Are you ready for some football ……ads?
A content analysis of popular music in Super Bowl commercials 2005-2014
David Allan, Ph.D.
Chair, Professor of Marketing
Erivan K. Haub School of Business
Saint Joseph's University
Philadelphia, PA 19131-1395
USA
Phone: (610) 660-1637
Fax: (610) 660-3239
[email protected]
www.marketingmusicology.com
Author Information
Dr. David Allan is a Professor of Marketing in the Erivan K. Haub School of Business at Saint Joseph’s
University in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (USA) where he teaches Music Marketing and Marketing
Communications. Dr. Allan has a B.A. in Communications from American University, an MBA in
Marketing from Saint Joseph's University and a Ph.D. in Mass Media and Communications from Temple
University. Dr. Allan has published numerous articles in the area of executional elements in advertising in
journals such as the Journal of Advertising Research, Journal of Business Research, and Journal of
Consumer Research. Prior to his academic career, Dr. Allan spent over twenty years in the radio industry and
continues to consult. Dr. Allan has been quoted numerous times about advertising, radio, and popular culture
in such places as Reuters, Associated Press, Billboard Magazine, Wall Street Journal, Washington Post, and
Philadelphia Inquirer.
* This paper was presented at 2014 MEIEA Summit Conference in Nashville, Tennessee March 21st
Popular Music in Super Bowl Advertising
2
This research analyzes ten years of in-game Super Bowl commercials from 2005-2014 to
quantify and qualify the placement of popular music in Super Bowl advertising. Of the 599 total
commercials viewed (excluding network and NFL promotional ads), 157 contained popular
music. The percentage of commercials with popular music ranged from 34.6% in 2005, to 18.5%
in 2011, and 41.1% in 2014. The genre of popular music most utilized was rock (28%), followed
by pop (25.5%). Popular music was most often observed in the product category of motor
vehicles (24.8%), followed by the beverages category (25.4%). Popular music treatment was
most often original vocals (65%), and more likely to be relevant to the narrative of the
commercial (54.1%), rather than the brand advertised (13.4%). This research expands the
growing body of Super Bowl advertising research by extending it to a content analysis of popular
music.
Keywords: Super Bowl commercials; advertising; popular music.
Introduction
Popular Music in Super Bowl Advertising
3
Are you ready for some football? I mean commercials. If it is the Super Bowl then the answer is
probably yes! “Within just a few years after the first Super Bowl in 1967, the televised game
became a national ritual [where] today, one viewer in ten tunes in just for the ads” (Kanner 2004,
1). Not surprisingly, the costs of the ads has grown with their popularity. In 1967 a thirty-second
ad cost only $40,000. By 2002, that cost had grown to $2,300,000 and, by 2012, that price had
risen to $3,500,000 (Edwards and Terbush 2012). In 2013 the cost of an ad was $3.8 million
(Horovitz 2013), and had clmbed to $4.0 million in 2014 (Horowitz 2014). Why are advertisers
lining up to pay that amount? Simply put, they are paying for ads because the Super Bowl has
the “power to make consumers sit up and watch commercials” (Bickle 2012). “Adding to the
game’s appeal as ad revenue is the fact that, for many viewers, watching the ads is as important
as the game , a bright spot in today’s media environment, where almost 50% of U.S. homes now
have a digital recorder” (Vranica 2014). The Super Bowl has “become so ingrained in US culture
that, with rare exception, it is the most watched US television event each year.” (Tomkovick et
al. 2001, 90). Not only that, but the Super Bowl reaches a wide range of demographics making it
even more appealing (McAllister 1999).
The Super Bowl is “the place for advertisers to be seen and to showcase their best” (Kanner
2004). It is also a very appropriate place to investigate trends in advertising because “marketers
have seized this venue to introduce new campaigns or products or to take on new names or
purposes, and the commercials have acquired lives of their own” (Kanner 2004). It has become
the “prime time to kick off ads” (McCarthy 2001). It has “helped companies launch new
products” (Tomkovick et al. 2001, 92). And they are doing it to music soundtracks.
Popular Music in Super Bowl Advertising
4
“Music is taking center stage at the Super Bowl – and not just during the halftime show”
(Anderson 2014). In both of the past two years (2013 and 2014), the most popular ad, according
to the USA Today Ad Meter was from Budweiser and contained popular music. The artists
benefited as well. In 2013, “Landslide” by Fleetwood Mac saw a 500% increase in download
sales (Graney 2013, 13). In 2014, Passenger’s “Let Her Go” sales went up 51% (Williams 2014)
and the ad received 44 million YouTube views (Ugwu 2014) the week after the Super Bowl (see
Figure 1). Why are advertisers using popular music? “The focus on music comes as many
advertisers look for ways to engage 108 million viewers” (Anderson 2014). Music “engages the
attention” (Huron 1989). It “makes you watch or listen [to advertising] in a different way”
(Dunbar 1990). The hope is that this “interaction of various marketing and communication
activities come together to impact and influence consumers” (Schultz, 2005, p.6). What better
place to look at this interaction than popular music in advertising at the Super Bowl?
Super Bowl advertising research
Super Bowl advertising research is also claiming the spotlight as well. Some have investigated
information content (Kim, et al. 2011), while others have looked at ad likeability and short-term
stock price enhancement (Aloi 2008; Chang et al. 2009; Fehle, et al. 2005; Kim & Morris 2003).
It has been shown that Super Bowl promoted movies grossed nearly 40% more than non-Super
Bowl promoted movies (Yelkur et al. 2004). Still others have looked at the Super Bowl as
commercial celebration (social attention and legitimacy), or the celebration of advertising as a
beloved form of mediated entertainment (McAllister 1999, 403). It has been shown that arousal
more than pleasure influenced ad recall in Super Bowl advertising (Pavelchak et al. 1988). The
practicality of Super Bowl advertising for new products and companies has been debated
(Dotterweich and Collins 2005), possibly due to low visual attention levels of viewers of the
Popular Music in Super Bowl Advertising
Figure 1. Billboard.
Copyrighted 2014. Prometheus Global Media. 108478:314AT
5
Popular Music in Super Bowl Advertising
6
Super Bowl, especially in sports bars (Beasley et al. 1998) or when “total message length and
number of times a brand is advertised” (Newell and Henderson 1998, 243).
As for advertising cues, a content analysis of over 400 Super bowl ads aired from 2001-2009
showed that each ad contained on average two informational cues (Kim et al. 2010). The most
compelling research for advertisers, competing for the all-important USA Today Ad Meter,
involves the Super Bowl ad likeability model introduced in 2001 (Tomkovick et al. 2001), and
updated to recognized the increase in music in Super Bowl ads in 2011 (Yelkur, et al. 2011). The
most famous ad is arguably Coke’s “Teach the World to Sing” introduced in 1972. Although no
trending is available, over 77% of Super Bowl ads in the 2000s employed music (Yelkur et al.
2011). It is here that this research begins and extends the analysis of Super Bowl advertising to
popular music with a content analysis of Super Bowls from 2005 to 2014 investigating the
popular music in the commercials.
Methods
All commercials aired during ten years of the Super Bowls from 2005 – 2014 were
content analyzed for this study. This sample consisted of a total of 599 commercials not
including network or NFL promotional announcements. Of these commercials, 157
utilized some type of popular music (“popular music” broadly defined for the purposes of
this study as music of all genres that was created for “ordinary people” [Shuker 2001, 5]).
A code sheet was adapted from an earlier study (Allan 2008) to specifically record
both quantitative and qualitative information on the placement of music in the
commercials. The extensive code included variables used in previous content analyses of
television advertising (Alexander et al. 1998; Avery and Ferraro 2000; Callcott and Lee
1994; Elliott 1995; Roy and Harwood 1997; Unger et al. 1991;Wilkes and Valencia
Popular Music in Super Bowl Advertising
7
1989), as well as variables appropriate to the analysis of music (Allan 2006, 2008; Alpert
and Alpert, 1991; Brooker and Wheatley 1994; Kellaris et al. 1993; Kellaris and Kent
1991; MacInnis and Park 1991; Olsen 1995; Roehm 2001; Wallace 1991).
The coding instrument consisting of these fourteen variables was applied to each
commercial. These variables were organized around two areas: commercial
characteristics and music characteristics. Product characteristics accounted for two
standard variations: brands and category. Music characteristics consisted of twelve
variations: artist, genre, prominence, version, artist gender, artist age, artist number, artist
shown performing, choreographed, music edited, product relevance, and narrative
relevance.
These variables were recorded by one trained coder. Reliability was established using
the coefficient of reliability (also known as Cohen’s Kappa). To ascertain reliability, 10%
of the one coder’s sample was reanalyzed by another trained coder (author) resulting in
an overall reliability coefficient of 94.3%. F Coder agreement was greater than 80% for all
variables above the minimal agreement level (Rifle, Lacy, and Fico 1998).
Results and Discussion
What follows is the presentation of data for these two variable areas and a discussion of
their implications.
Commercial Characteristic Variables
Product Variables
Table 1 shows the unique ads with the presence of popular music (anywhere) in a commercial in
terms of the product category variables: brands and product category. As can be seen, significant
differences were observed in the use of music and product characteristics. Of the popular music
Popular Music in Super Bowl Advertising
8
ads, the most frequently observed product category involved “beverages” (n = 43). The next
most observed ads for popular music were for “automobiles” which included cars, trucks and
SUVs (n=39). It is not surprising that auto ads continue to use popular music. This product
category has collectively fueled its advertising with popular music since at least 1970 when The
Doors licensed “Light My Fire” to Buick (Patton 2002).
Table 1. Distribution of Unique Ads by Product Variable
Product Category
Audio/Video
Autos, Trucks, SUVs, etc.
Bank/Insurance/Legal
Beverages (Beer/Soda/Juice)
Cell Phones
Clothes
Computers
Entertainment
Food
Health
Restaurants (Fast Food)
X2 – value
*Significant at the .01 level
Popular Music ads
5
39
5
43
14
4
3
10
16
8
8
17.58*
Music Variables
Table 2 shows the unique ads with the presence of popular music (anywhere) in a commercial in
terms of version and prominence. As can be seen, significant differences were obtained in the
use of music and these music characteristics. Of the 157 total ads with popular music, 102 were
original vocals, 40 were original instrumentals, 13 were cover vocals, and 2 were altered vocal.
Prior research shows that the vocal version has been shown to be more effective when
unfamiliar, while instrumentals can be more effective in evoking advertising message recall if
the song is already familiar (Roehm 2001). Still others have found that song vocals, either
original or altered, are a more effective stimuli of advertising effects than instrumentals or no
Popular Music in Super Bowl Advertising
9
popular music especially when personally significant to the consumer (Allan 2006). As for the
prominence of the music itself in the ads with music, popular music was most often observed in
the foreground and most likely the primary rather than secondary part of the ad. These results
indicate that when advertisers use familiar music, it is usually original vocals in the foreground.
Table 2. Distribution of Unique Ads by Music Characteristic Variables
Music Version
Original Vocal
Original Instrumental
Cover Vocal
Altered Vocal
X2 – value
Music Prominence
Background
Foreground-Primary
Foreground-Secondary
X2 – value
(n)
102
40
13
2
26.02*
(n)
31
77
49
37.49*
*Significant at the .01 level
Table 3 shows the unique ads with the presence of popular music anywhere in a commercial in
terms of ten of the music characteristic variables: genre, artist, artist gender, artist age, artist
number, artist shown performing, music video, choreographed, edited, product relevance, and
narrative relevance. As can be seen, significant differences were obtained in the use of music and
these commercial characteristics. For the ads with popular music, the most observed genre was
rock (n = 44), followed by pop (n = 40). In both cases, the artist was most likely male (n=130),
adult (n=146) and solo (n=82). Very few of these artists in the ads performed live. As for the
production of these ads, most of the ads contained edited popular music that was at least partially
choreographed. In regard to the relevance of the music to the product or service in the ad, about
13.4% had some type of relevance to the product while 54.1% had some type of relevance to the
narrative in the ad.
Popular Music in Super Bowl Advertising
10
Table 3. Distribution of Unique Ads by Music Characteristic Variable.
Music Genre
Rock
Pop
R&B/Hip Hop
Classical
Country
Folk
Movie/Broadway
Jazz/Blues
Techno/Dance
Latin
X2 – value
Artist: Gender
Male
Female
Mixed
X2 – value
Artist: Age
Adult
Young Adult/Teen
Children
X2 – value
Artist: Number
Single
Duo
Group
X2 – value
Artist: Performing
Edited
Choreographed
Entirely
Partially
Product Relevance
Direct
Indirect
None
X2 – value
Narrative Relevance
Direct
Indirect
None
X2 – value
(n)
44
40
29
12
9
8
5
4
5
1
12.65*
130
16
10
26.27*
146
9
2
42.49*
82
17
54
24.76*
15
134
26
73
21
30
106
36.73*
85
39
33
20.14*
Popular Music in Super Bowl Advertising
11
Table 4 shows the distribution of brands and Table 5 of artists in the ads with popular music.
The most observed brand was Budweiser and the most observed artist was Led Zeppelin.
Table 4. Distribution of Unique Ads by Brands
Brands
Budweiser
Coca Cola
Doritos
Bud Light
Pepsi
Volkswagon
Hyundai
Diet Pepsi
Honda
Denny’s
Kia
Taco Bell
Toyota
Audi
ESPN
Fed Ex
GM
Go Daddy
Intuit
Mercedes Benz
Pepsi Max
Subway
(n)
13
8
8
6
5
5
5
4
4
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Popular Music in Super Bowl Advertising
12
Table 5. Distribution of Unique Ads by Artists
Artist
Led Zeppelin
Beethoven
Bill Withers
Chad & Jeremy
Cult & Flo rida
Elvis
Firehouse
Gwen Stefani
Lakeside
LMFAO
Michael Jackson
Nelly
Stevie Wonder
The Who
Bob Dylan
House of Pain
Quiet Riot
(n)
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Conclusion
This study was designed to supplement and update the limited quantitative data analyzing
popular music placement in prime-time television advertising. Based on the results, it appears
that this executional cue has varied considerably in Super Bowl ads from 2005 to 2014 but risen
consistently in the last three years. This is consistent with the growth of music in advertising
outside of the Super Bowl, specifically 40% in 1986 (Stewart and Furse 1986), 75% in 1989
(Huron, 1989), 89% in 1993 (Appelbaum and Halliburton 1993) and 96% in 2008 (Allan 2008).
Additionally, this study was designed to provide a more robust qualitative analysis of popular
music placement in television advertising. The results provide a glimpse of how advertisers are
currently using popular music in Super Bowl commercials.
A very important observation from this study was that popular music was more likely to be
relevant to the ad narrative than the brand in Super Bowl commercials. This is consistent with
some research that suggests music was most effective when it “fit” the “central ad message”
Popular Music in Super Bowl Advertising
13
(Macinnis and Park1991, 162), but seems to contradict other research that found that music was
more impactful when the music, in some way, pertains to the product (Alpert and Alpert 1991;
Brooker and Wheatley 1994). It does, however, suggest that advertisers are clearly using popular
music to stimulate some type of emotion or personal relevance of the narrative to the consumer
possibly triggering memories for significant life events or “episodic memories” (Tulving 1972);
“flashbulb memories” (Brown and Kulik 1977); leading to greater involvement (Zaichkowsky
1994); all potentially resulting in a more central route to persuasion (Petty and Cacioppo 1986).
It should be noted that the cries of artist “sellout,” while diminished with the growth of
popular music in advertising , have not been completely silenced. CNN reported that one tweet
they received said that the Bob Dylan, Chrysler commercial was “disappointing and sad on so
many levels, proof that there are very few not willing to sell out"(France 2014). Neil Young
would certainly agree (see song “This Note’s For You”). But in Bob Dylan’s defense, if he is a
‘sellout,’ he has been at least been a consistent one, saying in 1965, when asked which
‘commercial interest’ he would sellout to Dylan replied, “Ladies’ garments” (Thompson 2014).
Of course, he did eventually team up with Victoria’s Secret. So having a song in a Chobani
Yogurt commercial (“I Want You”), and appearing in another with his song “Things Have
Changed” (Chrysler) is not so surprising. What is surprising is that this is still considered ‘selling
out.’ It is apparent that music in advertising is still the “most fretted-about music in history”
(Huron 1989). Whether you still think it is a “bankruptcy of culture” (McChesney 2001), or the
“perfect marriage of art and commerce” (Allan 2006), it appears that popular music in Super
Bowl advertising is here to stay. Maybe it’s a “Sign of the Times” as Prince might say. “In an
iTunes era, big game-watchers may recognize more songs in Super Bowl ads than players on the
field” (Horowitz 2014). Maybe the songs are better than the players.
Popular Music in Super Bowl Advertising
14
Limitations and future research
While content analysis provides a thorough and objective report on how music is being used in
Super Bowl advertising and how often, it is limited in its ability to provide any explanation for
why it is used or its effectiveness. An understanding of the context in which music is being
utilized, or confirmation of an increased or decreased use of music in commercials by
advertisers, does not necessarily mean that music has been determined by advertisers to be more
or less effective than other executional cues. Additionally, although this study utilized a
comparatively large sample of commercials, it is still just a snapshot of ten years of Super Bowl
commercials. Additional studies and samples will allow more generalizations and conclusions.
Despite its limitations, this study provides a foundation for the future research of music,
especially popular music, in Super Bowl commercials.
Note: The author would like to personally thank Bill Daddi and Kantar Media for providing
public access to the commercial logs from the past ten Super Bowls.
References
Alexander, A., L. M. Benjamin, et al. 1998. "We'll Be Back In a Moment: A Content Analysis of
Advertisements in Children's Television in the 1950s." Journal of Advertising 27, no. 3: 1-9.
Allan, David. 2005. "An Essay on Popular Music in Advertising and Popular Music:
Bankruptcy of Culture or Marriage of Art and Commerce," Advertising & Society 6, no. 1.
2006. "Effects of Popular Music on Attention and Memory in Advertising." Journal of
Advertising Research 46, no. 4: 1-11.
2008. "A Content Analysis of Music Placement in Prime-Time Television Advertising."
Journal of Advertising Research 48, no. 3: 1-14.
Aloi, D. 2008. “Likeable Super Bowl ads can boost stock prices.” Cornell University Chronicle
Online.
Alpert, J. I. and M. I. Alpert. 1990. "Music Influences on Mood and Purchase Intentions."
Psychology & Marketing 7, no. 2: 109-133.
Popular Music in Super Bowl Advertising
15
Anderson, M. 2014. “Music a Big Focus in Super Bowl Ads.” Associated Press: February 1.
Appelbaum, U. and C. Halliburton 1993. "How to Develop International Advertising Campaigns
that Work: The Example of the European Food and Beverage Sector." International Journal of
Advertising 12: 223-241.
Avery, R. J. and R. Ferraro. 2000. "Verismilitude or Advertising? Brand Appearances on Primetime Television." The Journal of Consumer Affairs 34, no. 2: 217-245.
Beasley, F. M., M. D. Shank and R. W. Ball. 1998. "Do Super Bowl Viewers Watch the
Commercials?" Sports Marketing Quarterly 7, no. 3: 33-40.
Bickle, M. 2012. “The Power of Super Bowl Advertising.” Forbesh.
Brooker, G. and J. J. Wheatley. 1994. "Music and Radio Advertising: Effects of Tempo and
Placement." Advances in Consumer Research 21: 286-290.
Brown, R. and J. Kulik. 1977. "Flashbulb Memories." Cognition 5: 73-99.
Callcott, M. F. and W.N. Lee 1994. "A Content Analysis of Animation and Animated Spokescharacters in Television Commercials." Journal of Advertising 23, no. 4: 1-12.
Chang, C., J. Jiang and K. A. Kim 2009. "A test of the representative bias effect on stock prices:
A study of Super Bowl commercial likeability." Economics Letters 103, no. 1: 49-51.
Dotterweich, D. P. and K. S. Collins 2005. "The Practicality of Super Bowl Advertising for New
Products and Companies." Journal of Promotion Management 11, no. 4: 19-31.
Dunbar, D. S. 1990. Music and advertising. International Journal of Advertising 9, no. 197203.
Edwards, J. and J. Terbush. 2012. “The Incredible Inflation of Super Bowl Ad Prices Since '67.”
Business Insider.
Elliott, M. T. 1995. "Differences in the Portrayal of Blacks: A Content Analysis of General
Media Versus Culturally-targeted Commercials." Journal of Current Issues and Research in
Advertising 17, no. 1: 75-86.
Fehle, F., S. Tsyplakov, and V. Zdorovtsov. 2005. "Can companies influence investor behaviour
through advertising? Super Bowl commercials and stock returns." European Financial
Management 11, no. 5: 625-647.
France, L. 2014. Bob Dylan Super Bowl commercial draws cries of ‘sellout.’ CNN (Available:
http://www.cnn.com/2014/02/03/showbiz/tv/bob-dylan-super-bowl-commercial/ 2/8/14).
Graney, M. 2013. “Music Meets Football.” Music Business Journal 8, no. 3: 1-16.
Popular Music in Super Bowl Advertising
16
Horovitz, B. 2013. “Clydesdale Wins by a Nose.” USA Today: February 4. B4.
Horovitz, B. 2014. “Super Bowl ad trends: Celebs, nostalgia, more. USA Today: January 31. B1.
Huron, D. 1989. Music in Advertising: An Analytic Paradigm. Musical Quarterly 73, no. 4: 557574.
Kanner, B. 2004. The Superbowl of Advertising: How the Commercials Won the Game.
Princeton, Bloomberg Press.
Kellaris, J. J., A. D. Cox, and D. Cox 1993. "The effect of background music on ad processing:
A contingency explanation." Journal of Marketing 57: 114-125.
Kim, K., Y. Choeong, and H. Kim. 2011. “Information content of Super Bowl commercials
2001-2009,” Journal of Marketing Communications, 10: 1-16.
Kim, J. and J. D. Morris 2003. "The effect of advertising on the market value of firms: Empirical
evidence from the Super Bowl ads." Journal of Targeting, Measurement and Analysis for
Marketing 12, no. 1: 53-65.
Kim, K., Y. Cheong, and H. Kim. 2010. "Information content of Super Bowl Commercials 20012009." Journal of Marketing Communications 1-16.
Klein, B. 2010. As Heard on TV: Popular Music in Advertising. England, Ashgate.
Macinnis, D. J. and C. W. Park 1991. "The Differential Role of Characteristics of Music on
High- and Low-involvement Consumers' Processing of Ads." Journal of Consumer Research
18: 161-173.
McAllister, M. P. 1999. "Information content of Super Bowl commercials 2001-2009."
Communication Review 3: 403-428.
McCarthy, M. 2001. “Firms pick Super Bowl as prime time for kickoff ads.” USA Today.
McChesney, R. 2001. Money For Nothing, [Videocassette]. The Media Education Foundation.
Newell, S. J. and K. V. Henderson. 1998. "Super Bowl advertising: Field testing the importance
of advertisement frequency, length and placement of recall." Journal of Marketing
Communications 4: 237-248.
Olsen, G. D. 1995. "Creating the Contrast: The Influence of Silence and Background Music on
Recall and Attribute Importance." Journal of Advertising 14, no. 4: 29-44.
Patton, P. 2002. “Like the Song, Love the Car.” New York Times. New York: 1.
Popular Music in Super Bowl Advertising
17
Pavelchak, M. A., J. H., and J. M. Munch. 1988. "The Super Bowl: An Investigation into the
Relationship Among Program Context, Emotional Experience, and Ad Recall." Journal of
Consumer Research 15: 360-367.
Petty, R. E. and J. T. Cacioppo 1986. Communication and Persuasion: Central and Peripheral
Routes to Attitude Change. New York, Springer-Verlag.
Riffe, D., S. Lacy, F. G. Fico.1998. Analyzing Media Messages. Mahwah, NJ, Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
Roehm, M. L. 2001. "Instrumental vs. Vocal Versions of Popular Music in Advertising." Journal
of Advertising Research 41, no. 3: 49-58.
Roehm, M. L. 2001. "Instrumental vs. Vocal Versions of Popular Music in Advertising." Journal
of Advertising Research 41(3): 49-58.
Roy, A. and J. Harwood 1997. "Underrepresented, Positively Portrayed: Older Adults in
Television Commercials." Journal of Applied Communication Research 25: 39-56.
Schultz, D E. 2005. IMC Research Must Focus More on Outcomes. Journal of Advertising 34
(4):6-7.
Stewart, D. W. and D. H. Furse 1986. Effective Television Advertising: A Study of 1000
Commercials. Lexington, MA, Lexington Books.
Thompson, E. 2014. “Five Myths About Bob Dylan.” Washington Post, Opinions (February 7)
[Available: http://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/five-myths-about-bobdylan/2014/02/07/20ed95cc-8e76-11e3-b227-12a45d109e03_story.html]
Tomkovick, C., R. Yelkur, and L. Christians. 2001. "The USA's biggest marketing event keeps
getting bigger: An in-depth look at Super Bowl advertising in the 1990s." Journal of Marketing
Communications 7: 89-108.
Tulving, E. 1972. “Episodic and Semantic Memory.” Organization of Memory. E. Tulving and
W. Donaldson. New York, Academic Press.
Ugwu, R. 2014. “Sad Song + Adorable Puppy = Bib Score.” Billboard, February 15, 10.
Unger, L. S., D. M. McConocha, and J. A. Faier. 1991. "The Use of Nostalgia in Television
Advertising: A Contest Analysis." Journalism Quarterly 68, no. 3: 345-353.
Vranica, S. 2014. “Ad Bowl Winners: RadioShack, Bud, Chrysler.” Wall Street Journal,
February 3, 2014, B1.
Wallace, W. T. 1991. "Jingles in Advertisements: Can They Improve Recall?" Advances in
Consumer Research 18: 239-242.
Popular Music in Super Bowl Advertising
Wilkes, R. E. and H. Valencia. 1989. "Hispanics and Blacks in Television Commercials."
Journal of Advertising 18, no. 1: 19-25.
Williams, P. 2014. “Super Bowl rallies Passenger.” [Available:
http://www.musicweek.com/news/read/us-charts-super-bowl-rallies-passenger/057553].
Yelkur, R., C. Tomkovick, and P. Traczyk.. 2011. "Super Bowl ad likeability: Enduring and
emerging predictors." Journal of Marketing Communications: 1-23.
Yelkur, R., C. Tomkovick, and P. Traczyk. 2004. "Super Bowl Advertising Effectiveness:
Hollywood Finds the Games Golden." Journal of Advertising Research 143-159.
Zaichkowsky, J. L. 1994. "The Personal Involvement Inventory: Reduction, Revision, and
Application to Advertising." Journal of Advertising 23: 59-70.
18