CENTRAL
CENTRAL AMERICAN
AMERICAN
ECOSYSTEMS
ECOSYSTEMS MAP
MAP
Belize
Volume
Volume II
J.
J. C.
C. Meerman
Meerman &
& W.
W. Sabido
Sabido
2001
2001
J.C. Meerman & W. Sabido
2001
Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
Volume I
2001 - Programme for Belize, 1 Eyre Street, Belize City, Belize
Meerman & Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
Volume I
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Volume I
Section I: Technical Report
1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1
2. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
1
3. INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES
2
4. PROJECT EXECUTION AND INSTITUTIONAL PARTICIPATION
2
5. STATE OF BELIZE'S BIOLOGICAL DATA COLLECTING AND
ECOSYSTEM MAPPING TO DATE
3
6. THE BELIZE ECOSYSTEMS MAPPING PROJECT
5
a. Team
5
b. Objectives
5
7. METHODOLOGY
7
a. The UNESCO classification system
7
b. Workshops
9
c. ancillary data
10
d. Imagery Used In The Project
11
e. Methods Used For Image Interpretation
11
f. Field Methodology
12
g. Post-Fieldwork Exercises
12
8. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
a. UNESCO Classes Identified
9. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
13
15
15
a. Availability of the data
15
b. Follow Up
15
Section II: Belize Ecosystems Map
10. BELIZE INTRODUCTION
16
a. Forest fires in Belize
18
11. LITERATURE
22
Volume II
ECOSYSTEM MAP AND DESCRIPTIONS
How to interpret the ecosystem description tables
Descriptions
Meerman & Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
1
2-88
Volume I
List of Tables
Table 1: Preparatory workshops
9
Table 2. Broad Ecosystem Classes by Cover
13
List of figures
Figure 1. Satellite coverage
11
Figure 2. Broad Ecosystem Classes in Belize
14
Figure 3. Average Monthly Rainfall from North to South Belize
16
Figure 4. Altitude in Belize
17
Figure 5. Fire in Tropical evergreen seasonal broadleaf hill forest over calcareous
soils in the Cayo district. May 2000. Picture: J. C. Meerman
18
Figure 6. Pine forest in the Mountain Pine Ridge after fire in May 2000
19
Figure 7. Fires in and around Belize in May 1998
20
Figure 8. Fire risk in Belizean Ecosystems
21
Figure 9. Ecosystems of Northern Belize 1:750.000
Volume II
1
Figure 10. Ecosystems of Southern Belize 1:750.000
Volume II
2
List Of Acronyms
BEnCo = Belize Environmental Consulting Ltd.
CCAD = Comisión Centroamericana de Ambiente y Desarrollo
GEF = Global Environmental Fund
GIS = Geographic Information System
GPS = Global Positioning System
ODA = Overseas Development Administration
TM = Thematic Mapper
TFAP = Tropical Forestry Action Plan
UNDP = United Nations Development Project
UNESCO = United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
WICE = World Institute for Conservation and Environment
Meerman & Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
Volume I
Page 1
Section I: Technical Report
1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The “Central America Ecosystems Mapping Project.” is part of a larger project
commissioned by The World Bank and the Government of the Netherlands to undertake a
series of regional activities throughout Central America. For its execution the World Bank
has sought the integration of the funding into its portfolio with the CCAD. As a result, the
current project has become a joint venture between the CCAD, the World Bank and the
Dutch Government.
Furthermore, it has obtained co-financing from the Regional
UNDP/GEF project
The primary objective of the “Central American Ecosystems Map” was to create a
ecosystems map on the scale of 1:250,000 for the region using a uniform methodology and
nomenclature. The objective of the Belizean section of the project was to update and
correct where necessary the vegetation map produced by Iremonger and Brokaw (1995),
and to adapt the classification nomenclature conform the UNESCO classification.
Specifically, the nomenclature was to follow guidelines set aside by The Central American
Ecosystems Mapping project manager in order to make comparison possible with the similar
efforts in the other Central American countries.
The current product differs from these earlier classification in that the broader divisions in
the hierarchy are based first on vegetation structure (forest, scrub, herbaceous), followed by
seasonality, altitudinal aspects, vegetation type (broadleaf, needle-leaf, palm), ground-water
regime and ultimately underlying geology and soil.
A total of 85 terrestrial ecosystems were identified for Belize. In addition, two marine
ecosystems (sea grass beds and coral reefs) were identified and mapped. Agriculture was
identified as a land use and subdivided in 7 different subclasses including aquaculture and
forest plantations. An attempt was made to distinguish between mechanized agriculture and
subsistence/shifting cultivation types of agriculture but this could not be carried out to the full
extend due to difficulties in the interpretation of the available satellite imagery. Areas of
secondary growth with short rotation shifting cultivation were indiscriminately mapped as
either “agriculture” or “shifting cultivation”.
The identified ecosystems all find their roots in the 1995 classification by Iremonger and
Brokaw. Principally, the classification used in this report was adapted to the UNESCO
classification adopted by the current project. Also an altitudinal component was introduced,
distinguishing between lowland vegetation types (< 500 m), submontane (500 – 1000 m)
and montane (> 1000 m) vegetation types.
2. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Belize project was carried out with the institutional support of Programme for Belize.
Nick Brokaw, Susan Iremonger, Betsy Malory, Alain Meyrat and Daan Vreugdenhil provided
valuable comments to draft versions of the ecosystems map and the vegetation
classification.
Meerman & Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
Section 2: Belize Introduction
Page 2
3. INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES
The “Central America Ecosystems Mapping Project.” is part of a larger project
commissioned by The World Bank and the Government of the Netherlands to
undertake a series of regional activities throughout Central America. For its
execution the World Bank has sought the integration of the funding into its portfolio
with the CCAD. As a result, the current project has become a joint venture between
the CCAD, the World Bank and the Dutch Government. Furthermore, it has sought
and obtained co-financing from the Regional UNDP/GEF project
The primary objective of the “Central American Ecosystems Map” was to create a
ecosystems map on the scale of 1:250,000 for the region using a uniform
methodology and nomenclature. This overall objective includes a variety of specific
objectives such as providing an information source for:
•
Identification of the biological hot spots of the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor;
•
Prioritization of its protected areas and assess their state of conservation;
•
Performance of Gap analyses;
•
Development of National Conservation Strategies;
•
Exchangeable monitoring data collection;
•
Environmental impact assessments;
•
Enhancement of a better scientific understanding of the ecology of the region
among national and international scientists;
•
Creation of a baseline for further ecological studies and biodiversity monitoring.
An ecosystem is the complex of living organisms, their physical environment, and all
their interrelationships in a particular unit of space. Since vegetation patterns are at
the base of the biological environment. Vegetation patterns have been chosen as
“proxy” for ecosystems (Vreugdenhill et all. In Press)
4. PROJECT EXECUTION AND INSTITUTIONAL PARTICIPATION
As a first step, the CCAD/World Bank selected a team of specialists, consisting of an
international coordinator and experienced international scientists with a long history
of vegetation mapping and Geographic information systems application in the region.
In each country, the responsible authorities for biodiversity conservation and/or
mapping were contacted. In the case of Belize the responsible authority was the
Land Information Center (LIC).
Production options were discussed with the national authorities, and in each country
collaborating scientists from national universities or other institutions were contacted.
National production teams were established, each consisting of national scientists
supported by a small team of international scientists. As lead institution for Belize,
the NGO Programme for Belize came forward.
Meerman & Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
Section 2: Belize Introduction
Page 3
5. STATE OF BELIZE'S BIOLOGICAL DATA COLLECTING AND ECOSYSTEM
MAPPING TO DATE
The history of collecting in Belize is being described in detail by both Balick et al.
(2001) and Brokaw (in press). As described by these two authors, plant collecting in
Belize for scientific purposes took a slow start in the nineteenth century. In the years
1905-1907 Morton Peck collected for Harvard University. His grass collections
indicated the West Indian affinities of Belize's flora (Bartlett 1932). The next serious
collectors included Samuel Record in 1926, Cyrus Lundell in 1928-1929, and J. S.
Karling in 1928. William A. Schipp was an especially important early collector. He
collected in Belize from 1929 to 1937 and sent most of his specimens to Paul
Standley, at the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago. Percy Gentle, a
Belizean, collected from 1931 to 1958, amassing nearly 10,000 specimens, the
largest number from different individual plants of any botanist in Belize. Many other
botanists have collected in Belize (Spellman et al. 1975), but especially important
were collectors from the Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, where the best
collection of Belize plants is housed. In-country collections include the Herbarium of
the Forest Department, Ministry of Natural Resources, Belmopan and the Herbarium
of the Belize Collage of Agriculture in Central Farm.
The first formal flora was Standley and Record's The Forests and Flora of British
Honduras (1936). Beginning in 1946, volumes of the Flora of Guatemala began
appearing and were intended to include all species known in Belize. From these and
other sources, Spellman et al. (1975) listed the dicotylodons, Dwyer and Spellman
(1981) the monocotylodons, and Hartshorn et al. (1984) the trees of Belize.
Currently, the massive, gradually issued, Flora Mesoamerica will include Belize
species, while the most recent compilation is that of Balick et al. (2001): Checklist of
the Vascular Plants of Belize.
Numerous authors have presented species lists for local areas or study plots in
Belize. Some of these areas include the Vaca Plateau and Mountain Pine Ridge
(Lundell 1940), Lamanai Archaeological Reserve (Lambert and Arnason 1978),
Raspaculo (Brokaw 1991), Caracol (Brokaw 1992), Rio Bravo Conservation and
Management Area (Brokaw and Mallory 1992), Shipstern Nature Reserve (Meerman
1993, Bijleveld 1998), Columbia River Forest Reserve (Holst 1993a, 1993b, in press,
Smith 1995), Bladen Nature Reserve (Iremonger & Sayre 1994, Iremonger et al.
1995, Brokaw et al. 1997), Monkey River Special Development Area (Meerman,
1995a) and the area near Belize's highest elevation, informally known as Doyle's
Delight (Allen, 1995).
The first description of vegetation types in Belize is by Morris (1883). In his book,
The Colony of British Honduras, he described three forest types: "pine ridge",
characterized by Pinus caribaea; "broken ridge", a broadleaf forest of particularly
uneven canopy; and "cohune ridge", a broadleaf forest with many tall Attalea cohune
palms. The term "ridge" means forest in Belize and implies nothing topographical.
Hummel (1925) and Burdon (1932) also described Belize's forest vegetation. In
1928, Stevenson, divided Belize's vegetation into five main classes (with
subclasses): 1) mangroves, 2) savannas (wet and dry), 3) pine forests, 4) primary
rain forests (swamp, intermediate, advanced, mountain), and 5) secondary rain
forests. This work was the base for the vegetation map published by the Surveyor
Meerman & Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
Section 2: Belize Introduction
Page 4
General's Department, British Honduras (1933). The scale was very fine in some
places. This map appears to have been re-published at least three times, each time
altered according to the author' s interpretations and intentions rather than on the
basis of substantial new information.
Standley and Record (1936) provided fuller descriptions of Stevenson's five classes.
These efforts, however, certainly did not do justice to the variety of vegetation types
in Belize. Lundell (1934) was the first to classify regional vegetation. He reviewed the
whole of the Yucatan Peninsula (south to Sibun River). Using physiographic and
climatic variables he divided the vegetation of the Yucatan Peninsula into five
regions. The monumental The Vegetation of Peten (Lundell 1937), concerning the
department of Guatemala that borders Belize, is not about Belize, but its detailed
qualitative descriptions of different vegetation types, including physiognomy,
species, successional processes, and topography-soil-vegetation relationships, are
useful for Belize. Lundell adopted the locally used system in which a vegetation type
was named by adding "al" to the name of a dominant species, for example, Tacistal
where the Taciste or Palmetto palm (Acoelorraphe wrightii) was common.
Stevenson (1938) recognized the strong links among soils, moisture, and vegetation,
and his work contains geology, topography, rainfall, and simple vegetation maps of
Belize. Building upon Stevenson’s work, Charles Wright, D. H. Romley, R. H.
Arbuckle, and V. E. Vial published their great landmark of Belizean plant ecology:
Land in British Honduras (1959). Its goal was to describe the agricultural potential of
Belize. This volume contains an amazing amount of information, maps and
diagrams, all based on intimate acquaintance with Belize. Following earlier workers,
Wright et al. (1959) emphasized the importance of soil-moisture-plant relationships,
and they thoroughly discussed and illustrated the geology, soils, and climate of the
country. They contributed so much to plant ecology because they used natural
vegetation to indicate agricultural potential, and thus took great pains to describe,
classify, interpret, and map Belize's vegetation types. To get a systematic view of the
distribution and relationships among topography, soil, and vegetation, Wright and his
colleagues made cross-country traverses on foot, and they analyzed aerial
photographs. Wright et al. (1959) divided the vegetation of Belize in 18 main classes,
which, with sub-classes, amounted to a total of 77 varieties. Each of these 77 types
was described in terms of characteristic height, dominant species and plant growth
form, and soil type and moisture. The accompanying map, based on ground
traverses and aerial photographs, was finely detailed. Since the goal was to illustrate
potential natural vegetation as an indicator of agricultural potential, cultivated areas
were not shown.
King et al. (1986, 1989, 1992) described and mapped the landsystems of Belize.
Although not specifically a vegetation map, the descriptions provided vegetation
characteristics for each landsystem.
The following vegetation classification scheme and map was devised by Iremonger
and Brokaw (1995). The purpose of this new vegetation classification was mainly to
determine which vegetation types were under- or poorly-represented in Belize's
system of protected areas. They used contemporary terminology and took concepts
from the classification system adopted by UNESCO (Mueller-Dombois & Ellenberg
1974), while relying heavily on Wright et al. (1959). The result was 51 vegetation
Meerman & Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
Section 2: Belize Introduction
Page 5
types. Each was described in terms of height and dominant plant life form and
species, with soil descriptions from Wright et al. (1959). The map was based on the
1959 map plus satellite imagery and detailed information for some local areas.
Developed for use in conservation planning, it showed actual, not potential,
vegetation, as well as cultivated and urban areas. The boundaries of protected areas
were overlaid on this map, enabling the planners to calculate with GIS the amount of
each vegetation type that was protected.
6. THE BELIZE ECOSYSTEMS MAPPING PROJECT
a) Team
The project was executed by Programme for Belize which assigned the following
team:
Jan C. Meerman: Consultant with BEnCo, Wice, Belize. Who as lead consultant,
developed the new vegetation classification transformed the Iremonger and
Brokaw (1995) nomenclature to the UNESCO nomenclature as had been
adapted for the Central American Ecosystems Mapping Project. The lead
consultant also developed country specific descriptions for each ecosystem,
again based on the Iremonger and Brokaw (1995) descriptions but expanded
with information from other literature sources and own observations.
Wilber Sabido: Programme for Belize representative. GIS manipulation and
digitizing. Implemented adaptations and corrections to the ecosystems map
using an ArcView 3.1. platform.
Marydelene Vasquez: Independent consultant. Landsat TM image manipulation.
Roger Wilson: Independent consultant. General resource assistance.
b) Objectives
The objective of the Belizean section of the CCAD/World Bank Central American
Ecosystems Mapping Project was to update and correct where necessary the
vegetation map produced by Iremonger and Brokaw (1995), and to adapt the
classification nomenclature conform the UNESCO classification. Specifically, the
nomenclature was to follow guidelines set aside by The Central American
Ecosystems Mapping project manager in order to make comparison possible with
similar effort in the other Central American countries.
As a consequence of the decision to update and review rather than create a new
product from scratch, both the Iremonger and Brokaw map and classification system
became the basis for the current project. In addition, the older vegetation map and
classification system by Wright et al. (1959) was used as cross-reference. The
current product differs from these earlier classification in that the broader divisions in
the hierarchy are based first on vegetation structure (forest, scrub, herbaceous
communities), followed by seasonality, altitudinal aspects, vegetation type
(broadleaf, needle-leaf, palm), ground-water regime and ultimately underlying
geology and soil.
Meerman & Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
Section 2: Belize Introduction
Page 6
A great number of publications and reports, many of which considered “gray
literature” were used to verify, correct and describe the vegetation types recognized.
All these references are listed in the literature section of the current report.
In the descriptions for the individual vegetation types, an attempt was made to list
plant species frequently found in these vegetation types. This does not necessarily
imply that these species are indicative for these vegetation types. The differences
between vegetation types is certainly mainly in the structure of the vegetation and in
relative abundance of the species constituting the community, rather than in outright
presence or absence of particular species. The Cohune Palm Attalea cohune, for
example, appears more dependent on well-drained soils, regardless of whether they
are neutral or acid, while the Trumpet Tree Cecropia peltata depends upon light
gaps and soil disturbance. Black Poisonwood Metopium brownei is very abundant on
karst limestone hills but can also be abundant on acidic savannahs, while in the
north of Belize it is abundant in flat lowlands over limestone. Santa Maria
Calophyllum brasiliense is present in most forest habitats although it reaches highest
density on acidic soils. The Mahogany Swietenia macrophylla is noticeably most
abundant on limestone soils but is not strictly dependent on these and its abundance
tends to reflect past disturbance history.
Meerman & Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
Section 2: Belize Introduction
Page 7
7. METHODOLOGY
a) The UNESCO classification system
The methodology adopted by UNESCO (Mueller-Dombois & Ellenberg, 1974,
hereafter referred to as "UNESCO", ANNEX A), has been extensively used on all
continents and by many different scientists in the world. It is a physiognomic
vegetation classification system that categorizes vegetation structures as observed
in the field. This system has the advantage of being relatively intuitive, globally
applicable and its hierarchical structure.
Physiognomic classes or formations describe the dominant above the ground (or
above the water bottom) woody and herbaceous plants in combination with a variety
of biological criteria, such as leaf form, and seasonal characteristics. The system
allows for specifying ecological details, such as climate, geological formations,
elevation, soils, moisture. This system is species independent but in this project we
have added biogeographic distribution, as well as associating or characterizing
species, where this seemed appropriate.
Over the past decades, The UNESCO classification system for the identification and
description of vegetation classes has proved to be easily applicable in the field. The
system can be readily learned even by relatively inexperienced biologists. It has
been proven suitable for the interpretation of aerial photographs, and more recently,
it turned out to be a workable system in combination with GIS applications and
satellite images. When analyzing the system, it had all signs that it was technically
an appropriate classification system for mapping vegetation formations in the tropics
of Central America. The question remained if it would be suitable to geographically
differentiate sets of species in such a way that a representation/gap analysis could
be realized that would capture the vast majority of species for each participating
countries.
Although considered by many to be merely a vegetation classification system,
Mueller-Dombois & Ellenberg (1974) considered the UNESCO system to be further
reaching than that, and called it: "Tentative Physiognomic-Ecological Classification
of Plant Formations of the Earth" (see annex A). The system includes both purely
physiognomic characteristics of the vegetation, as well as typical ecological
parameters such as climate, drainage, swamp/wetland, salinity and
geomorphological conditions. For bare soils without any vegetation at all, the authors
suggest to use a classification according to geo-morphological criteria, but they do
not elaborate it. For open water systems the system offers no classification solution.
Direct faunistic information is not taken into account. The system's main parameters
are briefly reviewed in the following paragraphs:
Meerman & Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
Section 2: Belize Introduction
Page 8
The first level in the hierarchy is listed with a roman number; it classifies the main
vegetation cover – ecosystem classes:
I. CLOSED FORESTS, formed by trees at least 5 m tall with their crowns
interlocking, covering 65% of the sky or more
II.
WOODLANDS. (Open stands of trees). Formed by trees at least 5 m
tall, with most of their crowns not touching each other, but covering at
least 30% of the sky; (In the Central American Ecosystem Mapping
Project it was decided not to use this formation).
III.
SHRUBLANDS, Mainly composed of woody phanerophytes (bushes or
small trees) 0,5—5 m tall. Crowns may be touching, but covering at
least 30% of the sky;
IV.
DWARF-SCRUB AND RELATED COMMUNITIES, rarely exceeding
50 cm in height (sometimes called heaths or heath-like formations.);
V.
TERRESTRIAL HERBACEOUS COMMUNITIES. Grasses, graminoid
and other herbaceous plants are predominant in the cover, but woody
plants (trees or shrubs) may be present, but not covering more than
30%. (Within this category, savannas, steppes or prairies are
described. It is important to note that those classes do not refer to
geomorphological conditions. Savannas or prairies may be flat, hilly or
steep terrains with a predominantly herbaceous community);
VI.
DESERTS AND OTHER SCARCELY VEGETATED AREAS. Bare
mineral soil or rocks determine the aspect more or less constantly.
Plants are scattered or may be absent (Sub-deserts are included in the
formation classes III to V);
VII.
AQUATIC PLANT FORMATIONS, (except marine formations),
composed of rooted and (or) floating plants that endure or need water
covering the soil constantly or at most times of the year.
For the ecosystems not covered under the above classes we constructed the
Class “S” with:
SA
for AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS (for those ecosystems not directly
covered under class VII).
SP
for PRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS (Agriculture)
U
for URBAN areas
The level of detail chosen for the mapping project was to coincide with the
topographic maps of the respective countries, in the case of Belize 1:250,000. The
authors of the UNESCO system state that it was designed for a level of detail
1:1,000,000. This statement appears to be on the very modest side, given that it
lists formations that usually are of a size that can only be mapped at scales finer
than 1:50,000, such as "flushes", various "forb" communities, screes and rooted
floating leaves communities. The system provides ample detail for the scale chosen
Meerman & Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
Section 2: Belize Introduction
Page 9
in this study. Nevertheless, it should be borne in mind that the current map was
designed for a scale no finer than 1:250,000 !
b) Workshops
Ecosystems mapping is a science of biologists. It involves vegetation science,
vegetation ecology, integral ecology, biogeography, aquatic ecology, etc. It requires
such information and tools as:
•
remotely sensed images and/or aerial photographs
•
ancillary information, such as topographic and thematic maps and
published information
•
drawing and writing materials such as pens, paper, word processors and
GIS
•
analytical software, such as GIS and databases.
Table 1: Preparatory workshops
Dates
26 – 28 April,
1999
Place
La Selva, Costa Rica
Attended by Wilber
Sabido and Jan
Meerman
25 May –
2 June, 1999
Las Cruces, Costa
Rica Attended by
Wilber Sabido and
Jan Meerman
28 September,
1999
Guatemala City,
Guatemala Attended
by Wilber Sabido
29 November –
1 December,
2000
Managua, Nicaragua
Attended by Wilber
Sabido and Jan
Meerman
Topics
Selection of methodology
with the lead members of
the country teams and the
representatives of
governmental institutions
for biodiversity
conservation
Training course for lead
specialists of country
teams.
SICA-CCAD / World Bank
meeting entitled
"International Workshop on
the Central America
Ecosystems Map"
Final revision of integrated
map and final document
Results
Specialists agreement on
application of the UNESCO
classification method.
UNESCO vegetation
classification methodology,
Satellite image
interpretation, basics of
GIS, vegetation plot
analysis, database
management
Official approval on
methodology.
Corrections applied to the
draft maps
The selection of the sciences and production materials used depends on the
purpose of the map. Nowadays, equipment for mapmaking has become very
complex because of computers and their software applications. Often, scientists
need support of highly specialized computer administrators and software managers
(GIS, databases). However, no scientific study can be performed unless the very
Meerman & Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
Section 2: Belize Introduction
Page 10
scientist that specializes in the field of the study to be performed, leads the process
from the beginning until the end.
To be able to do so, all the scientists - and along with them the application related
government officials - needed to be trained in the use of the new tools, such as
remotely sensed images and the basics of GIS applications. The scientists also
needed to agree on a joint methodology and exchange experiences in the field. To
achieve all this, the Central American Ecosystem Mapping project organized a series
of workshops, as well as on the job training and guidance throughout the project.
The preparation of the map involved a total of 4 principal workshops held during the
course of the mapping process. The dates and topics are listed in Table 1.
c) ancillary data
By design, the project intended to review the Iremonger and Brokaw (1995)
vegetation map and classification system. Consequently, both these products were
the basis for the current project. In addition, the older vegetation map and
classification system by Wright et al. (1959) was used as cross-reference. A great
number of publications and reports, many of which considered “gray literature” were
used to verify, correct and describe the vegetation types recognized. All these
references are listed in the literature section of the current report.
Meerman & Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
Section 2: Belize Introduction
Page 11
d) Imagery Used In The Project
A number of Landsat TM images was provided by the project:
Landsat TM Path 19 Row 47 4-XII-1998 in Erdas v7.4 format (Bands 374)
Landsat TM Path 19 Row 48 15-IX-1998 in Erdas v7.4 format (Bands 374)
Landsat TM Path 19 Row 49 12-XII-1998 in Erdas v7.4 format (Bands 374)
Landsat TM Path 19 Row 49 19-II-1999 in Erdas v7.4 format (Bands 453)
Landsat TM Path 19 Row 49 17-V-1996 in Erdas v7.4 format Bands 453)
Landsat TM Path 19 Row 48 15-IX-1998 in Erdas v7.4 format (Bands 453)
Figure 1.
Satellite
coverage
The first four images
could not be georeferenced and were
of
general
low
quality. Mainly as a
result of heavy cloud
cover. As a result,
only for the NorthWestern
and
Southern
most
sections of Belize
were
adequate
images available (fig
1). For the remainder
- and majority - of the
country only a 1993
hardcopy
Landsat
TM composite at a
scale of 1:250.000
was available. This
copy was prepared
by DHV consultants
BV, Holland and
composed
of
spectral bands 4,5
and 3. For the
marine environment,
the same composite
was used but now
composed
of
spectral bands 3,2
and 1.
e) Methods Used For Image Interpretation
For those areas for which digital Landsat TM imagery was available, the Iremonger
and Brokaw (1995) polygons were verified and where needed re-digitized directly on
the computer screen using ArcView 3.1. This method proved most satisfactory. The
Meerman & Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
Section 2: Belize Introduction
Page 12
original 1995 mapping was very coarse and reviewed areas can often be identified
by their greater level of detail.
As a result of the limited availability of original, digitized Landsat TM data, the main
method used to verify polygon size, shape and attributes was visual, either directly
from hardcopy or from scanned hardcopy on screen, using CorelDraw 8 software.
The polygons thus created were later translated into ArcView 3.1. format.
The minimal practical polygon size was found to be approximately 10 ha and only
very few even smaller polygons were created.
f) Field Methodology
For the specific purpose of the current project, 38 field visits were conducted. The
main aim of these fieldvisits was to bring more clarity in the complexity of the
Belizean lowland savannas. At each site data were collected in 25 m radius plots
conform the field form provided by the Central America Ecosystems Monitoring
Database version 2.3. GPS data were collected using a Garmin GPS 12., Map
datum NAD 27 Central. Reading latitude and longitude in 1000s of minutes. Digital
images of the sites were procured with an Olympus D-340L digital camera. No other
special equipment was used. Identification of species occurred in the field. Only
positively identified species were recorded. Only in cases where dominant species
could not be identified, specimens were collected for later identification in the
laboratory. Literature used to identify plant specimens was primarily the Flora of
Guatemala by Standley et al. (1946-1978). Nomenclature was adapted to a 1999
draft version of Balick et al. (2001) whenever possible.
No aerial surveys were conducted specifically for the project. But the project could
fall back on information gained during various overflights conducted for other
projects by the principal consultant.
g) Post-Fieldwork Exercises
All field data were entered in the Central America Ecosystems Monitoring Database
version 2.3. using a Microsoft Access platform. In addition to the 38 sites visited, an
additional 14 sites was added from the database from sites of which similar and
reliable data existed. This brings the total to 52 sites entered in the database.
The fact that the Landsat TM satellite imagery provided by the project could not be
geo-referenced complicated the positioning of the field sites on these images. Since
the sites visited were mostly micro-habitats within the savanna ecosystem, most of
these sites were too small to be mapped and were merged with the “short-grass
savanna” ecosystem. In general, the fieldsites visited served to provide an accurate
description of the micro-habitats within this “short-grass savanna” ecosystem.
Meerman & Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
Section 2: Belize Introduction
Page 13
8. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
a) UNESCO Classes Identified
A total of 85 terrestrial ecosystems were identified of which 78 were mapped. In
addition, two marine ecosystems (sea grass beds and coral reefs) were identified
and mapped. Agriculture was identified as a land use and subdivided in 7 different
subclasses (6 mapped) including aquaculture and forest plantations. An attempt was
made to distinguish between mechanized agriculture and subsistence/shifting
cultivation types of agriculture but this could not be carried out to the full extend due
to difficulties in the interpretation of the available satellite imagery. Areas of
secondary growth with short rotation shifting cultivation were indiscriminately
mapped as either “agriculture” or “shifting cultivation”.
Based on the data obtained (1996 & 1998 satellite imagery), it was calculated that
approximately 15,867 km² or 69.1% of Belize was under some form of forest
(including shrublands) cover. 804 km² of this figure was Pine forest (5% of total
forest cover).
More specifically:
Table 2. Broad Ecosystem Classes by Cover
Cover
Lowland broadleaf forest and shrubland
Agriculture, all subclasses
Submontane and montane broadleaf forest
Lowland savanna including pine savanna
Mangrove and Littoral Forest
Submontane pine forest (dense)
Water
Wetland (reed – herbaceous – Eleocharis swamps)
Lowland pine forest (dense)
Coastal Savanna (marine salt marsh)
Urban
%±
51.4%
16.7%
10.0%
8.8%
4.2%
2.1%
2.1%
1.9%
1.4%
1.1%
0.5%
km² ±
11,803
3,835
2,296
2,021
964
482
482
436
321
253
115
The results of table 2 are visualized in figure 2 (following page).
The identified ecosystems all find their roots in the 1995 classification by Iremonger
and Brokaw. Principally, the classification used in this report was adapted to the
UNESCO classification adopted by the current project. Also an altitudinal component
was introduced, distinguishing between lowland vegetation types (< 500 m),
submontane (500 – 1000 m) and montane (> 1000 m) vegetation types.
The descriptions of the ecosystems were augment with information from various
literature sources (listed with each vegetation type) and/or personal observations.
The resulting classification was commented upon by Nick Brokaw, Susan Iremonger,
Betsy Malory, Alain Meyrat, Daan Vreugdenhil and Roger Wilson. Suggested
changes were implemented accordingly.
Meerman & Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
Section 2: Belize Introduction
Page 14
Figure
2
Meerman & Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
Section 2: Belize Introduction
Page 15
9. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The current project tried to identify ecosystems on a macro-scale. For many
purposes, such as protected areas management plans, a more detailed approach
will be required. But the current effort can easily serve as a base for any of such
effort. Certain ecosystems proved to be too complex to map satisfactory. The most
important of these are the two short-grass savanna classes and their relationship
with needle-leaf dense forests. As a result, the mapping of these classes leaves
much to be desired.
The hill forest types over non-calcareous rocks which are now split into the variants:
“Simarouba–Terminalia”,
“Virola–Terminalia”,
“Vochysia–Terminalia”
and
“Calophyllum” were distinguished by Iremonger and Brokaw (1995) and are
ultimately a legacy of the mapping effort by Wright et al. 1959. These forest types
are clearly related but it is unclear whether these types can actually be distinguished
from each other. However, with the current lack of data, it was decided to retain
these variants until more detailed research results are available.
The impact of wildfires on the vegetation has received little attention (See separate
article in section II) and should be further investigated.
a) Availability of the Data
The data produced in the context of this study have been produced with public funds
with the objective to promote responsible biodiversity conservation in the broadest
sense of the word. Any organization, whether private or public and any individual
should have access to all the information produced. The World Bank considers all
data and information produced in the context of this project to be public domain and
it can be used by anybody without the request of permission (but with full source
reference). The World Bank shall make a special effort to make all data publicly
available. Digital information of limited size can be downloaded from the World Bank
website http://worldbank.org/ca-env
b) Follow Up
The original data of this Belize Ecosystems Map and Classification project are
lodged with both the Land Information Center (LIC) [email protected] and
Programme for Belize [email protected]
The Belize Ecosystems Map and Classification should be regarded as a work in
progress. Errors are inevitable and the authors apologize for these. We welcome
corrections and suggestions. It is also the principal consultants intention to keep
updating the map and ecosystem descriptions. Please contact [email protected] or
[email protected] in these matters.
Meerman & Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
Section 2: Belize Introduction
Page 16
Section II: BELIZE ECOSYSTEMS MAP
10. BELIZE - INTRODUCTION
The Central American Country of Belize, formerly known as British Honduras has a
population of approximately 280,000 people. It lies roughly between 15º 52’ and 18º
30’ North Latitude and 87º 28’ and 89º 13’ West Longitude and is bordered by
Mexico in the North, Guatemala in the west and the Caribbean Sea in the east. It
covers 22,963 km2 (8,866 sq ml) of land area (including the approximately 1,000
cays). Belize harbors the largest unbroken Barrier Reef in the Western Hemisphere.
Belize has a subtropical to tropical environment with mean monthly minima ranging
from 16º C in winter to 24º C in summer. Mean monthly maxima range from 28º C in
winter to 33º C in summer. Rainfall varies from 1,200 mm (48”) in the north to 4,000
mm (160”) per year in the south (see figure 3). Hurricanes periodically strike the
country and are an important element in the development of the forests.
F ig ure 3. Average m onthly rainfall fro m N o rth to So uth B elize
800
700
600
500
400
300
100
Rainfall in mm.
200
Toledo: P unta G orda
S tann C reek: D angriga
0
Jan
Feb
M ar
A pr
C ayo: S an Ignacio
M ay
Jun
M onth
Jul
A ug
S ep
C orozal: S arteneja
O ct
N ov
D ec
The northern part of Belize is mostly low-lying, gradually raised from the ocean
during the Pliocene (2-13 million year BC) and now supporting a mosaic of limestone
and sandy soils. The south of the country also has low-lying areas but is dominated
by the Mountain Pine Ridge and the Maya Mountains, rising to 1124 m
(3709’)(Figure 4).
Meerman & Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
Section 2: Belize Introduction
Page 17
These mountains consist of quartzites, shales, and slates, with granitic intrusions,
dating from the Carboniferous and Permian (250-300 million year BC). Limestone
Karst foothills surround the southern mountains. These gradients in rainfall,
topography, and soil support a variety of vegetation types.
An important factor in the
natural history of Belize is it’s
past land use. For at least
2000
years
the
Maya
Civilization was thriving in the
Belizean
lowlands.
The
complexity of the society and
high population figures led to
massive forest clearing for
agriculture. Only after the
collapse
of
the
Maya
Civilization around 900 AD,
the forests were able to
recover their lost territory. To
what extend the returning
forest resembles the “original”
forest will probably remain
unknown.
Stevenson (1928) considered
much of the forest in Belize to
be secondary, having grown
up following ancient Maya
agriculture. The abundance of
certain tree species in the
vicinity of Maya ruins has
been attributed to ancient
cultivation or protection of
these species (Lundell 1934,
Bartlett 1935). Indeed, there
Figure 4. Altitude in Belize
are many plant species
characteristic of Maya ruin
areas, as demonstrated quantitatively in transect studies over various substrates at
Lamanai (Lambert & Arnason 1978). However, these same species also grow
abundantly on natural substrates similar to those provided by Maya ruins, and the
presence of such species on ruins is simply an ecological response, and there is no
need to invoke human purpose to explain their abundance there (Lambert & Arnason
1982).
Meerman & Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
Section 2: Belize Introduction
Page 18
a) Forest fires in Belize
Fire as a threat to biodiversity and the status of the vegetation, is not well
understood. The frequency, magnitude and effects that wildfires have had on
biodiversity in Belize have not been documented. However, the dimensions of areas
destroyed during these fires strongly imply major destruction of flora and fauna”
(Rosado in: Jacobs & Castaneda, 1998). The ecological consequences of fire in
natural ecosystems are many and have been listed by Wade et al (1980).
Fires in broadleaf forests are often ignored and bear no resemblance to the massive
blazes that can be seen in burning needle-leaf
forests. The fire is usually low, and slowly
creeping through the leaf litter. Often it is
possible to walk close up to it and even through
it without too much danger. There is usually little
“media value” in such fires. Only in areas with
Cohune (Attalea cohune), the effects can be
more dramatic. The abundant leaf litter under
these palms explodes into flames, often igniting
the crown and spraying sparks over great
distances. But even in the case of these slow,
low fires, the damage can be profound. Trees,
especially young trees may appear unharmed
but still die over time. The mortality either being
the result of direct damage or indirect damage
such as increased pathogen access through the
fire damaged bark. Tree mortality as the result
Figure 5. Fire in Tropical evergreen
seasonal broadleaf hill forest over
calcareous soils in the Cayo district.
May 2000. Picture: J. C. Meerman
of such slow fires may continue for several
years after the actual fire (pers. obs.). Each fire,
which leaves more dead or dying trees behind
makes the forest even more prone to fire
damage.
Fire in broad-leaved forest is a relatively rare phenomenon. It is argued that in
Central America most species of trees have evolved in the absence of fire and thus
developed little tolerance for it (Budowski, 1966, Hopkins, 1983). Actual
documentation of lowland broadleaf forest fires started by lightning is rare (Middleton
et al., 1997). Consequently, fire in tropical lowland forests has traditionally been
considered as human induced (Janzen, 1986; Koonce & Gonzalez-Caban, 1990).
This view was also taken by the TFAP team when considering the causes for fire in
the Southern Coastal Plains (ODA, 1989). This is also the reason why fires are
treated here as part of the human impact factor. On the higher peaks of the Maya
Mountains, however, lightning strikes appear to be the major cause of forest fires.
Nearly 2/3 of the fires recorded in the Mountain Pine Ridge Forest Reserve are
reportedly caused by lightning strikes (ODA, 1989).
Wolffsohn (1967) suggested that about once in every five or ten year the dry season
in Belize is intense enough to create hazardous conditions. The vegetation is
generally too damp to burn easily. This is especially the case in “real” rainforest but
Meerman & Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
Section 2: Belize Introduction
Page 19
evidence of rainforest fires (dating many thousands of years back) has been
collected throughout the tropics (Bassini & Becker, 1990; Horn & Sanford, 1992).
Many of these large fires show a relation to human presence and it is often assumed
that early man was directly or indirectly responsible for these fires (Horn & Sanford,
1992).
It is generally accepted that once every one or two centuries a series of abnormally
dry years without rainy seasons dramatically increase the fire hazard on otherwise
fireproof tropical rainforests (Jacobs, 1988). There are indications that the incidence
of rainforest fire is on the increase worldwide. In 1982, 1983, 1992, 1993, 1997,
1998 and 2000, large surfaces of rain forest burned throughout the tropics. This
increase is most likely caused by increased human encroachment on the forest and
by the phenomenon of global warming (which is expected to lead to more erratic
weather patterns including more frequent droughts). This is especially worrisome
since these wildfires are gaining importance to the volatilization of gasses such as
N2, N20, CH4, CO2 and other greenhouse gasses, i.e. those that contribute to global
warming (Lugo, 1995).
Fires are most devastating on hills where an upward draft creates extremely hot fires
towards the top of the hill. Fire affected hills; therefore, show the greatest damage
towards the summit. Repeated hill fires result in “bald” hills with no woody vegetation
but a cover of grasses or “Tigerbush” (the ferns Dicranopteris and Pteridium
caudatum). The influence of fire is clearly greatest where there is drought stress and
highly inflammable vegetation is present.
Fire induced vegetation in hilly areas are
especially at risk since the fire resistant
vegetation has a lesser capacity of retaining
the soil and increased erosion is the result
(Jacobs, 1989).
In the early days of the Forest Department it
was noted that fire kept broad-leaved forest
species from invading and replacing pine on
soils which otherwise might have carried
high forest. Nevertheless, pines are liable to
be killed by fire when they are less than 3 m
tall and are liable to damage at any age and
size. The old-growth pines on the Southern
Coastal Plain are frequently fire-scarred,
internally and externally. The damage
allows the ingress of wood-rotting fungi and
termites and materially reduces the net yield
(ODA, 1989).
Figure 6. Pine forest in the Mountain Pine
Data from the Forest Department over the
Ridge after fire in May 2000. J.C.Meerman
period 1963–1970 for the hills of the
Mountain Pine Ridge Forest Reserve (Cayo district) indicate that out of 46 recorded
fires during that period, 29 (63%) were reported to have been caused by lightning.
The remaining 17 fires (37%) were caused by human agency. In the northern
Meerman & Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
Section 2: Belize Introduction
Page 20
Coastal Plain of Belize, the great majority of the lowland fires are caused by arson,
by hunters after game (ODA, 1989, pers. obs.). In contrast, in the pine barrens of
Florida, lightning strike is a frequent cause of fire (Lugo, 1995).
The combination of infrequent lightning strikes and a degree of fire adaptation in the
savannah and needle-leaf community indicates that fire is a natural part of the
Belizean savannah ecosystem, probably helped by the droughtiness of the
vegetation and naturally occurring more frequently than in broadleaf forest. That
said, the natural savannahs would be much smaller in extent and not burnt so often
as is presently the case.
The Belizean Forest Department has had little success in fire control, even in the
pine plantations. The staffing and equipment of the Forest Department have been so
reduced that the fire protection scheme (Johnson, 1974) has never been
implemented successfully. The priority areas for fire control outlined in the fire
protection scheme have been so affected by wildfire that the stocking of healthy live
trees appears to have been reduced below any level that would justify the expense
(ODA, 1989).
Belize has experienced massive
fires in broad-leaved forest after
hurricanes, which cause large
amounts of debris. Initially, these
fires are usually started by
farmers and may be accidental
escapes from farm clearings. The
debris caused by the hurricane is
such that access and movement
for firefighters is very difficult.
Consequently, these fires are
difficult to suppress unless they
can be reached at a very early
stage. Fire in broad-leaved forest
may stimulate the regeneration of
mahogany and cedar but more
usually
there
is
complete
destruction
of
forest
and
replacement
by
persistent
bracken, which is itself a fire
hazard (Johnson & Chaffey
1973).
For the same reason selective
logging practices also create
favorable conditions for the
spread of wildfires. Not only do
Figure 7. Fires in and around Belize in May 1998
the discarded crown and branches
provide fuel for fires, also the
resulting scrubby growth following
the opening of the canopy is usually more incandescent than the original forest.
Meerman & Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
Section 2: Belize Introduction
Page 21
Figure 8. Fire risk in Belizean Ecosystems
Meerman & Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
Section 2: Belize Introduction
Page 22
More than anything, slash and burn agriculture has to be seen as the main culprit for
fires in lowland broadleaf forests. In general the subsistence farmer has little
consideration for the well being of the forest and most farmers do not take escaped
“milpa” fires seriously. And the 1998 effort by PFA (1998) clearly shows that most
fires occurred near human habitation (Figure 7), this map also shows that the fire
intensity is higher in neighboring countries where the human pressure is higher.
Observations in the field show that burned hill tops are virtually always connected
with agricultural clearings in at the foot of the same hill. The only noteworthy
exceptions seem to be some fire damaged areas well away from any activity on a
hillcrest of the Maya Mountains. Lightning strike is the most plausible explanation for
these burned areas although agriculture is present at the feet of some of these same
hills and fire-creep below the canopy remains a distinct possibility.
Using the characteristics of each ecosystem it was possible to produce a fire risk
assessment map for Belize (Figure 8). This maps shows all the current fire-induced
ecosystems (such as savanna and pine forest), but also shows the fire-risk for each
ecosystem. In this case slope of the terrain is, important but also the proximity to
human settlements and (slash and burn) agricultural fields.
Concluding, the importance of fire in the Belizean ecosystems has largely been
downplayed but is probably of major, and increasing, significance. More
investigations are needed to establish the actual impact and possible measures to
prevent the damage caused.
Meerman & Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
Section 2: Belize Introduction
Page 23
11. LITERATURE
Allen, B. 1995. Vegetation. Pages 10-30 in S. Matola (ed.). Expedition to Doyle's Delight, southern
Maya Mountains, Belize. Forest Planning and Management Project. Occasional Series No. 5,
Ministry of Natural Resources, Belmopan, Belize.
Anonymous. 1935. A vegetation map of British Honduras. Geographical Review 25:336.
Balick, M. J., M. H. Nee and D. E. Atha. 2001. Checklist of the Vascular Plants of Belize. New York
Botanical Gardens. NY.
Bartlett, H. H. 1935. A method of procedure for field work in tropical American phytogeography based
upon a botanical reconnaisance in parts of British Honduras forests of Guatemala. Publications
of the Carnegie Instititution No 461. 25 pp.
Bartlett, H.H. 1932. A biological survey of the Maya area. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 59:720.
Bartlett, H.H. 1935. A method of procedure for fieldwork in tropical American phytogeography based
upon a botanical reconnaissance in parts of British Honduras and the Peten forest of
Guatemala. Botany of the Maya Area, Paper No. 406, Department of Botany and the
Herbarium of the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan USA. 23 pp.
Bassini, F. & P. Becker. 1990. Charcoal’s occurance in soil depends on topography in terra firme
forest near Manaus, Brazil. Biotropica 22(4): 420-422.
Bijleveld, C. F. A. 1998. The vegetation of Shipstern Nature Reserve (Corozal District, Belize, Central
America) A structural and floristic approach. International Tropical Conservation Foundation.
Marin-Neuchatel. 136 pp.
Bird, N. M. 1998. Sustaining the yield. Improved timber harvesting practices in Belize 1992 – 1998.
Natural Resource Institute, University of Greenwich. 179 pp.
Brokaw, N. V. L. 1991. Vegetation and tree flora near the camp of the Joint Services Scientific
Expedition to the Upper Raspaculo. Pages D-1 to D-1-11 in A. D. F. Rogers and D. A. Sutton
(eds.). The Upper Raspaculo River Basin, Belize, Central America. The Natural History
Museum, London.
Brokaw, N. V. L. 1992. Vegetation and tree flora near the central area of the Caracol Archaeological
Reserve, Belize. Wildlife Conservation International, New York.
Brokaw, N. V. L. & L. R. Walker. 1991. Summary of the effects of Caribbean Hurricanes on
vegetation. Biotropica 23(4a): 442-447.
Brokaw, N. V. L. and E. P. Mallory. 1992. Vegetation of the Rio Bravo Conservation and
Management Area, Belize. Manomet Bird Observatory.
Brokaw, N. V. L. and T. L. Lloyd-Evans. 1987. The Bladen Branch Wiilderness. Manomet Bird
Observatory.
Brokaw, N. V. L., and E. P. Mallory. 1993. Vegetation of the Rio Bravo Conservation
and.A4anagement Area, Belize. Manomet Center for Conservation Sciences, Manomet,
Massachusetts USA, 43 pages.
Brokaw, N. V. L., and T. L. Lloyd-Evans. 1987. The Bladen Branch Wilderness. Manomet Bird
Observatory, Manomet, Massachusetts USA. 44 pp.
Brokaw, N. V. L., J. S. Grear, K. J. Tripplett, A. A. Whitman, and E. P. Mallory. 1997. The Quebrada
de Oro forest of Belize: exceptional structure and high species richness. Tropical Ecology
38:247-258.
Brokaw, N. V. L. 1991. Vegetation. Pages D1-DI.11 in A. D. F. Rogers and D. A. Sutton (eds.). The
Upper Raspaculo River Basin, Belize, Central America. The Natural History Museum, London
UK.
Meerman & Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
Section 2: Belize Introduction
Page 24
Brokaw, N. V. L. In press. A history of plant ecology in Belize. Journal of Belizean Affairs.
Budowski, G. 1966. Fire in tropical lowland areas. Proceedings of the annual tall timbers fire ecology
conference. 5: 5-22.
Burdon, R. 1932. Forests of British Honduras. Timber Trades Journal 122:350.
Burke, R. B. 1982. Reconnaissance study of the geomorphology and benthic communities of the
outer barrier reef platform, Belize. In: Ruetzler, K. and I. G. Macintyre (eds.). The Atlantic
Barrier Reef Ecosystem at Carrie Bow Caye, Belize. 1. Smithsonian Contribution to the Marine
Sciences 12. Pp. 167-233.
Cabrera-Cano, E. F. and A. Sánchez-Vásquez. 1994. Comunidades vegetales en la frontera MexicoBelice. Estudio integral de la frontera Mexico-Belice : Recursos Naturales. CIQRO. Chetumal.
pp 17-35.
Chazdon, R. L. 1998. Phoenix Rising? Fragility and resilience of tropical forests. Tropinet 9(3)
Dwyer, J.D. & Spellman, D.L. 1981. A list of the dicotyledoneae of Belize. Rhodora 83 (834) pp 161235.
Emmons, K., R. H. Horwich, J. Kamstra, E. Saqui, J. Beveridge, T. McCarthy, J. Meerman, F. Koontz,
E. Pop, H. Saqui, S.C. Silver, L. Ostro, D. Beveridge & J. Lumb. Cockscomb Basin Wildlife
Sanctuary, it’s history, flora and fauna. For visitors, teachers and Scientists. Orang-utan Press.
Friesner, J. 1993. Hurricanes and Forests of Belize. Forest Management and Planning Project,
Ministry of Natural Resources, Belize. 31pp.
Furley, P. A. and W. W. Newey. 1979. Variations in plant communities with topography over tropical
limestone soils. Journal of Biogeography 6:1-15.
Furley, P. A. & J. A. Ratter, 1992. Mangrove distribution, vulnerability and management in Central
America (Belize). ODA-OFI Forestry Research Programme, Contract No. R.4736. 86pp.
Gray, D.A., S.A. Zisman and C.Corves, 1990. Mapping the mangroves of Belize. Technical Report.
Department of Geography, University of Edinburgh.
Hartshorn, G. S., L. Nicolait, L. Hartshorn, G. Bevier, R. Brightman, J. Cal, A. Cawich, W. Davidson,
R. Dubois, C. Dyer, J. Gibson, W. Hawley, J. Leonard, R. Nicolait, D. Weyer, H. White, C.
Wright. 1984. Belize: Country Environmental Profile: A Field Study. Robert Nicolait and
Associates, Ltd., Belize City, Belize. 151 pp
Hawkins, T., B. Holst & J. C. Meerman. 1998. Plant species collected or identified at Las Sierritas. In:
Mott MacDonald. Rapid Environmental Appraisal Las Sierritas. Belize Southern Higway Project
(Section 3). 30 pp + app.
Holst, B. In Press. Little Quartz Ridge Expedition - February, 1997. Botany Report. In: Meerman &
Matola. . The Columbia River Forest Reserve, Belize. The Little Quartz Ridge Expedition, a
Biological Assessment. Columbia press.
Holst, B.K. 1993a. Appendix 1: Plant list: Columbia River Forest Reserve. Pages 29-44 in T. A.
Parker, III, B. K. Hoist, L. H. Emmons, and J. R. Meyer. A biological Assessment of the
Columbia River Forest Reserve, Belize. Rapid Assessment Program. Working Papers 3.
Conservation International, Washington, D.C. USA.
Holst, B K. 1993b. Appendix 2: Plant list by site. Pages 45-70 in T. A. Parker, III, B. K. Holst, L. H.
Emmons, and J. R. Meyer. A biological Assessment of the Columbia River Forest Reserve,
Belize. Rapid Assessment Program Working Papers 3. Conservation International,
Washington, D.C. USA.
Hopkins, B. 1983. Succesional processes. In: F. Bourliere (ed.). Tropical Savannas. Pp. 605-616.
Elsevier, New York.
Horn, S. P. & R. L. Sanford. 1992. Holocene fires in Costa Rica. Biotropica 24(3): 354-361.
Huber, O. 1987. Neotropical Savannas: their flora and vegetation. Trends in Ecol. Evol. 2: 67-71.
Meerman & Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
Section 2: Belize Introduction
Page 25
Hummel,. C. 1925. Forests of British Honduras. Crown Agents for Colonies, London UK.
Iremonger, S., and N. V. L. Brokaw. 1995. Vegetation classification for Belize. In R. Wilson (ed.).
Towards a National Protected Area Systems Plan for Belize, Synthesis Report. 114 pp + app.
Appendix 1.2 Programme for Belize, Belize City, Belize.
Iremonger, S., and R. Sayre. 1994. A Rapid Ecological Assessment of the Bladen Nature Reserve,
Belize. The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, Virginia USA. 77 pp.
Iremonger, S., R. Liesnet, and R. Sayre. 1995. Plant records from natural forest communities in the
Bladen Nature Reserve, Maya Mountains, Belize. Caribbean Journal of Science 31(1-2):30-48.
Jacobs, M. 1988. The Tropical Rain Forest, a first encounter. Springer Verlag. 295 pp.
Jacobs, N. D. & A. Castaneda. 1998. The Belize Biodiversity Strategy. Belmopan 2 vols.
Janzen, D. H. 1986. Guanacaste National Park: Tropical ecological and historical restoration.
Editorial Universidad Estal A Distancia, San Jose, Costa Rica.Ef
Johnson, M. S. & D. R. Chaffey. 1973. An inventory of the Chiquibul Forest Reserve, Belize. Land
Resources Study No. 14. Land Resources Division, MOD.
Johnson, M. S. 1974. The Belize Forest Department Southern Coastal Plain Fire Protection Scheme.
Land Resources Division. MoD, Misc. report 187.
Johnson, M. S., and D. R. Chaffey. 1973. An inventory of the Chiquibul Forest Reserve, Belize. Land
Resource Study No. 14. Land Resources Division, Surrey, UK.
Kamstra, J., K. M. Emmons, S. Silver and J. Lumb. 1996. Vegetation of the Cockscomb basin. In:
Emmons, K. & J.Meerman. 1996. Insects. In: Emmons,K., R.H.Horwich, J.Kamstra, E.Saqui,
J.Beveridge, T.McCarthy, J.Meerman, F.Koontz, E.Pop, H.Saqui, S.C.Silver, L.Ostro,
D.Beveridge & J.Lumb. Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary, it’s history, flora and fauna. For
visitors, teachers and Scientists. Orang-utan Press. Pp. 35-68.
Kauffman, J. B. 1991. Survival by sprouting following fire in the tropical forests of the eastern
Amazon. Biotropica 23(3): 219-224.
King, R.B., Baillie, I.C., Bissett, P.G., Grimble, R.J., Johnson, M. S. & G. L. Silva. 1986. Land
Resource Survey of Toledo District, Belize. Tolworth, UK. Land Resources Development
Centre.
King, R.B., Baillie, I.C., Dunsmore, J.R., Grimble, R.J., Johnson, M.S. & Wright, A.C.S. 1989. Land
Resource Survey of Stann Creek District, Belize. Chatham, U.K. Overseas Development
Natural Resources Institute Bulletin No 19, xiv + 262 pp.
King, R.B., I.C. Baillie, T.M.B. Abell, J.R. Dunsmore, D.A. Gray, J.H. Pratt, H.R. Versey, A.C.S. Wright
and S.A. Zisman, 1992. Land resource assessment of northern Belize, volume 1 and 2. Natural
Resource Institute Bulletin No 43. Pp 1-513 + 8 maps.
Koonce, A. L. & A. Gonzalez-Caban. 1990. Social and ecological aspects of fire in Central America.
In: J. G. Goldammer (Ed.). Fire in tropical biota. Pp. 135-158. Springer Verlag, Berlin.
Lambert, J. D. H. and J. T. Arnason. 1978. Distribution of vegetation on Maya Ruins and its
relationship to ancient land use at Lamanai, Belize. Turrialba 28(1): 33-41.
Lambert, J. D. H., and J. T. Arnason. 1982. Ram6n and Maya ruins: an ecological, not an economic,
relation. Science 216:289-299.
Langley, R. G., 1963. The reaction of British Honduras indigenous hardwood species to Hurricane
Hattie. Belize Forest Department, unpublished report.
Lindo, L. S., 1988. The effect of hurricanes on the forests of British Honduras. Paper to the Ninth
Commonwealth Forestry Conference.
Lugo. A. E. 1995. Fire and Wetland Management. In: Cerulean, S. and R. T. Engstrom (eds.). 1995.
Fire in wetlands: a management perspective. Proceedings of the Tall Timbers Fire Ecology
Conference, No 19. Pp. 1-9. Tall Timbers Research Station, Tallahassee, FL.
Meerman & Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
Section 2: Belize Introduction
Page 26
Lundell, C.L. 1934. Preliminary sketch of the phytogeography of the Yucatan Peninsula.
Contributions to American Archaeology No. 12, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Publication
No. 436:257-321. Washington, D.C.
Lundell, C. L. 1937. Vegetation of the Peten. Washington, Carnegie Institution. Publication No 478:1244. Washington, D.C..
Means, B. 1997. Natural History of Mountain Pine Ridge, Belize with special emphasis on the
property of Bull Run Overseas, Ltd. Hidden Valley Inn. Hidden Valley Inn. 94 pp.
Meerman, J. C. 1993. Provisional annotated checklist of the flora of the Shipstern Nature Reserve.
Occasional Papers of the Belize Natural History Society 2:8-36.
Meerman, J. C. 1995a. (Ed.) Monkey River Special Development Area, Toledo district, Belize.
Biodiversity Study. 2 vols. Belize Tropical Forest Studies Publication #5. 86 pp + 3 app.
Meerman, J.C. 1995b. Terrestrial Biological Survey, Western Long Caye, Glovers Atoll. Belize
Tropical Forest Studies Publication # 4. 6 pp.
Meerman, J. C. 1996. Vegetative Key to the Passionflowers of Belize. Passiflora 6(3): 25-28.
Meerman, J. C. 1997. Columbia River Forest Reserve (Compartment 33, subcompartment 2) Rapid
Biodiversity Assessment. Report to the Forest Planning and Management Project, 14 pp.
Meerman, J. C. 1998a. Rapid Ecological Assessment of El Pilar Archaeological Reserve. Report to
BRASS/El Pilar. 20 pp + app.
Meerman, J. C. 1998b. Rapid Ecological Assessment Maya Ranch. Report to Janus Foundation. 33
pp + app.
Meerman, J. C. 1999a. Review of natural vegetation and associated habitats in the southern region of
Belize. Report to ESTAP. 73 pp + app.
Meerman, J. C. 1999b. Status of the vegetation case study: Red Bank, Stann Creek District, Belize.
12 pp + 3 maps (Separate document with this report).
Meerman, J. C. 1999c. Rapid Ecological Assessment Runaway Creek, Belize. Report to the
Foundation for Wildlife Conservation Inc. 42 pp. 3 app.
Meerman, J. C. 1999d. Baseline data Chalillo hydro project, upper Macal, Cayo district, Belize.
Report of the terrestrial consultant. Report to Agra – CI Power. 36 pp + app.
Meerman, J.C. & T.Boomsma. 1993. Biodiversity of the Shipstern Nature Reserve. Occasional
Papers of the Belize Natural History Society. 2(1-11): 1-85.
Meerman, J.C. & T.Boomsma. 1994. Upper Mullins River Basin environmental review. Forest
Management and Planning Program. Internal Report Series vol. 7,#03. 16 pp.
Meerman, J.C. & T.Boomsma. 1995a. False Sittee Point Biological and Physical Survey, Stann Creek
district, Belize. Belize Tropical Forest Studies Publication # 2. 45 pp.
Meerman, J.C. & T. Boomsma. 1995b. Tapir Mountain Nature Reserve, Cayo district, Belize:
Biological Survey 1994. Report to Belize Audubon Society, 27 pp. Belize Tropical Forest
Studies Publication # 1. 27 pp.
Meerman, J. C., T. Boomsma. 1996. Environmental Impact Assessment Gracy Rock Subdivision,
Belize District, Belize. Report to Hwatchy International Ltd. 59 pp + app.
Meerman. J. C. & T. Boomsma. 1998. Environmental Impact Assessment: Belize Lodge and
Excursions Ltd. (Indian Creek Lodge, Jungle Lodge, Wild Cane Cay Lodge) Toledo district
Belize. Unpublished report submitted to Belize Lodge and Excursions Ltd. 61 pp + app.
Meerman, J. C. & S. Matola. In Press. The Columbia River Forest Reserve, Belize. The Little Quartz
Ridge Expedition, a Biological Assessment. Columbia press.
Meerman & Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
Section 2: Belize Introduction
Page 27
Meerman, J. C., T. Grimshaw, T. Boomsma, G. Martinez and B. Holland. 2000. An assessment of
the social, economic and environmental development options of the Southern Stann Creek
Coastal Wetlands. Report to ESTAP. 107 pp.
Meerman, J.C. & G.Williams. 1995. The January-February 1995 Maya Mountains Divide Expedition.
Belize Tropical Forest Studies Publication #3. 45 pp. 7 app.
Middleton, B. A., E. Sanchez-Rojas, B. Suedmeyer and A. Michels. Fire in a tropical dry forest of
Central America: A natural part of the disturbance regime? Biotropica 29(4): 515-517.
Morris, D. 1883. The Colony of British Honduras. London L/K.
Moss, D. A. 1998.A Case Study of Belizean Savannas. Thesis University of Edinburgh, Scotland,
U.K. 3 vols.
Mueller-Dombois, D., and H. Ellenberg. 1974. Aims and Methods of Vegetation Ecology. John Wiley,
New York, U.S.A.
Murray, M. R., S. A. Zisman and C. D. Minty. 1999. Soil-plant relationships and a revised Vegetation
Classification of Turneffe Atoll, Belize. Atoll Research Bulletin. No 464. 32 pp.
ODA. 1989. Belize Tropical Forestry Action Plan. 273 pp.
Olmsted, I. C. and R. Duran G. 1986. Aspectos ecológicos de la selva baja inundable de la Reserva
Sian Ka'an, Quintana Roo, Yuc. México. Biotica (Mex.) 11:151-179.
PFA. 1998. Atlas Centroamericano de incendios. Programma de desarollo sostenible en zonas de
frontera agricola. 51 pp. Panama.
Rejmánková, E., K. O. Pope, R. Post and E. Maltby. 1996. Herbaceous wetlands of then Yucatan
Peninsula: Communities at extreme ends of Environmental Gradients. Int. Revue ges.
Hydrobiol. 81(2) : 225-254.
Schultze, M. D. and D. F. Whitacre. 1999. A Classification and ordination of the tree community of
Tikal National Park, Petén, Guatemala.
Smith, J. H. N. 1945a. Forest associations of British Honduras, II. Caribbean Forester 6:45-61.
Smith, J. H. N. 1945b. Forest associations of British Honduras, III. Caribbean Forester 6:131- 147.
Smith, A.D. Chiquibul Forest Reserve – Stock Survey of Compartment 68. Forest Planning and
Management Project. Internal Report Series 10: 16 pp.
Spellman, D. L., J. D. Dwyer, and G. Davidse. 1975. A list of the monocotyledonae of Belize including
a historical introduction to plant collecting in Belize. Rhodora 77:105-140.
Standley, P. C., and S. J. Record. 1936. The Forests and Flora of British Honduras. Publication 350,
Botanical Series, Volume XII, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, Illinois USA.
Standley, P. C., J. A. Steyermark and L. O. Williams. 1946-1978 Flora of Guatemala. Fieldiana Bot.
V. 24. part 1-13.
Stevenson, D. 1928. Types of forest growth in British Honduras. Tropical Woods 14:2,3-25.
Stevenson, N. S. 1938. The evolution of vegetation survey and rural planing in British Honduras.
Empire Forestry Journal 17:9-26.
Stevenson, N. S. 1942. Forest associations of British Honduras, No. I. Caribbean Forester 3: 164172.
Surveyor General. 1933. Map of British Honduras; showing forest types. Surveyor General's
Department, British Honduras.
Toleman, R. 1963. Report on Hurricane damaged high bush. Belize Forest Department, unpublished
report.
Tyler, N. 1998. Remote sensing analysis of land cover and land use, Central Belize. University of
Texas at Austin. 34 Pp.
Meerman & Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
Section 2: Belize Introduction
Page 28
Vreugdenhil, D., J. C. Meerman, A. Meyrat, L. D. Gómez, D. J. Graham. (In Press) Central
American Ecosystems Map, Volume 1: Regional Report.
Wade, D., J. Ewel And R. Hofstetter. 1980. Fire In South Florida Ecosystems. USDA Forest Service
General Technical Report SE-17. Southeastern Forest Experiment Station, Asheville, North
Carolina.
Wantland, K. and W. Pusey. 1975. (Eds.) Belize Shelf-carbonates, Clastic Sediments and Ecology.
Studies in Geology. No. 2. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Tulsa,
Oklahoma, USA.
Wolffsohn, A. F. A. 1967. Post-Hurricane Forest Fires in British Honduras. Commonwealth Forestry
Review 46(3): 233-238.
Woods, N. P. 1978. Forest inventory of the Maya Mountains and Columbia River Forest Reserves.
1975-1976. Belize Forest Department, unpublished report.
Wright, A. C. S. & I. C. Baillie (1995). Soils and vegetation in a forest-savanna transition zone in
southern Belize. Caribbean Geography (2): 128-142.
Wright, A. C. S., D. H. Romney, R. H. Arbuckle, and V. E. Vial. 1959. Land in British Honduras.
Colonial Research Publication No. 24. Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London.
Zisman, S. 1992. Mangroves in Belize: their characteristics, use and conservation. FPMP - Mangrove
Specialist's Report. Natural Resources Institute, ODA.
Zisman, S. 1997. Mangroves in Belize: a summary of their' status and management. manuscript
prepared for the University of the West Indies/Commonwealth Secretariat Symposium on the
Mangroves of the Wider Caribbean Commonwealth. Kingston, Jamaica.
Meerman & Sabido, 2001. Central American Ecosystems Map: Belize
Section 2: Belize Introduction