liner, eye shadow, eye shimmer, glitter eye pencils, eyebrow pencilsproducts
that are manufactured in India include an extensive range of make-up cosmetic, creams,
waxes, gels, nail polish etc.
Cosmetics can be described by the form of the products, as well as the area for application.
Cosmetics can be liquid or cream emulsions: powders both pressed and loose. Also included
in the general category of cosmetics are skin care products which include creams and lotions
129
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) retrieved 16 march 2012 from
http://wapedia.mobi/en/Cosmetics?t=7
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to moisturize the face and body for e.g. sunscreens, skin lighteners or treatment products to
repair or hide skin imperfections (acne, wrinkles, dark circles under eyes, etc.)
The Indian cosmetics and perfumes Industry
The Indian cosmetics Industry have witnessed rapid growth over the last couple of decades.
Today the range of cosmetics, perfumes and beauty products in India has widened
tremendously. Beauty products manufacturer in India mostly cater to the great demand for
cosmetics and perfumes that fall into low or medium economically priced categories.
However in recent years in Indian competitors have begun to manufacture cosmetics and
perfumes to cater to an international need. For instance, herbal cosmetic from India have a
great demand in the overseas market. Many cosmetic products that are manufactured in India
today are supplied to international suppliers of branded cosmetics products like The Body
Shop. 130
Rise of Indian Cosmetic Market:
The Indian cosmetics industry, which witnessed a strong growth in the recent years, has
emerged as one of the markets holding immense growth potential. With the rising beauty
concerns among both men and women, the Indian cosmetics sector would continue to expand
remarkably in near future. New product launches catering to consumers' growing
requirements would fuel growth in the industry, for which the future outlook seems
exceptionally bright.
According to our new research report131 "Indian Cosmetic Sector Analysis (2009-2012)",
the Indian cosmetics sector industry holds promising growth prospects for both existing and
new players. In 2010, the industry registered impressive sales worth INR 288.7 Billion (US$
5.8 Billion). Rising purchasing power and fashion consciousness have been driving the
sector, wherein the players are investing heavily into promotional activities to increase
consumer awareness. With these, the Indian cosmetic industry is estimated to grow at a
CAGR of around 22% during 2011-2014. It is estimated that the Indian beauty market is
worth more than US $9 million (approx) and is rising at 20% a year, twice as fast as the US
and Europe markets. The segment that offers the highest competition is the cosmetic
130
Cosmetics and perfumes, retrieved 15 Oct 2012 from http://www.cosmetics.co.in/india-and-cosmetics.html
Industry research solutions (April 2011) Indian cosmetics sector analysis 2009-12 , retrieved 15 oct 2012
from http://www.rncos.com/Report/IM192.htm
131
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segment, which has multinational players such as J.L. Morrison, Ponds, Unilever and
Colgate-Palmolive. The increasing demand in the Cosmetic Industry has led to many
international brands e.g. Maybelline & Revelon, Avon and L’oreal have entered the Indian
market.
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New facts that have unveiled by a series of Cosmetics business market analysis
India reveal that many international companies are now outsourcing cosmetics to India and
that the industry of cosmetic products is growing at an average rate of almost twenty percent
annually. The Indian Cosmetic Industry is also passing through a very active phase in terms
of product development and marketing. Indian consumers are moving towards more
advanced and specialized cosmetic items. The increase in demand for more advanced and
specialized cosmetic is attributed to factors such as:

Increase in the demand by Indian consumers for Cost-effective products

Increased purchasing power of the average Indian.

Increase in disposable income levels

Enhanced aspirations among rural consumers.

Changing lifestyle in the booming middle class

Fast growing base of youth with a high inclination to self-indulge.

Pervasive media and rising westernization.
These factors have awakened the consciousness of the Indian consumers to proactively seek
health and beauty offerings to look and feel good. Specially growing media and
westernization influence is stimulating awareness of personal hygiene as well as beauty
consciousness, enhancing the adoption and frequency of usage of Cosmetics and
Fragrances. Today people have learned to adapt cosmetics and perfumes as an essential part
of daily grooming, with all the billions of rupees spent every year not only in India but
worldwide on Cosmetics and Perfumes. To answer the biggest question i.e. When did it
became a norm for people who wake up every morning and even before they leave the door
of their house get to paint their face from top to bottom? And To understand how things got
to this point and as we all know that make up is not a modern social norm, but the practice of
cosmetics is really an old concept. Here is some history of cosmetics and perfumes.
132
History of cosmetics , retrieved 16th august 2012 from http://cosmetics.indianetzone.com/1/historycosmetics.htm
147
3.5.2 - History of Cosmetics
The word ‘Cosmetac’ was first used to
describe Roman slaves whose function was to
bathe men and women in perfume. In Egypt as
early as 10,000 BC, men and women used
scented oil and ointments to clean and soften
their skin and mask body odor. Dyes and paints
were used to color the skin, body and hair. The
first archaeological evidence of cosmetic usage
was found in Egypt around 3500 B.C during
Image – 3.6 -Nefertiti bust with
eyeliner applied: Source;
http://wapedia.mobi/en/Cosmetics?t=7
the Ancient Egypt time with some of royalty
owing make up.133 (Such as the above example
of Nefertiti bust with eye liner applied)
The Ancient Greeks and Romans also used Cosmetics. Cosmetics and Perfumes were
inherent part of Egyptian hygiene and health. Oils and creams were used for protection
against hot Egyptian sun and dry winds. Myrrh, thyme, marjoram, chamomile, lavender, lily,
peppermint, rosemary, cedar, rose, aloe, olive oil, seasame oil and almond oil provided the
basic ingredients of most perfumes that were used in religious rituals.
The ancient Egyptians took great pride in their appearance and cleanliness. Most Egyptians
bathed daily in the river or out of a water basin at home. Wealthy homes had a bathroom
where servants would pour jugs of water over their masters (equivalent to a modern day
shower). The runoff was drained though a pipe to water the garden. A cleansing cream made
of animal or vegetable oil mixed with powered lime and perfume was used instead of soap.
People rubbed themselves daily with perfumed unguent oil that had been soaked in scented
wood. The mixture was left in a pot until the oil absorbed the wood scent. Perfumed oil was
used to prevent the skin from drying out in the harsh climate. At parties, servants would place
a cone of perfumed grease on the head of each guest. The grease had a cooling effect as it
melted and ran down the faces of each guest. Everyone, regardless of age or gender, wore
makeup. Highly polished silver and copper mirrors aided the application of makeup.
133
History of cosmetics and perfumes, retrieved 16th Sept 2012 from http://wapedia.mobi/en/Cosmetics?t=7
148
Beautiful smells were essential to the Egyptian belief that “cleanliness is godliness.
“Egyptians had learnt the art to distill essential oils thousands of years ago. The Egyptian
science of perfumery eroded over the centuries “until its final rupture in the Middle Ages.”
“Smell” was incomprehensibly fundamental in Egyptian society and perfumery began as a
secret art in Egypt that was perfected by 2500 BC.
The function of perfumery was to achieve spiritual rather than physical perfection by
perfecting the physical, emotional and mental aspects of human existence. Perfumes made the
body function perfectly. Ra, the Sun God, was the source of all smell. Under Egyptian belief,
"to smell beautifully was a sign of holiness," and only perfect-smelling persons would be
received by the gods when they died. Egyptian priests discovered the true power of oils and
believed that certain types of perfumes could add to one's personal power It was believed that
the spiritual essence of plants had healing qualities and supernatural power; the embodiment
of the plant's healing spirit, rather than the plant's chemistry made the extraction process and
the oil sacred. The seven sacred oils used for mummification were The Festival Perfume,
Hekenu, The Syrian Balsam, Nechenem, Anointing Oil, The Best Cedar Oil and The Best
Libyan Oil. These oils also formed the foundation of ritual Egyptian magic. The most famous
Egyptian fragrance, kyphi, meaning "welcome to the gods," was said to induce hypnotic
states.
Few evidences of cosmetic usage have been found in China around 3000 BC. Chinese people
began to stain their fingernails with gum arabic, gelatin, beeswax and egg. The colors used
represented social class. The Chinese used one word to represent perfume, incense and
fragrance. That word was heang. Heang was divided into six aesthetic moods: Tranquil,
reclusive, luxurious, beautiful, refined or noble. (Keville, Green) The Chinese upper classes
made lavish use of fragrance during the T'ang dynasties that began in the 7 th century AD and
continued until the end of the Ming dynasty in the 17 th century. Their bodies, baths, clothing,
homes and temples were all richly scented, as was ink, paper, cosmetics and sachets tucked
into their garments. China imported jasmine-scented sesame oil, cloves, gum benzoin, ginger,
nutmeg and patchouli - from and through India.
Cosmetics were used in Persia and what is today the Middle East from ancient periods. After
Arab tribes converted to Islam and conquered those areas, in some areas cosmetics were only
restricted if they were to disguise the real look in order to mislead or cause uncontrolled
desire. All branches of Islam set a number of thumb rules relating to purity and cleanliness,
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whether in its physical or spiritual form. For some branches, the general rule is outlined by
the Quran, "For Allah loves those who turn to Him constantly and He loves those who keep
themselves pure and clean." Muhammad also declared, "Allah is Beautiful and He loves
beauty." On the other hand, some fundamentalist branches of Islam forbid the use of
cosmetics. An early cosmetologist was the physician Abu'al-Qassim al-Zahrawi1, or
Abulcassis (936-1013 AD), who wrote the medical encyclopedia Al-Tasreef in 30 volumes.
Chapter 19 was devoted to cosmetics.
Al- Zahrawi considered cosmetics a branch of medicine, which he called Medicine of Beauty
(Adwiyat al-Zinah). He dealt with perfumes, scented aromatics and incense. There were
perfumed stocks rolled and pressed in special moulds, perhaps the earliest antecedents of the
present day lipsticks and solid deodorants. He used oily substance called Adhan for
medication and beautification.
Henna has been used in India since around the 4 th or 5 th centuries. It is used either as a hair
dye or in the art of mehndi. Women in India did not use soap either but instead used a
turmeric germicidal cream and the treatment composed of gram flour or wheat husk mixed
with milk. The wheat husk would remove dead cell tissue. On festive occasions, special
bathing cosmetics in the form of Ubton are widely used in India, even today. The turmeric
preparations are used by newly married brides during their wedding. The present form is
cosmetic preparations containing turmeric, almonds, sandal, etc. Apart from cosmetic
fragrances, they provide good antiseptic properties.
India was famous in the earlier days for using Itra, similar to the modern scents marketed by
various companies, but was in a concentrated form. These were made from various Indian
flowers' fragrances. These are popularly used during festive occasions.
In his article, "Cosmetics and Perfumes", R. T. Vyas, states that in ancient times cosmetics
and perfumes were limited to the use of flower-garlands and gandha, sandal-paste to beautify
the persons of gods and humans. The word sugandhi, well perfumed, is used twice in the
Rigveda. Similar expressions involving the use of the word gandha are also found in
Taittiriya Samhita, Maitrayani samhita and Taittiriya Aranyaka.134
134 History of Technology in India. Bag, A. K. (Ed.) 1997. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. by
D.P. Agrawal and Lalit Tiwari
150
The use of kohl or kajal has a long history in the Hindu culture. The use of traditional
preparations of kohl on children and adults was considered to have health benefits.
In Japan, lipstick made of crushed safflower petals was used to paint the eyebrows and edges
of the eyes and the lips, whereas rice powder was used to color the face and back. Sometimes
bird droppings were also used to compile a lighter color. Even today, skin whitening
continues to represent the ideal of beauty.
European men and women often attempted to lighten their skin directly or used white powder
on their skin to look more aristocratic. A variety of products were used, including white lead
paint.
Queen Elizabeth I of England was one well-known user of white lead with which she created
a look known as "the Mask of Youth." Portraits of the queen by Nicholas Hilliard from later
in her reign are illustrative of her influential style. Some Native American tribes painted their
faces for ceremonial events or battle.
During the early years of the 20th century, makeup became fashionable in the United States of
America and Europe owing to the influence of ballet and theatre stars. But the most
influential new development of all was that of the movie industry in Hollywood. In1900,
black entrepreneur Annie Turnbo began selling hair treatments, including non-damaging hair
straighteners, hair growers and hair conditioners door-to-door. In Los Angeles, Max Factor
started selling makeup to movie stars in 1904. Modern synthetic hair dye was invented in
1907 by Eugene Schueller, founder of L’Oreal. He also invented sunscreen in 1936. In 1914,
T J Williams founded Maybelline, the specialized mascara manufacturing company. After the
First World War, the flapper look came into fashion for the first time and with it came
cosmetics: Dark eyes, red lipstick, red nail polish and the suntan, invented as a fashion
statement by Coco Chanel.
Lipstick was introduced in 1915 in cylindrical metal tubes. In 1922, the bobby pin was
invented to manage short (bobbed) hair. In 1932, Charles and Joseph Revson, nail polish
distributors, and Charles Lackman, a nail polish supplier, founded Revlon, which sells nail
polish in a wide variety of colors.
In 1935, pan- cake makeup, originally developed to look natural on color film, was created by
Max Factor. Aerosols were patented in 1941, paving the way for hair spray. In 1944, a Miami
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Beach pharmacist, Benjamin Green, developed sunscreen to protect soldiers in the South
Pacific. Lawrence Gelb, in 1950, introduced Miss Clairol Hair Color Bath, a one-step hair
coloring product. Roll-on deodorant was launched in 1952 and mascara wands debuted in
1958.
In 1963, Revlon offered the first powdered blush-on. Aerosol deodorants were introduced in
1965 so full and so on.
3.5.3 - Benefits of Cosmetics
Cosmetics are regarded as a means of improving the complexion and beautifying the skin and
overall look. The skin creams and lotions can be used to deep-cleanse the skin. It the skin
pores are blocked, it may lead to infection and acne formation. The cleansing products
thoroughly cleanse the skin and remove any dirt or microorganisms. After cleansing, one
needs to moisturize the skin. Moisturizers are applied to prevent drying of the skin and keep
it smooth and radiant. Moisturizers are applied to prevent drying of the skin and keep it
smooth and radiant. Moisturizers also offer an excellent protection against sun rays and cold
winds. Moisturizers act as a lubricating agent and they are essential for the people with dry.
People with oily skin use oil-free moisturizers.
There are special sun-protection creams/lotions that can protect skin from the harmful UV
rays of the sun. These creams minimize the risk of skin cancer that results from exposure to
sun rays. There are special body lotions, which keep the skin of legs and hands smooth in
addition to the facial skin.
There are several skin care products that can improve one’s complexion. Many cosmetics
consists of vitamins such as A, D, E, K. These vitamins are essential for healthy skin and
hair. Top cope up with body odor one can use perfumes and deodorants and fell fresh and
cheerful whole day. A large variety of shampoos and conditioners are available, which keep
the hair clean, soft and silky.
Cosmetics are used not only for skin care but also to treat skin problems. If someone has dark
spots or pimples on the face, then they can hide them using certain products such as
concealer. Even the shape of the face, chin or nose can be temporarily changed with the help
of make-up. One can also cover the dark circles and wrinkles using anti-ageing creams and
eye makeup. One can enjoy the eyes of different colors by using contact lenses. Nails look
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beautiful and attractive due to beautiful nail colors. One can give favorite color to the hair by
using different hair colors and hair dyes. That provides a sensational and unusual look.
Cosmetics can bring about a huge change in ones’ personality. However, one needs to be
careful and cautious while using the same so that there is no harm or skin allergy.
3.5.4 - Top Ten Cosmetic Brands in India.
The Indian cosmetics industry has seen strong growth over the past few years and emerged as
one of the industries holding huge potential for further growth. The sector has mainly been
driven by improving purchasing power and rising fashion consciousness of the Indian
population. The potential for this industry is tremendous as Indian women are only just
opening up to the use of various cosmetic products. The make-up industry in this country is
still, therefore at a budding stage. Overseas however, there is a great demand for new-age
permanent makeup products as well as for healthier alternatives to cosmetic products with
potent chemical components like mineral makeup and organic make-up. There are a number
of leading cosmetic brands in India which are the first choice of ladies.
LAKME
Lakmé is an Indian brand of cosmetics, owned by Unilever.Lakme started as a 100%
subsidiary of Tata Oil Mills (Tomco), part of the Tata Group; it was named after the French
opera Lakmé, which itself is the French form of Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth, also
renowned for her beauty. Indian cosmet Lakme was started in 1952, famously because the
then Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, was concerned that Indian women were spending
precious foreign exchange on beauty products, and personally requested JRD Tata to
manufacture them in India. Lakme is a highly praised and loved cosmetic brand in India. It is
highly popular amongst girls and ladies and is appreciated specially for its wide range of
cosmetics. Lakme is catering to the Indian cosmetics society through its wide range of
product, with continuous up gradations and innovations. Lakme in India is almost half a
century old. With all the innovations, Lakme has grown to be the market leader in the
cosmetics industry in India and especially in Mumbai. The major Indian fashion event,
Lakme Fashion Week, has Lakme as its major sponsor. The Lakme India Fashion Week is
the biggest Indian fashion event as far as Indian fashion designers are concerned. With a
unique blend of understanding of women of all ages today, Lakme is setting trends and
dominating the fashion arena.
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REVLON
Revlon is an American cosmetics, skin care, fragrance, and personal care company founded
in 1932.The three founders of Revlon started with a single product – special nail enamel but
later they pooled their resources and developed a unique manufacturing process. Using
pigments instead of dyes, Revlon developed a variety of new shades of opaque nail enamel.
In six years the company became a multimillion dollar organization. By 1940, Revlon offered
an entire manicure line, and added lipstick to the collection. Revlon is a world leader in
cosmetics, skin care, fragrance and personal care and is leading mass market cosmetics brand.
In 1940’s Revlon listed itself as one of America’s top five cosmetic houses. In 1950, Revlon
introduced a red lipstick and nail enamel called “Where’s the Fire?” Today Revlon is a highly
praised and loved cosmetic brand in India. It is highly popular amongst girls and ladies and is
appreciated specially for its wide range of cosmetics.
ORIFLAME
Oriflame Cosmetics S.A. (Luxembourg) is a cosmetics group, founded in 1967 in Sweden by
the brothers Jonas af Jochnick and Robert af Jochnick. The company sells skin care, cosmetic
products and other related products through an independent sales force of over 3 million
people. Oriflame sells their products through a direct selling force. Their direct selling force
earns commission off all sales they personally make, and may also invite others to work with
Oriflame, earning a commission of the sales of teams they develop.
LOREAL
The L’Oréal Group is the world’s largest cosmetics and Beauty Company. With its registered
office in Paris and head office in the Paris suburb of Clichy, Hauts-de-Seine, France, it has
developed activities in the field of cosmetics. Concentrating on hair colour, skin care, sun
protection, make-up, perfumes and hair care, the company is active in the dermatological and
pharmaceutical fields and is the top nanotechnology patent-holder in the United States.
Loreal has been built around fundamental values which have guided us throughout the life of
our company, and continue to do so today. Our values have shaped our culture, and they
underpin our reputation.
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CHAMBOR
The Chambor cosmetic line is a blend of the finest traditions. In terms of radiant color, soft
texture and skin accentuator, Chambor has never failed to satisfy the consumer demands. It
has been retailing at selected counters since 1994 across India. Developing quality solutions
keeping in mind the requirements of a “feminine face” is their primary goal. The Chambor
line of colour cosmetics incorporates the finest traditions. Beauty secrets are developed as
quality solutions for the essential aspects of the feminine face – the radiance and the glow.
The Chambor woman has the unique ability to leave her imprint on the world around her. She
seeks perfection in whatever she does, so who can turn to but Chambor, to bring out her
inherent beauty.
MAYBELLINE
Maybelline is a makeup brand sold worldwide and owned by L’Oréal. Their motto is Maybe
she’s born with it. Maybe it’s Maybelline. The Maybelline Company was created by New
York chemist T.L. Williams in 1915. Williams, then in his early 20s, noticed his younger
sister applying a mixture of Vaseline and coal dust to her eyelashes to give them a darker,
fuller look. The company was acquired by L’Oréal in 1996. The Maybelline Company had its
beginning in 1913 and is a brainchild of New York based chemist T.L. Williams. There is a
very simple and inspiring story behind the emergence of Maybelline. Maybelline received a
new lease of life when the company hired Lynda Carter as the company’s coordinator for
beauty and fashion. At present, Maybelline products are endorsed by supermodels Christy
Turlington, Josie Maran, Erin Wasson, Adriana Lima, only to name a few.
AVON
Avon Products, Inc. is a US cosmetics, perfume and toy seller with markets in over 140
countries across the world. Avon Products is a multi-level marketing company. The company
was founded in 1886 by then 28-year-old David H. McConnell who sold books door-to-door
and gave out perfume to entice women to buy his books. Avon is one of the leading cosmetic
brands in India and is highly praised and loved by women for its quality and range of
products.
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MAC
Make-up Art Cosmetics, better known as MAC Cosmetics, is a manufacturer of
cosmetics.MAC Cosmetics was founded in Toronto, Canada by Frank Toskan and Frank
Angelo in 1984. The first U.S MAC store opened in 1991, located at Greenwich Village,
New York. The company’s products were originally designed specifically for professional
make-up artists, but are now sold to consumers worldwide. The MAC PRO Program is
provided to professionals in the industry. An annual fee must be paid for this service. MAC
Cosmetics is one of the most popular cosmetics companies in the world. MAC regularly
releases special limited edition collections and also creates some of the most popular
cosmetics products around.
COLOR BAR
Color Bar cosmetics are one of the leading brands of color cosmetics in India. The product
range has been developed with the promise of providing our consumers world class
innovative products in a wide range of colors. The inspiration of Color Bar is the millennium
woman who believes in expressing her many moods and desires through the variety of colors
she adorns. Color Bar products have international formulations and packaging with a
premium appeal. Color Bar has been developed with the philosophy to provide the customers
with innovative high quality products at attractive prices and widest range of colors.
Extensive research and study on the needs and liking of the consumers globally has gone into
creating the packaging for the products.
STREET WEAR
A young, funky and hip brand, Street Wear, globally is positioned at the young and trendy
shopper and the range consists of about 30 SKUs covering categories like nail enamel,
lipsticks, lip gloss, face make-up kits and eye shadows. Street Wear The brand says: It is not
tested on animals. Street Wear is one of the leading cosmetic brands in India and is highly
praised and loved by women for its quality and range of products. With the emerging fashion
and beauty consciousness amongst the ladies and girls of India, Street Wear is gaining
popularity.135
135
Top ten brands of cosmetics in India, retrieved 18th Sept 2012 from http://infobhsrti.com/indias-top-10/top10cosmetics-brandsin-india.php
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3.5.5 - INTRODUCTION OF PERFUMES
Perfume is a mixture of fragrant essential oil and aroma compounds, fixatives, and
solvents used to give the human body, objects, and living spaces a pleasant smell.
Perfume is associated in many cultures with the sensual and romantic side of life.
Perfumes are an element of cosmetics. Perfumes have traditional importance and cultural
values worldwide. Perfume has become an intrinsic part of our daily lives; It is a part of our
identity. Wearing perfume gives pleasure, not only because it smells nice, but also because
Perfume creates an aura around the wearer that expresses something he/she wishes to convey
about his/her personality. We all like to smell good and try on a lot of perfumes before we
find the one that fits our mood. It’s very true that fragrance control out emotions. Different
scents affect us differently. Perfumes can set the mood not only in romantic way, but in a
peaceful way as well. There are some scents designed to produce a tranquil effect, a calming
and soothing feeling. The importance of perfume has become wide spread, and it’s found in
about everything we buy. We always sense the different smell sensations around us for e.g.
the invigorating shower gel, the familiarity of a personal perfume, the fresh-washed smell of
just washed clothes, the citrus tang of the dish-wash liquid, the relaxing night massage oil or
night massage cream, the room freshener etc. People are essentially visually oriented, and
dependent on sight and sound to gather information from the surroundings." Smell" however
is an extraordinary sense, closely linked to the limbic system (seat of emotions and the
functions of memory), it has the power above all other senses to pervade our psyche to
change our mood. Image is everything and a particular perfume has an image associated with
it. Certain perfumes are for ‘free-spirited’, others for the elegant character, some type are for
lady who is delicate and sensual. We also wear different perfumes for different occasions- A
perfume for work, a perfume for going shopping, a perfume for a dinner with the family, yet
another perfume for special occasions. Different scents match different occasions.
In the world flooded with products to enhance every aspect of modern living, the consumer is
spoilt for choice. The so looking simple consumers are ahead of scientist. The consumer is
ahead of the scientist; here Fragrance is an important part in the positioning
of these
products
The size of the perfume industry in India:
The Indian fragrance market is valued at Rs. 3 billion, comprising alcoholic and attar
perfumes with a 50% market share each. In alcoholic perfumes, one-third is represented by
157
unorganized market while the rest is mainly imported. As per the Economist Intelligence
Unit the sales Value (US $ m) of Perfumes & Fragrance in India was:-
Perfumes
Fragrances
&
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2,103
2,291
2,464
2,696
2,941
3,169
Perfumes as luxury accessory buys are one of the most popular must-have items on the
aspirational buyers’ list as well. According to industry estimates, the domestic luxury
perfume market is growing at a rate of 20-25 % year-on-year
3.5.6 - Meaning and History of Perfume
The very word perfume is derived from the Latin perfumum, meaning 'by' or'through'smoke,
as it was with the use of burning incense that the prayers of the ancients were transported to
the heavens for the contemplations of the Gods. The use of fragrances developed within the
four great centres of culture in China, India, Egypt and Mesopotamia, and was extended in
the elite societies of Greece, Palestine. Rome, Persia and Arabia. The great world religions of
Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism and Zoroastroism employ fragrance in pursuance of
their faiths. Thus, religious and pleasurable pursuits have been the main drives in the
phenomenal growth of perfume usage throughout the centuries.
In the olden days the perfume oil was extracted from flora such as rose, peppermint, bay leaf,
eucalyptus, geranium, iris, jasmine, lavender, lemon, lilac, lily, magnolia, moss, orange, pine,
raspberry, rose, sage, sandalwood, tuberose, vanilla, violet etc. These extracts were steeped in
oils until a perfumed unguent was formed. The unguent was then rubbed into the skin.
The Christian bible is chock-full of fragrance descriptions. The story of Jesus of Nazareth is
populated by fragrant materials, from frankincense and myrrh, his gifts at birth, through to
the use of spikenard to wash his feet during life and finally the use of myrrh in the binding
sheets of his body after crucifixion. Through trade and cultivation, Palestine became a great
source of aromatic wealth. The Greeks further developed the use of fragrances, not only in
praise of their gods, but also for purely hedonistic purposes. The sciences of medicine and
herbalism developed with Hippocrates and Theophrastus, whilst Alexander the Great, tutored
by Aristotle, in the third century BC advanced the use of alchemy. The most used fragrances
of the Greeks were rose, saffron, frankincense, myrrh, violets, spikenard, and cinnamon and
158
cedar wood.
Meanwhile, in Rome, Pliny the Elder outlined a primitive method of
condensation which collected oil from rosin on a bed of wool, and also made the first
tentative experiments in chromatography. Throughout the ages, perfume has provided a
pathway to happiness. The first professional perfumers piled there in Capua, which became a
trading centre of the industry. Perfume was used in abundance at the games both as a gift for
the gods and as a mask for malodors of a bloodstained and offal-dappled arena. It is estimated
that in the first century Romans were consuming nearly 3000 tons of frankincense and over
500 tons of the more expensive myrrh. Roman emperors used perfume to excess, instanced
by Nero and his wife Poppeae, who had a kind of 'perfumed plumbing' in their palaces, with
false ceilings designed to drop the flower petals onto dinner guests and scented doves which
fragranced the air with perfumed wings. When Poppeae died, it was said of Nero that he
burned a whole year's supply of incense on her funeral pyre. Empress Zoë, in the Christian
stronghold of Constantinople, had employed court perfumers. From there the practice spread,
with Normans strewing flowers and rushes onto the floors of castles and churches to keep the
air fragrant and acceptable. In a perverse day, the Black Death of 1347-1351 and subsequent
pandemics were huge catalysts to the growth in usage of aromatic products, which had
already shown signs of flourishing from Eastern alchemical practice. To counteract the odor
of decay of dead bodies due to plague ,the people carried nosegays and small floral bouquets
.Washing with water and enveloping the body in smoke or incense was felt to be an effective
defense against Black death, and in addition torch bearers with brands of fragrant herbs
walked ahead of important and rich personages. Guilds of the supply of aroma products
began to be formed between the 12th and 13th centuries. Related crafts included the London
Guild of Pepperers and Spicers, and in 1268 the Glover's Guild was recognized .King Henry I
of France and England granted a heraldic shield to the Guild of Perfumers. A charter to
Glover perfumes had been granted by Philip Augustus of France as early as 1190. Venice
was an important centre for trade and commerce between Europe, the Middle East and the
Orient, and became the funnel through which many spices and aromatic raw materials
reached Europe, and its domination in trade for these products lasted for a few hundred years.
In 1573 Edward de vere , Earl of Oxford ,brought Elizabeth I not only scented sachets, but
also perfumed gloves and jerkins. Around this time the first books and manuscripts
describing perfumery techniques surfaced, and court perfumers took the stage.
159
History is littered with examples of the famous and their perfumed preferences: Henry III was
said to have fallen head over heels in love with Mary of Cleeves after breathing the odor of
her just removed clothing. Henry IV of France was reputed to smell so ripe that his intended
,Marie de Medici(1573-1642) keeled over when she first met him, while Henry himself
,reveling in his own natural odor and those of others, once reputedly wrote to his mistress
Gabrielle d'Estree,' Don't wash my love ,I will be in home in eight days'. The French kings
and their courts greatly indulged the use of fragrance, LouisXIII favoring neroli, based on
orange blossom, whilst his chief adviser Cardinal Richelieu had the fragrant scent of flowers
'bellowed' through his apartments. Louis XIV,the Sun King ,with his mistress Madame de
Montespan, compounded his own fragrances, whilst Louis XV lavished wealth on 'La Cour
Parfumee'(the perfumed court) with his mistress Madame de Pompadour and Madame du
Barry, where even the fountains did not escape a fragrant dousing . Meanwhile, over in
England, Charles I (1600-1649) had Neil Gwynne as fragrant advisor, whilst CharlesII (16301685) was encouraged in the aromatic arts by Catherine of Braganza.
In 1708, Charles Lilly, a London perfumer, introduced scented snuffs and a revolutionary
fragrance consisting of orange flower , musk, civet, violet and amber, whilst in 1711 William
Bayley opened a perfumery in Long Acre ,moving later to Cockspur Street under the sign of
'Ye Olde Civet Cat' . Juan Floris (1730) and William Yardely (1770) added to the
groundswell matched in France by Houbigant (1774) and Lubin(1798). These half dozen
perfumers catalyzed the marketplace; expanding their clientele to commonflok. Two famous
compounded fragrances La Poudre de Marechale (1670) and Eau de Colonge (1710), grew in
popularity, making a slight move in presence from the heavy animalic scents of the times.
The chuches frowned and Oliver Cromwell did his best to put a stamp on the use of
fragrances, but the eighteenth century saw a fragrance backlash of mighty proportions.
Fragrances were needed in profusion to combat the olfactory disaster zones of prisons,
hospitals, ships, churches, theatres, and work-shops and, indeed, anywhere where there was a
gathering of humming humanity.
The seventeenth century perfumes had begun to be stored in lightly blown glass bottles and
the eighteenth century saw the appearance of pear-shaped bottles in opaque white glass,
decorated similarly to porcelain ware. Weight was reduced, and decorative appeal achieved
by colour, cutting and appliqué decoration, which made perfume bottles truly treasured
possessions, and worth much to today's collectors. Napoleon Bonaparte loved aromas , he
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liked citrus and herbal smells, and favored Eau de Cologne, using by all accounts several
bottles a day. Josephine, a Creole from Martinique, employed a different potpourri of smells.
She favored animalics, and was particularly fond of musk oil.
Queen Victoria can be credited with two smell revolutions that hit Britain. The shawls she
wore were steeped in patchouli, imbuing a rich woody fragrance to the garment. During the
Victorian era, wearing of perfume was strictly controlled. As the Victorian era drew to a
close, new names cropped up to cater for the mass-market demand in quality and reliability of
scents. Scientists and artisans developed into perfumers of both integrity and repute. To
famous names such as Lillie Yardley, Lentheric,and Floris were added Savoury,
Moores,Atkinsons,Chardin,Crown,Coty,Hougibant,Guerlain,Roger and Gallet, Penhaligon
and
Piver;
names
which
are
familiar
in
households
today.136
Perfumery developed in three fundamental ways: the technique used, the structure and
synthetics
employed
and
the
industrialization
of
the
process.
In his book Odours, Fragrances and Cosmetics (1865), S.Piesse developed theories that
related specific odors to notes on a musical scale in an attempt to categorize the spectrum of
smells. In 1890, Atkinsons published one of the books on perfume technology, essentially
concerned with the production of absolutes by the cryoscopic removal of fats. In 1861,
Guerlain created Eau Imperiale for Empress Eugenie , the influential wife of Napoleon III
.By the end of the century, this redeveloped fragrance was shown to be created around neroli,
rose, geranium, sandalwood, musk and the synthetic chemical coumarin. Fragrances began to
be described in a structural form, with the adoption of top, middle and bottom note
terminology.
Two other fragrances, Forgere Royale (1882) and Jicky (1889) were in vogue. Fougere
Royale was arguably amongst the first fragrances to use a synthetic chemical -Coumarin,
whilst Jicky is held to be the first truly vertically structured fragrance,with a fresh ,citrus top
based on lemon, bergamot and mandarin, middle floral notes of rose and jasmine, woody
notes in vetiver, orris root and patchouli, and base notes of coumarin , benzoin, civet, amber
and vanillin. By 1879, Yardley exported different varieties of scented soaps to the United
States, whilst the British company Crown Fragrances was exporting about fifty different
fragrances to different countries. Perfumers focused on mass production techniques for aroma
chemicals, glass bottles and alcohol service an ever-growing market demand. Products were
136
Prashant kumar Kudli (2006), History of perfumes and fragrance, retrieved 25th Oct 2012 from
http://ezinearticles.com/?History-of-Perfumes-and-Fragrances&id=690098
161
branded to encourage consumer loyalty. Perfumes of France, England and Spain widened
their horizons to a global marketplace. Perfume started reaching the masses. This set the
scene for the twentieth century, the age of fashion, which spurred a truly explosive growth in
the use of fragrance in many forms.
The late 19th century was the first real era of perfume during this period new scents were
created because of advances in organic chemistry knowledge. Synthetic perfume products
were used in place of certain hard to find or expensive ingredients. In the first 20 years of the
twentieth century, a score of fine fragrances was developed, including Violette Purpre
(1907,Houbigant), L'Origan (1905,Coty) ,English Lavender ( 1910,Atkinsons), L'Heure Blue
( 1912,Coty) ,and Old English Lacender (1913,Yardley).During the last decade of that
century, the industry had grown to such an extent that over 100 fine fragrances a year were
being launched. Perfume had come to the people. Chemistry and creativity had brought it
there. France became a hub for flower and herb growing for the perfume industry. It was
only in the 20th Century that scents and designer perfumes were really mass produced.
Today in the 21st Century perfume is a 20 billion industry worldwide. Both Men & Women
have fragrance wardrobes of at least five-six different perfumes, rather than a single signature
perfume, keeping special perfumes for special occasions.
3.5.7 - Different types of perfumes
The perfume caters to our smell. Our five senses are touch, hearing, seeing, tasting and
smelling. Corresponding to these are the five sense organs- the skin, the ears, the eyes, the
tongue and the nostrils. Over and above these gross physical senses is another- the sixth sense
that is something intangible which, leads to a feeling of wellbeing upon inhaling a delicate
perfume. Perfumes have two functions, negative and positive. It covers up stale smell of
sweat and on the other hand it exudes intoxicating fragrance. The perfume is the victory of
man over Nature- capturing the cream of her scent spread all around. The perfume is a
mixture of oils, aroma and fixatives blended with solvents. Not everybody can understand the
language of perfume making. Each perfume belongs to a family. Perfume making starts with
dilution of the oil with a solvent. Ethanol mixed with water is the most common solvent.
Others are coconut oil, wax and jojoba. The increase or decrease of aromatic compounds
relates to scent’s intensity and longevity. The amount of oil used varies from one perfume
family to another.
162
From 1900 perfumes were categorized in groups- single floral, floral bouquet, ambery
(admixture of scents from animals, flowers and woods), woody (mainly sandalwood and
cedar), leather (honey, tobacco, wood and wood tars), chypre (cyprus) and fougere (fern).
Since 1945 perfumes have been divided into bright floral, green, oceanic, citru and
gourmand. From 1983 the fragrance-wheel is being used to simplify classification – floral,
oriental, woody, fougere and fresh. Each is divided into subgroups.
The source from which perfume is drawn is plants, animals and synthetic bases. Plants are the
largest sources- its bark, fruits, flowers, and leaves, twings, roots, seed and bulbs. In the
animal world perfumes are extracted from whales, beavers, civets, honeybee and musk deer.
Synthetic perfumes are cheaper but not quite so fine and delicate. In the case of the latter
there are health risks connected to rashes, asthma and even cancer.
Floral perfumes are considered the best perfumes all over the world. In fact the history of
perfumes says that floral perfumes are the first perfume category of the world and thus
popular also. Floral perfumes represent the essence of love and romance. Floral perfumes are
further sub divided into different categories like floral green, floral fruity etc. The main idea
is that these types of perfumes are floral bouquets, which means that they are made from a
number of flower scents.
Different floral fragrance notes are harmonized together. If, combined with any other family,
floral perfumes are universally commercial. It's considered to be the most feminine of all
fragrance families. The most ordinary bouquet is the so-called rose and jasmine duet. Most of
the perfumes, either famous or not, have in their basis this combination, but for making some
difference between them, their creators have added other combinations of flowers, as well as
other ingredients, such as moss, fruits, spice and musk. All these can offer to a perfume
certain originality. The most famous classic examples of this duet can be found in Joy from
Platou, Arpege from Lanvin and No. 5 from Chanel.
There are also some other floral perfumes whose bouquets don't contain at all this
combination: Anais Anais from Cacharel, which is based on lilies and orange flowers, or
Champs-Elysee from Guerlain, a perfect scent that combines the rose with buddleia - flower
with the smell closed to the lilac. The floral perfumes have intense feminity and the romantic
charm, in different grades of freshness and sweetness.
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Table – 3.1 - Characteristics: Natural and synthetics are used for their different odor
characteristics in perfumery
Naturals
Synthetics
Vary by the times and locations where
they are harvested as well as how the
product was extracted from the raw
material. It's much more difficult to
produce
consistent
products
with Much more consistent than natural
equivalent odour over years of harvest and aromatics. However, differences in
production. As such, the perfumer has to organic synthesis may result in
Variance
"manually"
balance-out
the
natural minute differences in concentration of
variations of the ingredients in order to impurities. If these impurities have
maintain the quality of the perfume. In low smell (detection) thresholds, the
addition,
unscrupulous
suppliers
may differences in the scent of the
adulterate the actual raw materials by synthetic aromatic will be significant.
changing
Jasmine
its source (adding
into
Grasse
the contents (adding
Indian
Jasmine)
linalool
or
to
Rosewood) of increase their profit margin.
Components
Thousands of chemical compounds; large Depending on purity, consists
potential for allergies.
primarily of one chemical compound.
Similar to natural scents if the
Scent
Uniqueness
Bears a somewhat similar scent to its
originating material, depending on the
extraction method.
compounds are the same. Novel scent
compounds not found in nature will
often be unique in their scent and
dissimilar to the scents of any
naturals.
164
Scent
Deep and complex fragrance notes. Softer Pure and pronounced fragrance notes.
Complexity with subtle scent nuances.
Structural and defined.
Perfumes using largely synthetic
Perfumes composed of largely natural
Price
materials are usually much more
expensive.
aromatics can be available at widelyaffordable prices. Synthetic aromatics
are not necessarily cheaper than
naturals, with some synthetics being
more costly than most natural.
Source: perfumes, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfume
Perfume odorant types today
 Concretes--purest, soft plant parts are placed in solvent
 Absolutes--concretes concentrated in alcohol
 Resinoids--extracted like concretes, from plant secretions
 Tinctures--direct extraction with ethanol
 Distilled essential oils--most common modern methods
3.5.8 - Leading Brands of perfumes in Mumbai
BRANDS
GUESS
BIPLMASS
BVLGARI
BENETTON
BVLGARI
ESPRIT
NAUTICA
SLANGER
HERMES
SWISSARM
REEBOK
EDHARDY
LALIQUE
JAGUAR
VENDOR
BCPL
BCPL
BCPL
BCPL
BCPL
BCPL
BCPL
BCPL
BCPL
BCPL
BCPL
BCPL
BCPL
BCPL
165
FERRAGAM
BIPLMASS
ADIDAS
JOVANMUS
PERRYELL
LALIQUE
MYRURGIA
AZZARO
BURBERRY
CAROLINA
CARTIER
DOLCEGAB
ESCADA
EVAFLOR
FERRARI
ISSEYMIY
JAQUESBO
JEANPAUL
KENZO
LACOSTE
LANVIN
PACO
THIERYMU
TOMMYHIL
VALENTIN
VERSACE
GUCCI
DKNY
ARAMIS
LOLITALE
LOEWE
GAP
BANANARE
PAULSMIT
LAPERLA
PORCHEDE
PRADA
DIESEL
JUICYCOU
D-SQUARE
NARCISOF
MONT BLANC
NINA RICCI
BOUCHERO
JDELPOZO
ETIENNEA
BCPL
BCPL
CAVIN CARE
CAVINKARE
EURO
EURO
HARMONY
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
166
MOSCHINO
AUBUSSON
FACCONAB
TEDLAPID
MANGO
JEANPATO
CANALI
ITLMASS
CHEVIGNO
STDUPONT
LUCIANOS
MAMARA
FCUK
ZEGNA
VANCLEEF
FERRE
SEANJOHN
ITL MASS
MAKEUP
FRAGRANC
SKINCARE
HAIRPROD
PLAYBOY
CACHAREL
RALPHLAU
ARMANI
BOSS
MONTBLAN
HUGO
DUNHILL
POLICE
NIKE
ESTEE LAUDER
NIKEPERF
ALFREDDU
BOSS
AUSTINRE
GUCCI
HUGOBOSS
NEUTROGE
NIKE
POLICE
MOUNTBLANK
LOTUSHER
ICEBERG
MKPMASS
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
ITL
JL MORRISON
LOREAL
LOREAL
LOREAL
MKP
MKP
MKP
MKP
MKP
MKP
MKP
MKP
MKP
MKP
MKP
MKP
MKP
MKP
MKP
MKP
MKP
MKP
MKP
MKP
167
DAVIDOFF
GIVENCHY
JENIFERL
JOOP
CALVINKL
CHLOE
KENETHRO
MEN
WOMEN
UNISE
OTHERS
MAKEUP
SKINCARE
MARCJACO
DAVIDOFF
TARZ
TARZ
TARZ
TARZ
TARZ
TARZ
TARZ
TARZ
TARZ
TARZ
TARZ
TARZ
TARZ
TARZ
TARZ
Vendor/Dealers
BCPL
Beauty concept pvt. Ltd.
ITL
Intercraft pvt. Ltd.
TARZ
TARZ pvt. Ltd.
MKP
MKP Distibution Pvt. Ltd.
Eg. Of Brands endosered by celebrities
Image – 3.7 –LOMANI Paris by AMITABH
Image – 3.8 -TIGER EYES by SRK
BACHCHAN
168
Table 3.2 - BEST SELLING PERFUMES IN
SHOPPERSTOP for 2011 and 2010
Image – 3.9. Eg. Of Brand of Leading
Car Company - Ferrari
FERARI BLACK EAU DE
TOILETTE
Ranking
TOP 10 Brands
CK
Davidoff
Bvlgari
Burberry
Boss
Versace
Hugo Boss
Paco
Azzaro
Issey Miyake
2011
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
2010
2
4
9
1
5
10
3
7
6
8
Table – 3.3 -BEST SELLING PERFUMES AT PANTALOONS –Mumbai
INTERGRA
AZZARO
AZZARO CHROME
AZZARO SILVER BLACK-preferred
by young professionals.
BURBURRY
PRADA
KENZO
PAULSMITH
S.T.DUPONT
ESCADA
LACOSTE
CARTICE
FERRARI
CAROLINA HERRERA
JUCER COUTURE
DIESEL
JACOUTS BOGART
SO
AQUA BRAVA
ANTONIO
BANDERAS
ADOLFO
DOMINGUFZ
BYCGARI
HERMES
JAGUAR
NAUTICA
SWISS ARMY
4711
TABACE
REEBOK
ESPIRIT
NINA RICCI
PACCORABANNE
LOEWE
MOSCHINO
FORSCHE
UDY
EYAFLOR
DAVIDOFF
GIVENCHY
JOOP
BERAWANG
JENIFFER LOPEZ
RALPH LAUREN
GIORGIO ARMANI
CALVIN KLEIN
Table – 3.4 -BEST SELLING PERFUMES AT WESTSIDE -Mumbai
NIKE
VERSACE
DAVIDOFF
AZZARO
CALVIN KLIEN
DKNY/ GUCCI
HUGO BOSS
169
Table – 3.5 -Perfume Brands available at LIFESTYLE –Mumbai
CALVIN KLEIN
DAVIDOFF
DIOR
MISS DIOR
KENNETH COLE
GIVENCHY
VERAWANG
JENIFFER LOPEZ
JOOP
SARAHFESSICCA
PARKER
REEBOK
ADIDAS
NIKE
MARCJACOP
BURBERRY
ISSIMIYAKEE
JEANPAUL
GAULTIER
AIGNER
FERREGAMO
EDHARDY
DIESEL
DSOUARED
PAUL SMITH
LANVIN
JUICY COUTUE
PORSCH DESIGNER
FERRARI
NEWDANDG
LOLITAESCADA
ELIZABETHARDON
VANCLEEFAND
ARPELS
MOSCHINO
CAROLINA HERRERA
NINA RICCI
DKNY
RALPH LAUREN
JIORJIO ARMANI
EMPORIO ARMANI
YVES SAINT LAVRENT
DOLCE AND GABBANA
SWISSARMY
BVLGARI
HUGO BOSS
ASTEL AUDER
DUNHILL
THEORY MOVGLAR
PRADA
VERSACE
AZZARO
KENZO
PACORABANNE
PLAYBOY
EVAFLOUR
DESCO
ULRIL DE DARENS
FCUK
LACOSTE
LOEWE
S.P.DUPONT
SALVALORE
GUCCI
UDV
Table -3.6 – Best-selling Brands of cosmetics in Mumbai
Cosmetic Brands available Cosmetic brands
Leading Cosmetic brands
at Lifestyle --- Mumbai
available at
at Shoppers’ Stop –
 LOREAL
Pantaloons – Mumbai Mumbai









REVELON
MAYBELLINE
CHAMBOR
MAX FACTOR
BOURJOIS
PONDS
KAYA
LAKME
SHENAZ HUSSAIN






REVELON
LAKME
L’OREAL
MAYBELLINE
CHAMBOR
FACES








CHAMBOR
LAKME
REVLON
L’OREAL
MAYBELLINE
BOURJOIS
ELIZABETHARDON
DIOR
After knowing the history of visual merchandising, perfumes and cosmetics and knowing
about the leading cosmetics and perfumes in Mumbai. It becomes very important to discuss
how these leading brands increases their sales by applying the visual merchandising practices
and how visual merchandising and displays enhances store atmospherics. The next chapter
puts light on various practices of visual merchandising along with clarifying the ethical
responsibility of visual merchandising in retail
170