THE MOON AS CAUSE OF THE FORMATION OF EARTH'S CONTINENTS.COMPLEWENTARY ELEMEBTS
Tovy
DEMT
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CEN
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Saclay
GRJEBINE.
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G i f sur Y v e t t e
- 9 1 France.
I n 1980 T.Grjebine suggested t h a t t h e E a r t h ' s c o n t i n e n t s accumulated under t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e Moon d u r i n g
a phase o f geosynchronous r o t a t i a n ( 1 ) . I n a d d i t i o n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n s examined i n previous p u b l i c a t i o n s , data
on Pre-Cambrian sedirnentology and c o n s i d e r a t i o n s on E a r t h and Venus athnlosheres a l s o support t h l s theory.
T t ~ eE a r t h c o n t l n e n t s present a s e r l e s o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t have n o t y e t been explained.Why,for example
a r e the c o n t i n e n t s l o c a t e d o n l y on o n e - t h i r d o f t h e g l o b e ' s s u r f a c e i n s t e a d o f . b e i n g spread i n a r e g u l a r
l a y e r w i t h water c o v e r i n g the e n t i r e surface7 Uhy i s i t t h a t t h e c o n t i n e n t s seem t o o r i g i n a l l y have been c l u s t e r e d i n a s i n g l e nuss? Why are the o l d e s t rocks on e a r t h o f sedimentary o r i g i n 7 Why does t h e renewal o f
c o n t i n e n t s seem v e r y l i m i t e d o r even non e x l s t a n t whereas t h e renewal o f ocean f l o o r i s constant7 Why i s t h a t
the s u r f a c e o f t h e continentsmatches sea l e v e l almost every where w i t h a p r e c i s i o n o f 1%Whjs t h a t t h e ocean
has p e r i o d i c a l l y invaded l a r g e p a r t s o f t h e c o n t i n e n t s ' s s u r f a c e
Previous t h e o r i e s o f c o n t i n e n t s ' s formati o n have been f a r from s a t i s f a c t o r y , onetheory s t a t e s t h a t c o n t i n e n t s were due t o an expansion o f t h e E a r t h !
T.Grjebine and C.llarcha1 have shown t h a t an e a r l y f o r m a t i o n of t h e p r o t o - e a r t h c o u l d have c o n t r i b u t e d t o
an a c c e l e r a t i o n of t h e r o t a t i o n o f the e a r t h and c o u l d t h e r e f o r e have produced a deformation t h a t ended i n
p a r t i t i o n (2),in a s i m i l a r process as suggested by 0.UIse (3).The pre-mordial athmosphere c o u l d t h e n have
been l o s t a t t h e small end o f the systeme,the Moon, s i n c e a t t r a c t i o n t h e r e was n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o m a i n t a i n
The gases.
D i f f e r e n t a u t o r s have suggested t h a t mechanical c o n s l d e r a t i o n s exclude a geosynchronous r o t a t i o n o f t h e
Moon. U n f o r t u n a t l y , no s p e c i a l hypothesis has been made f o r t h e Earth. I f we t a k e i n t o account t h a t t h e E a r t h
was n o t r o t a t i n g as a whole body b u t w i t h d i f f e r e n t i a l r o t a t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s layers,mechnical c o r ~ s i d e r a t i o n s
show t h a t geosynchronous r o t a t i o n o f t h e Moon was p o s s i b l e (2).The E a r t h must have had a d i f f e r e n t i a l r o t a t i o n o f t h e c o r e and t h e mantel ,since r a d i a l segregation produces a f a s t e r n r o t a t i o n o f t h e c o r e . I n a s l m i l a r
veln,Alfen and Arrhenius suggested i n 1972 t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f "resonnance r o t a t i o n ( 4 ) . The p o s s i b i l i t y of
d i f f e r e n t i a l r o t a t i o n f o r the v a r i o u s l a y e r s o f t h e E a r t h ' s core and nlantel, hleans t h a t , whatever t h e o r i g i n e
o f the Noon was, i t can and w i l l r o t a t e synchronously w i t h the o u t e r c r u s t o f the Earth. G r j e b i n e and Marcha1 ( 2 ) have suggested a f i s s i o n o r i g i n f o r t h e Moon by a process s i m i l a r t o t h e one proposed by D.U.Wise ( 3 )
b u t o t h e r mechanisms a r e p o s s i b l e . The o n l y o b l i g a t o r y assumption i s t h a t the ;.loon should be v e r y c l o s e t o
the Earth. As many cons id era ti or,^ s b ~ g ~ tshta t was so, t h e r e f o r e i t i s reasonable t o say t h a t t h e r e i s no
reason t o q u e s t i o n the geosynchronous r ~ t a t i o no f the ibloon.
I f t h e 1,:oon r o t a t e d around t h e Earth as a geosynchronous s a t e l l i t e , the s u r f a c e o f the E a r t h was swept b y .
the shadow o f t h e Moon d u r i n g s o l a r e c l i p s e s every 5 o r 6 hours. t h e Moon being a t 2.3 o r 2.6 e a r t h r a d i u s .
The p r i m o r d i a l atmoshere, as many a u t o r s have concluded was l o s t , and, according t o t h e succession o f
events we propose, t h i s occured d u r i n g the p a r t i t i o n o f t h e Proto-Earth, s i n c e the a t t r a c t i o n o f t h e small
s i d e o f t h e systeme, o f the Moon, was n o t sufficient t o keep t h e gases which were escaping i n t o space.
Meanwhile r a d l a l segregation continued t o b r i n g water as w e l l as C02 t o t h e s u r f a c e . When water i s n o t
k e p t under pressure, i t becomes vapour. The second atmoshere was t h e r e f o r e composed o f water vapour, as Inge r s o l l has suggested ( 5 ) . As such an atmoshere i s v e r y s e n s i t i v e t o t h e thermal e f f e c t s o f s o l a r r a d i a t i o n s
i t was sensitive t o t h e e f f e c t o f s o l a r eclipses.The a t m s h e r e was heated l e s s i n t h e r e g i o n swept by t h e
shadow o f t h e Moon than elsewhere. Strong e c l i p s e winds were thus generated every 5
6.hours i n t h e eggplant
shaped r e g i o n f a c i n g t h e Moon.
The e c l i p s e winds generated waves and spray, c r e a t i n g s t r o n g e r evaporation i n t h e area swept by t h e shadow o f t h e Moon. The absence o f h e a t i n g d u r i n g these e c l i p s e s created an a n t i - c y c l o n e , downward winds were
pushing the newly formed vapouraway, which l a t e r condensed and f e l l over t h e r e s t o f t h e ocean. T h i s mecanlsme was o b v i o u s l y d e p l e t i n g t h e ocean o f water i n t h e r e g i o n swept by t h e shadow and t h e r e f o r e was c r e a t i n g
an oceanic c u r r e n t moving towards t h i s region. i n o r d e r t o compensat t h e water l o s t as vapour.
T h i s c u r r e n t brought m i n e r a l s i n s o l u t i o n t o t h i s region, where they became o v e r concentrated s i n c e t h e
ocean depleted t h e r e i n water. When o v e r - c o n c e n t r a t i o n I s reached minerals i n s o l u t i o n p r e c i p i t e d and a 1 Ito p h i l e sedimentary c r u s t was deposited there.
The study o f t h e Dead sea has shown t h a t t h e m i n e r a l i s a t i o n o f h o t water can produce an i n v e r s i o n o f temp e r a t u r e and t h e lower, more m i n e r a l i z e d l a y e r s a r e h o t t e r than t h e s u r f a c e l a y e r s , which a r e c o o l e d by evap o r a t i o n . As r a d i a l segregation introduces v o l c a n i c water w i t h C02 and l i t h o p h i l e m i n e r a l s i n t h e bottom I
l a y e r s o f t h e ocean t h e s o l v i n g pover o f t h i s water was l a r g e s i n c e i t was a c i d i i a c i d i t y due t o t h e presence
o f C02. As t h i s water flowed toward the r e g i o n swept by the shadow o f t h e Moon i n o r d e r t o remplace t h e
water evaporated o r pushed away by the winds, i t was cooled by c o n t a c t w i t h t h e surface and t h e C02 was
released as p r e s s u r was decreasing when t h e water was a r r i v i n g toward t h e s u r f a c e . The a c i d i t y was decreaslng
as was decreasing t h e s o l v i n g power due t o temperature. The s o l u b i l i t y o f s l l i c l u m and o f a l m s t a l l m i n e r a l s
decreases when water i s cooled; t h e r e f o r e m i n e r a l s o f the bottom c u r r e n t s were p r e c i p i t a t i n g even b e f o r e
d e p l e t i o n i n water. The t h i r d process depending on t h e s o l u b i l i t y - a c i d i t y was creati,ng p r e c i p i t a t i o n I n even,
lower l a y e r s i n c e any ascending movement o f bottom c u r r e n t s produce a release o f C02.We have t h e r e f o r e t h r e e
mecanisme simultaneously a t work and depending on on t h e predominance o f one o f them v a r i e t y i n d e p o s i t s w i l h
be pooduced. I n the paper quated we noted t h a t as m i n e r a l s were deposlted and forming t h e sedimentary c r u s t
i t was s l o w l y s i n k i n g i n the mantel. Nevertheless t h e r e was a permanent e q u i l i b r i u m between t h e amont o f
m a t e r i a l deposited i n t h e c e n t e r and t h e l e v e l o f t h e ocean. When t h e r e were two many deposits, t h e area was
no l o n g e r covered w i t h water and deposits occurred o n l y on t h e p e r i p h e r a l . As t h e c e n t r a l area was s i n k i n g
more and more i t was covered again and more m i n e r a l s were deposited. Since we have t h r e e mecanisme w o r k i n g
simultanously i t i s l o g i c a l than d u r i n g t h i s process t h e r e c o u l d be a succesion o f very d i f f e r e n t d e p o s t t s
such as e v a p o r i t s o v e r green rocks.
We noted p r e v i o u s l y t h a t the b u l d i n g process o f t h e c o n t i n e n t worked w i t h a p r e c l s l o n o f I%, s i n c e t h e
m a j o r i t y o f t h e p l a i n s a r e l e s s than300 meters above sea l e v e l when t h e t h i c k n e s s o f the c o n t i n e n t s exceeds
30 000 meters.Even a small t i l t i n g i n the axe o f r o t a t i o n enlarge t h e banana shape o f c o n t i n e n t i n t o an egg
p l a n t shape which indeed f i t s very w e l l t h e former shape o f t h e c o n t i n e n t as magnetic data suggest t h a t i t
was.
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O Lunar and Planetary Institute
Provided by the NASA Astrophysics Data System
THE MOON AS CAUSE OF THE EARTH'S CONTINENTS FORMATION
GRJEBINE T .
8
I t i s l o g i c a l t h a t the synchronism between the E a r t h ' s c r u s t and the Moon was broken when t h e E a r t h l o s t
p a r t o f i t s heat, s i n c e t h e v i s c o s i t y o f t h e e a r t h i s very temperature-sensitive(6). As the d i f f e r e n t i a l
r o t a t i o n decreased, the c r u s t had a tendency t o s p i n f a s t e r than the Moon. Whenthe Moon had g r e a t e r k i n e t i c
energy, i t went i n t o a more d i s t a n t o r b i t and i t s angular v e l o c i t y decreased so t h a t synchronism c o u l d n o t
be maintained. Once t h e Moon was no longer a g e o s t a t i o m r y s a t e l l i t e , p e r i o d i c a l t i d e s appeared and more
energy was t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e tloon. The chronology we Proposed ( 6 ) f i t s w i l l w i t h t h a t suggested by
Wasserburg e t a1 ( 7 ) f o r t h e e a r l y h i s t o r y o f t h e Moon.
Once synchronism was broken, t h e r e was no reason f o r t h e E a r t h ' s c o n t i n e n t t o remain i n the e q u a t o r i a l
r e g i o n o f t h e globe. On the c o n t r a r y , mechanical c o n s i d e r a t i o n s show t h a t a body tends t o decrease i t s
nomentun); t h e c o n t i n e n t was pushed towards one o f t h e awes o f r o t a t i o n , e x a c t l y as a marble egg spins On
one o f i t s ends. As the c u r v a t u r e o f t h e geoid i s n o t t h e same a t the p o l e as on the equator, the newly-built
c r u s t d i d n o t have t h e r i g h t c u r v a t u r e and had t o break. T h i s p e r i o d corresponds t o t h e o l d e s t c o n t i n e n t a l
volcanism a t -2.7, which n u s t be d i f f e r e n t i a t e d from t h e ocean volenism t h a t was responsible f o r r a d i a l
segregation. Nevertheless, t h i s c o n t i n e n t a l volcanism was d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o f today, s i n c e i t d i d n o t
r e s u l t from sea-bottom m a t e r i a l being p u l l e d under a c o n t i n e n t b u t r a t h e r from t h e adjustment o f l e v e l s
between t h e c o n t i n e n t a l c r u s t and t h e mantel.
Any gas exhaust through a f r a c t u r e may have c r e a t e d a convection c e l l i n t h e mantel. The former c o n v e c t i m
c e l l t h e r e f o r e came t o be replaced by s e v e r a l , and t h e mantel c u r r e n t s tended t o separate t h e d i f f e r e n t p a r k
o f the c o n t i n e n t . As we know, t h i s mechanism s t a r t e d very s l o w l y and o n l y became important i n a v e r y
r e c e n t period.
T h i s theory i s n o t i n v a l i d a t e d by magnetic data, e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e the mechanism proposed t o e x p l a i n t h e
E a r t h ' s magnetism i s s t i l l n o t completely s a t i s f a c t o r y . On t h e o t h e r hand, i f we consider t n a t t h e Earth's
magnetism c o u l d have r e s u l t e d from a t h e m c o u p l i n g e f f e c t , we f i n d a coherent e x p l a n a t i o n n o t o n l y f o r t h e
E a r t h ' s magnetism b u t a l s o f o r t h e magnetism o f t h e Noon.
We a l s o know
We know t h a t a t a c e r t a i n depth a l l s i l i c a t e s , l i k e metal, become e l e c t r i c i t y - c o n d u c t i v e .
t h a t t h e temperature i s n o t t h e same i n r e g i o n s where t h e r e i s an upward c u r r e n t o f t h e mantel and i n r e g i o m
w i t h a downward c u r r e n t . T h i s d i f f e r e n c e i n temperature must, o f course, be connected w i t h t h e l a s t l a y e r
o f t h e mantel which means t h a t t h e temperature was n o t t h e same under t h e c o n t i n e n t and under t h e ocean.
A t h e m c o u p l i n g e f f e c t should t h e r e f o r e e x i s t , and as t h e m e t a l l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y l e v e l connected these
d i f f e r e n t areas, these c u r r e n t s generated a magnetic f i e l d depending upon t h e c o n t i n e n t ' s p o s i t i o n . Although
we know t h a t t h e n u g n e t i c f i e l d o f t h e E a r t h i s l o c a t e d i n t h e core, t h i s i s n o t i n c o n t r a d i c t i o n w i t h t h e
proposal of a f i e l d generated by a thermal e f f e c t . The core f i e l d i s n o t ferromagnetic s i n c e t h e temperature
i s t o o high, b u t i t may simply be a t r i g g e r e d f i e l d induced by the t h e m - f i e l d . When a weak f i e l d o r i e n t s
a l a r g e amount o f magnetic d i p o l e s , a s t r o n g f i e l d i s produced. Some c a l c u l a t i o n s suggest t h a t t h e t h e m f i e l d was n o t s t r o n g enough t o d i r e c t l y e x p l a i n t h e E a r t h ' s f i e l d , b u t i t i s s t r o n g enough t o o r i e n t t h e
I n such circumstances, the E a r t h ' s f i e l d may very w e l l have magnetized t h e
f i e l d produced i n t h i s fashion.
Moon d u r i n g t h e e a r l y phase o f synchronous r o t a t i o n . It thus becomes understandable why t h e r e were more
p o s s i b i l i t i e s as t h e number o f c o n t i n e n t s increased f o r the r e s u l t a n t v e c t o r t o determine t h e f i n a l f i e l d :
t h e number o f i n v e r s i o n s o f t h e f i e l d i s t h e r e f o r e r e l a t e d t o t h e number o f pieces o f c o n t i n e n t s .
The d r i f t o f t h e c o n t i n e n t s shows t h a t t h e magnetic p o l e was o f t e n v e r y d i f f e r e n t from t h e c l i m a t i c pole.
The theory we propose p r o v i d e s a good expaanation f o r t h i s discrepancy. Continental d r i f t shows t h a t one
p i e c e o f t h e c o n t i n e n t may have been p u l l e d i n t o another, as I n d i a was pushed i n t o Northern Asia, f o r
example. The spreading o f the ocean f l o o r a l s o shows t h a t t h e ocean can r e a l l y disappear under a c o n t i n e n t ;
although we cannot conclude from t h i s t h a t an e n t i r e c o n t i n e n t can disappear under another. O f course,
some l i t h o p h y l m a t e r i a l could have been p u l l e d by t h e mantel c u r r e n t under another c o n t i n e n t , and mountains
such as the Himalayas would thus have appeared. However, t h e p i l i n g up o f one c o n t i n e n t o v e r another would
This suggests t h a t we may have been too quick t o
have produced mountains even h i g h e r than t h e Himalayas.
transform c o n t i n e n t a l d r i f t and t h e spreading o f t h e ocean f l o o r s i n t o the concept o f p l a t e t e c t o n i c s . Of
course, i n some regions, p a r t o f t h e ocean f l o o r t r a v e l s w i t h t h e c o n t i n e n t b u t t h i s does n o t mean t h a t the
two a r e bound together; they a r e merely t r a v e l l i n g together along t h e same mantel convection c u r r e n t . Their
ages and composition a r e t o o d i f f e r e n t t o a u t h o r i z e any a s s i m i l a t i o n . T h i s means t h a t t h e t h e o r y we propose
i s n o t c o n t r a r y t o t h e f a c t s t h a t gave r i s e t o t h e theory o f p l a t e t e c t o n i c s , b u t i t does suggest a
more s u b t l e p i c t u r e o f c o n t i n e n t a l d r i f t as w e l l as o f t h e spreading o f t h e ocean f l o o r .
The l o s s o f t h e p r i m o r d i a l atmosphere o f t h e E a r t h was explained as having been produced by a s p e c i a l p h a s
o f the sun w i t h p a r t i c u l a r l y abundant U.V. rays o r very s t r o n g s o l a r wind. T h i s explanation c o n t r a d i c t s
what we know about Venus ( 8 ) . Why would t h e E a r t h have l o s t i t s p r i m o r d i a l atmosphere w h i l e Venus k e p t i t s
own, even though i t was c l o s e r t o t h e Sun? E x p l a i n i n g t h e l o s s o f t h e E a r t h ' s p r i m o r d i a l atmosphere because
o f s o l a r i n f l u e n c e thus becomes i n a c c e p t a b l e . On t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e proposal we p u t forward i s coherent:
Venus d i d n o t have a f i s s i o n s a t e l l i t e t h a t c o u l d produce an escape o f p r i m r d i a l gases. The new elements
presented s i n c e o u r o r i g i n a l proposal t h r e e years ago go t o strengthen t h i s theory.
1980,The Moon and t h e Planets 22 , 367 - 382.
1980, The Moon and t h e P l a n e t s T 2 , 347 - 358.
1963. Geoohvs. Res. 68. 1547 - x 5 4 . and 74. 6034
6045.
1969; s c i k k e 165, 1 ~ 17.
1972, The M o o n x 210 - 230.
A.P.Ingerso11,
: 1969, Jour. A t 6 s . S c i . 26,1191
1198.
366.
T.Grjebine and C.blarcha1 : 1980, The Moon and t h e P x n e t s 22, 359
G. J.Wasserburg,D.A. Papanastassiou.F.Tera, and J .C.Huneke : T 9 7 7 , Phi 1. Trans.R.Soc. Lond.
CI.Moroz
: 1981, Space Science Rev. 29, 3 - 127.
( 1 ) T.Grjebine
:
( 2 ) T.Grjebine and Ch.Marcha1:
131 D.U. Nise
:
( 4 j H.Alfen and G.Arrhenius :
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
O Lunar and Planetary Institute
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22.