Punctuation marks are symbols which
1. organize the structure of written language,
2. and indicate intonation and pauses to be observed when reading aloud.
Punctuation marks are also used to avoid ambiguity. For example, "woman, without her man, is
nothing" has a different meaning from "woman: without her, man is nothing"
This is a summary of punctuation rules.
Read the punctuation rules and study the examples given.
End punctuation marks:
1. Full stop , or period (.)
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Used a full stop at the end of a sentence:
She stood up and went away. She was furious.
Used for abbreviations:
Co. (Company)
M.P. (Member of Parliament)
2. Question marks (?)
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Question marks are used at the end of direct questions:
Where do you live?
Are you crazy?
Did you do the homework?
Use a question mark at the end of tag questions:
You will help me, won't you?
He likes soccer, doesn't he?
3. Exclamation marks (!)
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Used to indicate strong emotions:
She's so beautiful!
What a nice girl!
How interesting!
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Used after interjections:
Oh! It's awful.
Hi! What's up?
Commas (,)
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Commas are used between items in a series or list. The last two items of the series usually
do not need a comma between them. They are separated by "and".
I like spaghetti, fish, pizza and couscous.
Commas are also used between adjectives or adverbs:
I'd like to have a big, black, German car.
She speaks slowly, quietly and eloquently.
After the street address and city in an address:
34 Hassan II Street, Rabat, Morocco.
Before or after direct speech:
He said, "I hate being treated like that."
"I'm sorry", she replied.
Before a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)
He woke up late, so he had to drive to work.
Semicolons (;)
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Semicolons are used instead of a full stop or period to separate independent sentences:
They woke up early; then they went jogging.
Use a semicolon to separate items in a series when those items contain punctuation such
as a comma:
They visited the Eiffel Tower, Paris; Big Ben, London; and the statue of liberty, New
York
Colons (:)
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Use a colon to introduce a list:
He visited three cities last summer holiday: Madrid, Roma and Athens.
To introduce an idea or an explanation:
He had one idea in mind: to see her as soon as possible.
To introduce direct speech or a quotation:
The secretary whispered in his ear: "Your wife is on the phone. "
Dashes (--)
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To introduce parenthetical information:
I put on a blue jacket --the one my mother bought me-- and blue jeans.
To show an afterthought:
I explained to him my point of view-- at least I tried!
Apostrophes (')
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Use an apostrophe to indicate a missing letter or letters in a contraction.
I'm fed up with his stories
Use an apostrophe plus the letter "s" to show possession.
My brother's girlfriend is such a sweet girl.
Quotation marks ("")
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Quotation marks are used to quote speech, sentences or words.
She said, "I love you."
Capitalization is the writing of a word with the first letter as upper-case letter (A,B, C,
D,...) and the rest of the word as lower-case letters (a,b,c,d,...)
This is a summary of the capitalization.
Read the capitalization rules and study the examples given.
The rules
Capitalize the first word in a sentence.
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They arrived late. They had dinner and went to sleep.
Capitalize the first word in a quote.
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He said, "You are fantastic."
Capitalize " I ".
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I'm very sorry for being late. I missed the bus.
Capitalize proper nouns.
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George was furious when he heard the bad news from Alice.
Capitalize names of rivers, mountains.
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The Nile River is in Egypt.
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The highest mountain in the world is Mount Everest.
Capitalize the official title of a person, the initials in someone's name
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Dr. Lynch.
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D. H. Lawrence is a wonderful novelist.
Capitalize days of the week, months of the year, holidays.
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We went to Paris on Monday and came back on Saturday.
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The Independence Day is in July not January.
Capitalize countries, cities, languages, nationalities.
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New York is more exciting than Seattle.
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He lives in London, but he's not English. He's Nigerian.
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He speaks English, Chinese and Japanese.
The first word in each line of a poem.
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"Who will believe my verse in time to come,
If it were fill'd with your most high deserts?
Though yet heaven knows it is but as a tomb
Which hides your life, and shows not half your parts."
Shakespeare.
These are some tips to help you in your writing.
General
The ideal English text is easy to read and understand. Good writers usually use plain English
words. So your sentences should be simple, clear and well structured.
When writing, remember the following recommendations in mind:
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use simple language
use simple and clear sentences
write well structured paragraphs (with a topic sentences supporting details and a
concluding sentence)
you may use subordinate clauses but keep them short
prefer active voice to passive voice
avoid slang language.
Sentence
Make your sentences simple and clear.
A sentence always encloses a subject, a verb and , optionally, a complement.
Examples:
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she tells stories
She lies
A sentence may contain subordinate clauses (relative clauses, if clauses…)
Paragraph
As to paragraphs, keep the following rules in mind:
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Concentrate on one main point per paragraph. Summarize this point in the first sentence (
topic sentence.)
All sentences that follow support the main point or limit its scope (supporting sentences)
The last sentence is a summary of the main point of the paragraph and is used as a
transition to the next paragraph. (concluding sentence)
Text
The typical structure of a text is as follows:
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(title)
introduction
main part
conclusion
Make your texts interesting. Vary the lengths of your sentences. Use a short sentence to put
emphasis on an important statements. Vary the lengths of your paragraphs and avoid onesentence paragraphs.
There are various possibilities on how to structure your texts, e.g.:
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General to Specific:
general statement followed by details and examples
Specific to General:
details and examples followed by a generalization:
Known to Unknown:
provide new information based on what readers already know
Least Important to Most Important:
catch and keep readers' attention
Chronology (ordering by time):
e.g. in biographies
Process writing
Writing is a process. Famous successful writers follow these steps in their writing:
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Collecting the data
Organizing the data
Making an outline.
The first draft.
Editing.
Possible reassessment of the ideas (crossing out some ideas, introducing new ideas,
rearranging ideas…)
Final draft.
Type of texts
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Descriptive
Argumentative
Letters (personal and business letters)
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Cause and effects…
What is a topic sentence?
The topic sentence, also called a focus sentence, is the sentence which summarizes the
principal idea of the paragraph. Although topic sentences may appear anywhere in a paragraph,
it is usually the first sentence in that paragraph.
The topic sentence summarizes the main idea of the paragraph and adds cohesion to a paper and
helps organize ideas both within the paragraph and the whole body of work at large.
All the other sentences in a paragraph have to support the topic sentence by offering more
information or details about the topic. These sentences are called supporting sentences.
Example of a topic sentence
Louisiana hosts one of the most well known celebrations - Mardi Gras. Mardi Gras is French
for "Fat Tuesday". This holiday is sometimes called "Shrove Tuesday". People wear masks and
costumes, overturn social conventions, dance, organize competitions and parades. Related
popular practices were associated with celebrations before the fasting and religious obligations
associated with the penitential season of Lent.
The sentence "Louisiana hosts one of the most well known celebrations - Mardi Gras" is the
topic sentence of the paragraph. The other sentences give more information to support the topic
sentence.
Useful Academic Expressions
These are some useful expressions used in academic writing:
1. Stating your own position on a Subject or Topic
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This paper aims at...
This paper will be concerned with...
The aim of this paper is to…
The point of this article is to…
It shall be argued in this paper/essay/review that…
The view presented in this paper/essay/review is that..
2. Presenting your own point of view
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I strongly believe that...
To my mind...
As I see it....
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It seems to me evident/obvious that...
I feel that...
I think/contend that...
There are many reasons why…
It is important/necessary to point out that…
The first thing to be considered is…
It is a fact that…
3. Supporting your view and adding more information:
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The first/second reason why…is…
Firstly/Secondly...
not only ...but also...
The most important…
In addition, …
Furthermore, …
What is more, …
Another reason is …
A further point is …
4. Stating the view of Another Person on a Subject or Topic
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Harris's approch (1970, p. 1) can be described as follows...
Chomsky (1965, p. 133) maintains/argues/asserts/claims/points out that...
Th authors views ca be stated as follows...
The opinion of Chomsky (1965, p. 133) is that…
Chomsky (1965, p. 133)) has suggested that ….
According to Smith (1992, p. 123), …
It is thought by some theorists, for example, Chomsky (1965, p. 133) and Harris (1970, p.
1) that…
5. Agreeing with the Views of Others
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I don't agree with the authors ideas/thoughts...because...
I don't think the author's views are accurate...because...
Chomsky (1965, p. 133) is certainly/may be correct/accurate in saying that … because…
As Chomsky (1965, p. 133) says/states …
Like Chomsky (1965, p. 133), it can be agreed that …. because…
6. Disagreeing with the Views of Others
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Chomsky (1965, p. 133) fails to address the issue when he says "…" because …
When Chomsky (1965, p. 133) argues that …. his reasoning is questionable because….
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One of the main arguments against Chomsky (1965, p. 133) and Harris (1970, p. 1) is that
…
Harris (1970) approach/position/methods is/are somewhat
inadequate/inaccurate/insufficient because…
There is some doubt that…
7. Indicating a Lack of Knowledge in a Particular Topic or Subject
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Despite the book's attempts to... it lacks accuracy...
What I find lacking in the research is...
Although the research has tended to focus on…..rather less attention has been paid to…
Most studies, such as Harris (1970, p. 1) and Chomsky (1965, p. 133) have
emphasized/concentrated on/focused on inadequate /insufficient….
8. Drawing a Conclusion Using the Work of Others
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To sum up, ...
In a nutshell, ...
As a conclusion, ...
As a summary, ...
All in all, ...
To conclude, ...
Based on these authors, a connection can be made between…
It can be concluded from what Jones (2004, p. 2) and Smith (2002, p. 1) have stated
that... is …
When Smith‟s (2001, p.52) work/paper is looked at closely, it is seen that…
One outcome of Smith‟s (2001, p.52) work/paper/research is …
Remember that every clause is, in a sense, a miniature sentence. A simple sentences contains
only a single clause, while a compound sentence, a complex sentence, or a compound-complex
sentence contains at least two clauses.
The Simple Sentence
The most basic type of sentence is the simple sentence, which contains only one clause. A
simple sentence can be as short as one word:
Run!
Usually, however, the sentence has a subject as well as a predicate and both the subject and the
predicate may have modifiers. All of the following are simple sentences, because each contains
only one clause:
Melt!
Ice melts.
The ice melts quickly.
The ice on the river melts quickly under the warm March sun.
Lying exposed without its blanket of snow, the ice on the river melts quickly under the
warm March sun.
As you can see, a simple sentence can be quite long -- it is a mistake to think that you can tell a
simple sentence from a compound sentence or a complex sentence simply by its length.
The most natural sentence structure is the simple sentence: it is the first kind which children
learn to speak, and it remains by far the most common sentence in the spoken language of
people of all ages. In written work, simple sentences can be very effective for grabbing a
reader's attention or for summing up an argument, but you have to use them with care: too many
simple sentences can make your writing seem childish.
When you do use simple sentences, you should add transitional phrases to connect them to the
surrounding sentences.
The Compound Sentence
A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses (or simple sentences)
joined by co-ordinating conjunctions like "and," "but," and "or":
Simple
Canada is a rich country.
Simple
Still, it has many poor people.
Compound
Canada is a rich country, but still it has many poor people.
Compound sentences are very natural for English speakers -- small children learn to use them
early on to connect their ideas and to avoid pausing (and allowing an adult to interrupt):
Today at school Mr. Moore brought in his pet rabbit, and he showed it to the class, and I
got to pet it, and Kate held it, and we coloured pictures of it, and it ate part of my carrot at
lunch, and ...
Of course, this is an extreme example, but if you over-use compound sentences in written work,
your writing might seem immature.
A compound sentence is most effective when you use it to create a sense of balance or contrast
between two (or more) equally-important pieces of information:
Montéal has better clubs, but Toronto has better cinemas.
Special Cases of Compound Sentences
There are two special types of compound sentences which you might want to note. First, rather
than joining two simple sentences together, a co-ordinating conjunction sometimes joins two
complex sentences, or one simple sentence and one complex sentence. In this case, the sentence
is called a compound-complex sentence:
compound-complex
The package arrived in the morning, but the courier left before I could check the
contents.
The second special case involves punctuation. It is possible to join two originally separate
sentences into a compound sentence using a semicolon instead of a co-ordinating conjunction:
Sir John A. Macdonald had a serious drinking problem; when sober, however, he
could be a formidable foe in the House of Commons.
Usually, a conjunctive adverb like "however" or "consequently" will appear near the beginning
of the second part, but it is not required:
The sun rises in the east; it sets in the west.
The Complex Sentence
A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. Unlike
a compound sentence, however, a complex sentence contains clauses which are not equal.
Consider the following examples:
Simple
My friend invited me to a party. I do not want to go.
Compound
My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to go.
Complex
Although my friend invited me to a party, I do not want to go.
In the first example, there are two separate simple sentences: "My friend invited me to a party"
and "I do not want to go." The second example joins them together into a single sentence with
the co-ordinating conjunction "but," but both parts could still stand as independent sentences -they are entirely equal, and the reader cannot tell which is most important. In the third example,
however, the sentence has changed quite a bit: the first clause, "Although my friend invited me
to a party," has become incomplete, or a dependent clause.
A complex sentence is very different from a simple sentence or a compound sentence because it
makes clear which ideas are most important. When you write
My friend invited me to a party. I do not want to go.
or even
My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to go.
The reader will have trouble knowing which piece of information is most important to you.
When you write the subordinating conjunction "although" at the beginning of the first clause,
however, you make it clear that the fact that your friend invited you is less important than,
or subordinate, to the fact that you do not want to go.
Not all sentences make a single point -- compound sentences, especially, may present several
equally-important pieces of information -- but most of the time, when you write a sentence,
there is a single argument, statement, question, or command which you wish to get across.
When you are writing your sentences, do not bury your main point in the middle; instead, use
one of the positions of emphasis at the beginning or end of the sentence.
The Loose Sentence
If you put your main point at the beginning of a long sentence, you are writing a loose
sentence:
loose
I am willing to pay slightly higher taxes for the privilege of living in Canada,
considering the free health care, the cheap tuition fees, the low crime rate, the
comprehensive social programs, and the wonderful winters.
The main point of this sentence is that the writer prefers to live in Canada, and the writer makes
the point at the very beginning: everything which follows is simply extra information. When the
readers read about the free health care, the cheap tuition fees, the low crime rate, the
comprehensive social programs, and the wonderful winters, they will already know that these
are reasons for living in Canada, and as a result, they will be more likely to understand the
sentence on a first reading.
Loose sentences are the most natural for English speakers, who almost always talk in loose
sentences: even the most sophisticated English writers tend to use loose sentences much more
often than periodic sentences. While a periodic sentence can be useful for making an important
point or for a special dramatic effect, it is also much more difficult to read, and often requires
readers to go back and reread the sentence once they understand the main point.
Finally, it is important to remember that you have to structure a loose sentence as carefully as
you would structure a periodic sentence: it is very easy to lose control of a loose sentence so
that by the end the reader has forgotten what your main point was.
The Periodic Sentence
If your main point is at the end of a long sentence, you are writing a periodic sentence:
periodic
Considering the free health care, the cheap tuition fees, the low crime rate, the
comprehensive social programs, and the wonderful winters, I am willing to pay slightly
higher taxes for the privilege of living in Canada.
The main point of this sentence is that the writer prefers to live in Canada. At the beginning of
this sentence, the reader does not know what point the writer is going to make: what about the
free health care, cheap tuition fees, low crime rate, comprehensive social programs, and
wonderful winters? The reader has to read all of this information without knowing what the
conclusion will be.
The periodic sentence has become much rarer in formal English writing over the past hundred
years, and it has never been common in informal spoken English (outside of bad political
speeches). Still, it is a powerful rhetorical tool. An occasional periodic sentence is not only
dramatic but persuasive: even if the readers do not agree with your conclusion, they will read
your evidence first with open minds. If you use a loose sentence with hostile readers, the
readers will probably close their minds before considering any of your evidence.
Finally, it is important to remember that periodic sentences are like exclamatory sentences: used
once or twice in a piece of writing, they can be very effective; used any more than that, they can
make you sound dull and pompo
The Purpose of a Sentence
The other classifications in this chapter describe how you construct your sentences, but this last
set describes why you have written the sentences in the first place. Most sentences which you
write should simply state facts, conjectures, or arguments, but sometimes you will want to give
commands or ask questions.
The Declarative Sentence
The declarative sentence is the most important type. You can, and often will write entire
essays or reports using only declarative sentences, and you should always use them far more
often than any other type. A declarative sentence simply states a fact or argument, without
requiring either an answer or action from the reader. You punctuate your declarative sentences
with a simple period:
Ottawa is the capital of Canada.
The distinction between deconstruction and post-modernism eludes me.
He asked which path leads back to the lodge.
Note that the last example contains an indirect question, "which path leads back to the lodge."
An indirect question does not make a sentence into an interrogative sentence -- only a direct
question can do that.
The Interrogative Sentence
An interrogative sentence asks a direct question and always ends in a question mark:
Who can read this and not be moved?
How many roads must a man walk down?
Does money grow on trees?
Note that an indirect question does not make a sentence interrogative:
Direct/Interrogative
When was Lester Pearson prime minister?
Indirect/Declarative
I wonder when Lester Pearson was prime minister.
A direct question requires an answer from the reader, while an indirect question does not.
The Rhetorical Question
Normally, an essay or report will not contain many regular direct questions, since you are
writing it to present information or to make an argument. There is, however, a special type of
direct question called a rhetorical question -- that is, a question which you do not actually
expect the reader to answer:
Why did the War of 1812 take place? Some scholars argue that it was simply a land-grab
by the Americans ...
If you do not overuse them, rhetorical questions can be a very effective way to introduce new
topics or problems in the course of a paper; if you use them too often, however, you may sound
patronising and/or too much like a professor giving a mediocre lecture.
The Exclamatory Sentence
An exclamatory sentence, or exclamation, is simply a more forceful version of a declarative
sentence, marked at the end with an exclamation mark:
The butler did it!
How beautiful this river is!
Some towns in Upper Canada lost up to a third of their population during the cholera
epidemics of the early nineteenth century!
Exclamatory sentences are common in speech and (sometimes) in fiction, but over the last 200
years they have almost entirely disappeared from academic writing. You will (or should)
probably never use one in any sort of academic writing, except where you are quoting
something else directly. Note that an exclamation mark can also appear at the end of an
imperative sentence.
The Imperative Sentence
An imperative sentence gives a direct command to someone -- this type of sentence can end
either with a period or with an exclamation mark, depending on how forceful the command is:
Sit!
Read this book for tomorrow.
You should not usually use an exclamation mark with the word "please":
Wash the windows!
Please wash the windows.
Normally, you should not use imperative sentences in academic writing. When you do use an
imperative sentence, it should usually contain only a mild command, and thus, end with a
period:
Affect / Effect
Affect is a verb, for example “Sometimes, the weather affects my mood.”
Effect is a noun, for example “The effect of weather on ice cream sales is well documented.”
By thinking in terms of “the effect” you can usually determine whether to use affect or effect
since “the” will not work in front of a verb.
To add to the confusion, bear in mind that some people may use “effect” as a verb (for example
“Contractors seek to effect a settlement with strikers”) but this usage is slightly archaic and
most often used in legal writing.
Apostrophes
Apostrophes strike fear into the heart of many. However by learning a few simple rules, and the
inevitable exceptions, you should be able to use apostrophes with ease.
The apostrophe is used for a purpose, either to indicate a possession (implying ownership) or a
contraction (in place of other letters).
When Not to Use Apostrophes:
If the word is a plural then do not use an apostrophe (for example kittens or apostrophes).
Placing an apostrophe before the final s is universally considered incorrect and commonly
referred to as the “greengrocer‟s apostrophe” (or “greengrocers‟ apostrophe” if referring to
more than one greengrocer).
There are possible exceptions to these rule is if the word comprises a single letter, a number or
abbreviation where the simple addition of an s could cause confusion. Hence:
There are two t‟s in Matthew.
To write “There are two ts in Matthew” may confuse the reader even though it is grammatically
correct. Alternatively, you could rephrase this as “There are two “t”s in Matthew”.
However, the modern convention is to avoid using apostrophes in plurals wherever possible
even in the plural of numbers and abbreviations.
For example, “I keep buying DVDs” and “He loves 80s music” is preferable to adding an
apostrophe.
Could have / Should have / Would have
Even though we might pronounce “could‟ve” (a contraction of “could have”) as “could of” this
is incorrect. Always use could have / should have / would have.
It’s / Its
It‟s is a contraction of two words: it is or it has.
Its is possessive, like hers, his, and whose.
The confusion between it's and its occurs because on virtually every other word 's (apostrophe
+ s) indicates possession, so English speakers naturally want to use it's to mean "something
belonging to it."
But 'it's' is only used when it is a contraction of 'it is' or 'it has'.
If you are in doubt as to which version to use, try replacing the word with "it is" or "it has". If
this still scans correctly then use it‟s, otherwise, use its.
There / Their / They’re
There refers to a place or idea. An example of its use referring to place is “Look over there!”
An example of its use referring to an abstract idea is “There are many ways to skin a cat”.
Their is possessive meaning it owns something, for example “Their dog keeps getting into our
garden”.
They‟re is a contraction of “they are” (the apostrophe replaces the missing letter). An example
of its use is “They‟re moving in next door”.
There’s / Theirs
There‟s is a contraction of there is.
Theirs is the third person plural possessive pronoun and replaces “their + noun”. The idea that
theirs needs an apostrophe (hence “their‟s”) derives from the convention that, in virtually every
other word, „s (apostrophe + s) indicates possession. However, theirs is an exception and
“their‟s” is incorrect.
To / Too / Two
'To' has two functions. First, it is a preposition and always preceded a noun, hence:
I am going to the shops
This belongs to Mary
Second, 'to' indicates an infinitive when it preceded a verb, hence
I need to sleep
He wants to go for a walk
'Too' also has two uses, the first as a synonym for “also” hence:
Can I come too?
I think that‟s his bag too
Second, 'too' means excessively when it preceded an adjective or adverb hence:
I‟m too tired to go out
You‟re too generous
'Two' is a number as in one, two, three…
The most common confusion is between to and too. Try replacing the word with “also” or “as
well” and if the phrase makes sense then use too. Otherwise, and if not a number, then use to.
Frequently Misused Words
Decimate
Strictly, decimate means to reduce by one-tenth and not to reduce to one-tenth. However, this
usage is now increasingly common, and seems likely to become accepted.
Literally
Literally means actually or without exaggeration. When you say “I literally…” you are
describing something exactly as it happened and without exaggeration. If you were to say “I
literally died of boredom” you are implying you actually died and the use of “literally” is
therefore incorrect.
Lose / Loose
Lose is the opposite of win, whilst loose is the opposite of tight or contained.
Weather / Whether
Weather is usually a noun referring to the atmospheric conditions at a particular point in time
(What‟s the weather like there?) but is also a verb meaning “affected by the weather” (for
example Your fence has really weathered) or even as a figure of speech meaning to get through
or survive something (We weathered the crisis).
Whether is a conjunction that introduces alternatives, for example “Whether I win or lose…” or
“You do it whether you like it or not”. Whether is similar to “if”, so if you could replace the
word with “if” then use whether.
Choose the alternative you consider best by circling the corresponding answer option:
PASSAGE 1
[1]
1. A. NO CHANGE
If you asked most Americans what they
B. commercials they‟d, probably
thought about television commercials they’d C. commercials they‟d probably
probably1, roll their eyes.
D. commercials, they‟d probably
2. F. NO CHANGE
Many of us resent how commercials disrupt G. constantly interfere with,
as well as2 interrupt our favorite programs
H. break in on and
with messages about products in which we
J. OMIT the underlined portion.
have little interest. When commercials
3. A. NO CHANGE
B. or hitting
3
appear, we visit the refrigerator by hitting
C. or hit
the mute button or even switch channels.
D. hitting
4. F. NO CHANGE
[2]
When we actually sit and watch commercials,
we often find them to be silly.
If watched or not,4 commercials seem to work.
How is it that commercials can persuade us to
buy products which5 we react to their message
with such boredom, indifference, and even
scorn?
G. Even so,
H. Yes;
J. Looking at them,
5. A. NO CHANGE
B. products? When
C. products. When
D. products when
[3]
[1]Some psychologists argue that
commercials actually work best when we
aren‟t paying much attention. [2] When a
television viewer‟s mind is relaxed and
wandering6 they argue commercials have a
better chance of lodging their message
somewhere within, almost like a hypnotic
suggestion. [3] Attentive viewers, in
contrast, might respond so much more
critically that they are not found7 by the
advertising message persuasive. (8)
6. F. NO CHANGE
G. wandering; they argue,
H. wandering, they argue,
J. wandering they argue,
7. A. NO CHANGE
B. would not find
C. will not found
D. would not have found
8. The writer is considering adding the following
sentence to Paragraph 3:
Their idea, while initially seeming quite
illogical, makes more sense the more you
think about it.
If added, this sentence would most logically be placed:
F. before Sentence 1.
G. after Sentence 1.
H. after Sentence 2.
J. after Sentence 3.
[4]
Another theory suggests that if viewers need
a particular product, they will get an
automatic perk when a commercial
featuring that product comes on. Let‟s say,
for example, that my hair dryer seemed to
take forever to do its job. I would then,
presumably, start taking a closer look at
commercials showing hair dryers doing
there9 work properly.
[5]
A third theory has it that commercials work
via peer pressure, that the characters in
commercials are like people we know, and
that we respond to their familiarity. Thus,
no matter how silly we find a commercial,
we come away with the idea that people
who like what they know 10 and use the
products shown. Can it be that such peer
pressure can make us buy something we
never thought of owning? Who knows?
Perhaps we need to study television
commercials even more closely to see
which, if any, of the above theories are most
true.11
12. The writer has been asked to expand upon the
theory that we respond to commercials only if we
need a certain
product being advertised. If the writer follows this
suggestion, it would be logical to add such material
after Paragraph:
9.
A. NO CHANGE
B. its
C. it‟s
D. their
10. F. NO CHANGE
G. who are like what they know will
H. we know and like
J. who are like us and
11. A. NO CHANGE
B. true.
C. truly true.
D. truest.
12.
F. 1, because that paragraph introduces the
subject of this essay.
G. 2, because that paragraph shows how we
think of commercials as silly unless they appeal
directly to something in our lives.
H. 4, because the point of that paragraph is to
demonstrate how commercials work only if the
product interests us on a practical level.
J. 4, because hair dryers are something many
people use daily and they are also a product that
the essay tells us needs to be replaced
frequently.
PASSAGE 2
[1]
The cat has several characteristics that
makes it 13 an undeniably superior creature:
it is wild and cunning, it is an original
thinker, it can change shape of 14 will, and it
has an idiosyncratic sense of vision.
13. A. NO CHANGE
B. make it
C. make them
D. makes them
14. F. NO CHANGE
G. upon
H. at
J. with
[2]
First, it must be understood that there is no
such thing as a tame cat. Once cats in the
wild realized that they could be trained15 to
meet their needs, they allowed themselves
to become pets for humans, but in name
only. All cats (and some perceptive cat
owners) know who‟s really in charge.
[3]
An example of the cat‟s original thinking
is its conviction that although a straight line
may be the shortest path between two
points, that it16 is certainly not the best path.
(17)
Otherwise,18 a cat will take many interesting
detours before arriving at its destination.
[4]
Cats too19 have the advantage of natural
camouflage, becoming nearly invisible
when they flatten out. And, because they
consist of nothing but skin and fur only20
they can assume the shape of almost any
object, by 21curling and stretching, a cat can
easily become a footstool or a rug. (22)
15. A. NO CHANGE
B. it could be trained by humans
C. training was possible for humans
D. they could train humans
16.
F. NO CHANGE
G. points. That it
H. points, it
J. points. It
17. In the preceding sentence, the word best is italicized in
order to:
A. provide an example of the cat‟s original thinking.
B. clarify the distinction between best and path.
C. emphasize the distinction between best and
shortest.
D. contradict the point that cats take many detours.
18.
F. NO CHANGE
G. Consequently,
H. Nonetheless,
J. Similarly,
19. A. NO CHANGE
B. Cats, also,
C. Cats, too,
D. Cats also
20. F. NO CHANGE
G. fur only,
H. fur;
J. fur,
21. A. NO CHANGE
B. object. By
C. object by
D. object; and by
22. The reference to a footstool and a rug in the preceding
sentence is meant to be taken:
F. humorously and figuratively.
G. humorously and literally.
H. seriously and figuratively,
J. seriously and literally.
23.
A. NO CHANGE
B. there. Such as
C. there—such as,
D. there. Such as,
24.
F. NO CHANGE
G. dealings
H. matter
J. things
[5]
In addition, cats have highly developed
eyesight. Humans are wrong to accuse cats
of seeing things that are not there—such
as23 mice under the coffee table or birds in
the bedroom. No wonder people need
eyeglasses; they can‟t see half the doings 24
that make a cat‟s life so superior.
PASSAGE 3
25. A. NO CHANGE
B. rose
The dust storm raised 25 out of the west and C. raises
D. rises
rolled toward our rickety wooden house on 26. F. NO CHANGE
the prairie. At the peak of it‟s force, they 26 G. its force, they
H. it‟s force, the wind
J. its force, the wind
27. A. NO CHANGE
wrenched branches off the elms, 27 tore
B. elms;
C. elm‟s
sheets of corrugated tin off the barn roof,
D. elm‟s;
and caused the old house to creak and moan. 28. The word inside is used in this sentence to:
F. suggest movement from one scene to another.
Inside, Mother switched on a lamp to dispel G. indicate the passing of time.
H. ease the transition to a seemingly unrelated topic.
the gloom of the strange afternoon
darkness.(28)
Dust motes hung in the air while 29 her
breathing became labored. She draped a wet
washcloth over her face to make breathing
easier. My brother and I removed the
curtains from the windows and replaced
them with damp sheets. Meanwhile, 30 the
soggy sheets sagged from the weight of the
mud that clung to them. The floor was
covered with dirt, but when 31 we walked
across the linoleum, the soles of our shoes
made a rasping sound as though we were
walking on sandpaper. (32)
The wind blew and blew. As day passed
into night, we slept upright in our chairs,
more comfortable in our company than in
our beds. I dreamed (sometimes I have
nightmares)33 the storm would never end.
J. show that the rest of the passage will be told from
the mother‟s point of view.
29. A. NO CHANGE
B. air, because
C. air, and
D. air,
30. F. NO CHANGE
G. Within minutes,
H. Therefore
J. However
31. A. NO CHANGE
B. dirt when
C. dirt, when
D. dirt. When
32. Suppose the writer ended the preceding sentence
with
a rasping sound, deleting the final phrase. What effect
would the revision have on the sentence?
F. It would eliminate a comparison that helps the
reader imagine the sound being described.
G. It would eliminate evidence that the floor was
covered
with dirt.
H. It would reinforce the idea of how devastating the
storm was.
J. It would have no effect on the sentence.
33. A. NO CHANGE
B. (I sometimes have nightmares)
C. (I have nightmares sometimes)
D. OMIT the underlined portion.
34. F. NO CHANGE
G. But
H. So
J. Until
35. A. NO CHANGE
Only 34 the next morning we woke to a
crystal-blue, sky, 35 and a gentle breeze was
the only reminder of the wind that had
blown as fiercely yesterday. 36
B. crystal-blue, sky
C. crystal-blue sky,
D. crystal-blue sky
36. F. NO CHANGE
G. so fiercely yesterday.
H. as fiercely the day before.
J. so fiercely the day before.
PASSAGE 4
When Dr. H. Nelson Jackson went into and
entered 37the San Francisco University Club
in May of 1903, he had no aspirations to
become a motoring pioneer. (38)
And 39while he was there, he overheard club
members belittling the automobile. Jackson,
an ardent motorist who 40 responded by
betting that he could cross the continent by
car.
Jackson bought a Winton Motor Carriage
for the trip and chose as a traveling
companion a young mechanic named Sewell
Croker, whose skills would prove
invaluable to the success of the venture.
Jackson carefully stocked the car with
everything he thought they would need: 41
spare parts, tools, cooking utensils,
and camping gear. As the vehicle crawled
up the steep paths of the Sierra Nevadas and
pots 42 and pans fell out like dandruff 43
along the way, but backing up to retrieve
them was impossible.
As 44 the cyclometer fell off, Jackson and
Croker could no longer tell how fast
they were going or how far it had went.45
(46)
37. A. NO CHANGE
B. went into, entering
C. entered, going into
D. entered
38. If the phrase aspirations to become a motoring pioneer
were changed to idea what was about to happen, what
effect would the change have on the passage?
F. It would delay the introduction of the specific
topic of the passage.
G. It would create an appropriately ominous tone.
H. It would alert the reader to expect the surprise
ending.
J. It would make the author‟s opinion of Jackson
more clear.
39. A. NO CHANGE
B. But
C. So
D. Although
40. F. NO CHANGE
G. motorist, who
H. motorist
J. motorist,
41. A. NO CHANGE
B. will need:
C. would need,
D. will need,
42. F. NO CHANGE
G. Nevadas, pots
H. Nevadas. Pots
J. Nevadas, and pots
43. A. NO CHANGE
B. like raindrops
C. like autumn leaves
D. OMIT the underlined portion.
44. F. NO CHANGE
G. Then
H. When
J. Later
45. A. NO CHANGE
B. they had went.
C. they had gone.
D. it had gone.
46. Should the writer define the word cyclometer for
Their most valuable piece of equipment
proved to be the block and tackle they used
to pull the car from mudholes and
cranking47 it up steep ascents.
readers who may not know what it means?
F. Yes, because it is a technical term unfamiliar to
most readers.
G. Yes, because words can have more than one
meaning.
H. No, because its meaning is clear in the context of
the sentence.
J. No, because it was defined earlier in the paragraph.
47. A. NO CHANGE
B. cranked
C. cranks
D. crank
48. How would the conclusion of the passage
The trip took sixty-three days, covered
change if the reference to Jackson‟s arrest were
6,000 miles, and was punctuated by
deleted?
hundreds of flat tires. After its successful
F. It would be less humorous.
conclusion, Jackson returned to his
G. It would me more ironic.
hometown of Burlington, Vermont, where
H. It would be more sarcastic.
he was arrested a few months later for
J. It would be less serious.
exceeding the city‟s speed limit of six miles
an hour. (48)
PASSAGE 5
Being 49 June of 1987, I traveled to Italy for
a week‟s vacation. As I boarded the plane,
made my travel arrangements, and packed
my bags, 50 I frequently thought (to
myself)51 of my Italian 52 grandmother‟s
advice to “see Rome and then die.” It was
hard to believe I was actually fulfilling the
dream we had so often discussed.
When I arrived at the Rome airport, a
feeling of excitement flowed through me as
I realized I am53 in the city of my dreams.
The sounds of the musical Italian language
spoken by the attendants at the airport
signaled that I was, at last, in the country of
49. A. NO CHANGE
B. Being that it was
C. In the month of
D. In
50. F. NO CHANGE
G. boarded the plane, packed my bags, and made my
travel arrangements,
H. packed my bags, boarded the plane, and made my
travel arrangements,
J. made my travel arrangements, packed my bags,
and boarded the plane,
51. A. NO CHANGE
B. to myself
C. myself
D. OMIT the underlined portion.
52. Which of the following would be most appropriate to
the subject of the passage?
F. NO CHANGE
G. old
H. dear
J. OMIT the underlined portion.
53.
A. NO CHANGE
B. was
C. will be
D. had been
54.
F. NO CHANGE
G. Although
H. If
J. OMIT the underlined portion.
my ancestors. When 54 I spoke choppy
Italian, I decided to greet the attendants
using it anyway. They looked astonished.
What had I said? Had I offended them?
But then they smiled, their looks turning to
recognition, then to understanding. They
shook my hand vigorously and, picking up
55. In the preceding sentence, the writer is
considering omitting the word vigorously. What
would be the effect of this change?
A. It would strengthen the sense of astonishment
expressed by the attendants.
B. It would lessen the sense of welcome in the
attendants‟ shaking the narrator‟s hand.
C. It would be unclear why the attendants picked up
the narrator‟s bags.
D. There would be no effect because the word adds
no significant information to the sen
my bags, helped me find the train into
the heart of the city. (55)
Bafflement at my pronunciation of Italian
and gestures of welcome typical 56 were
reactions of the Italians during my first few
days in Rome. But everywhere I went I was
immersed in friendly conversation. Within
the week I was speaking with a Roman
accent. I felt so at ease during my stay in
Italy that, 57 aboard the plane on my way
home 58 I wasn‟t exactly sure where “home”
really was. (59) (60)
56. F. NO CHANGE
G. (Place before reactions)
H. (Place before during)
J. (Place before first)
57. A. NO CHANGE
B. because,
C. then,
D. OMIT the underlined portion.
58. F. NO CHANGE
G. home—
H. home,
J. home.
59. In the final sentence, the word home is in quotation
marks to indicate that the word:
A. has become ambiguous in meaning for the writer.
B. has been used before in the sentence.
C. was originally a foreign word.
D. is being used sarcastically.
60. Is the writer‟s use of the pronoun “I” appropriate in
the
passage?
F. No, because as a rule one avoids “I” in personal
writing.
G. No, because it weakens the passage‟s focus on
Rome.
H. Yes, because the experience related is a personal
experience.
J. Yes, because as a rule “I” is appropriate in any
writing
PASSAGE 6
On December 17, 1903, Orville Wright
fulfilled one of humanity‟s fondest dreams:
he flew.
Although the flight lasted only twelve
seconds, it eventually made Wright famous
for 61 the first person to fly a powered craft
heavier than air. At the time,
consequently,62 few newspapers reported
the event, and none realized that the age of
aviation began.63
61. A. NO CHANGE
B. as being
C. for being
D. to be
62. F. NO CHANGE
G. then,
H. therefore,
J. however,
63. A. NO CHANGE
B. age, of aviation, began.
C. age of aviation had begun.
D. age, of aviation, had begun.
Although airplanes were used in World War I,
during the two decades following Orville Wright‟s
flight, “flying machines” were generally considered
novelties, devices64 for either daredevils or
acrobats. Aviation advanced significantly in 1927
when a young pilot, Charles Lindbergh, made the
first nonstop flight from New York to Paris and
unlike 65 Wright‟s earlier performance, Lindbergh‟s
was universally acclaimed and made him an instant
64.
F. NO CHANGE
G. novelties devices
H. novelty‟s, devices
J. novelty‟s. Devices
65.
A. NO CHANGE
B. Paris, unlike
C. Paris. Unlike
D. Paris unlike
hero.
The major acceleration in aircraft development,
however, came with World War II: when new 66
levels of performance and utility were demanded
by pilots, who were eager to control the air and
defeat the enemy. (67)
Extraordinary improvements ensued in aircraft size,
speed, and range. More dramatically,67 advances in
jet propulsion would lead to the development of
today‟s intercontinental missiles and orbiting
satellites.
Few human endeavors have progressed as
rapidly as with aviation.69 In 1903, Orville
66. F. NO CHANGE
G. II. When new
H. II, new
J. II. New
67. If the writer were to omit the phrase who were eager
to control the air and defeat the enemy and end the
sentence with pilots, what effect would the change have
on the sentence?
A. It would not be explicitly clear why these pilots
demanded new levels of performance and utility.
B. It would emphasize more the importance of airplanes
during World War II.
C. It would make unclear whether performance or utility
was more important for the pilots.
D. It would have no effect because the phrase adds no
significant information to the sentence.
68. F. NO CHANGE
G. More to the point,
H. In conclusion,
J. In short,
69. A. NO CHANGE
B. aviation has.
C. aviation is.
D. had aviation.
Wright could hardly have imagined that his
flying machine would evolve,70 in just
sixty-six years into71 a powerful vehicle
capable of carrying people to the moon.(72)
70. F. NO CHANGE
G. had evolved,
H. has evolved,
J. will have evolved,
71. A. NO CHANGE
B. years, into
C. years to
D. years, to
72. Which of the following sentences would provide the
best introduction to this passage?
F. An event that would profoundly affect the course
of aviation history received little attention when it
occurred.
G. Orville Wright, the first person to fly, was born on
August 19, 1871, in Dayton, Ohio.
H. The Wright brothers designed their airplane by
watching buzzards fly.
J. Many aviation pioneers were ridiculed for
believing that people would someday fly.