Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication
Shape and Size Matter for Smartwatches: Effects
of Screen Shape, Screen Size, and Presentation
Mode in Wearable Communication
Ki Joon Kim
Department of Media and Communication, City University of Hong Kong, M5084 Run Run Shaw Creative Media
Centre, 18 Tat Hong Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong
This study investigates how variations in the screen shape (round vs. square) and screen size (large vs.
small) of smartwatches affect their hedonic and pragmatic qualities and the evaluation of transmitted information. Results from a between-subjects experiment (N = 160) indicate that large screens
positively influence information quality by simultaneously increasing both the hedonic and pragmatic qualities of smartwatches. However, the effects of round screens on information quality are
mediated only by the hedonic quality, suggesting that square screens are more closely associated with
the pragmatic, rather than hedonic, quality of the medium. The results also reveal that the effects of
screen shape and screen size are moderated by the presentation mode (text + image vs. text only) of
information.
Keywords: Screen Shape, Screen Size, Presentation Mode, Smartwatch, Wearable Communication.
doi:10.1111/jcc4.12186
The paradigm of mobile communication has begun to evolve from merely portable to seamless wearable technology offering anywhere–anytime possibilities for accessing and sharing information (Kim
& Shin, 2015). At the center of this paradigm shift, smartwatches have gained significant attention as
a next-generation tool for communication and grown at an exponential rate in the information and
communication technology market. Consequently, an increasing amount of explanatory research (e.g.,
Aoyama, Shizuki, & Tanaka, 2016; Arefin Shimon et al., 2016; Gordon, Ouyang, & Zhai, 2016) has been
recently conducted in both academia and industry to broaden the applicability and enhance the usability of smartwatches. However, many of these works primarily focus on conceptualizing and developing
prototypes of new interaction and control techniques (e.g., touch interface, gesture, keyboard input),
seldom emphasizing the most fundamental structural affordances of smartwatches—the size and shape
of the watch screens—and how variations in such structural features can have psychological effects on
user perceptions of the device and information transmitted by it.
Editorial Record: First manuscript received on March 9, 2016. Revisions received on September 21, 2016 and January 3,
2017. Accepted by Matthew Lombard on March 3, 2017. Final manuscript received on March 10, 2017.
Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication (2017) © 2017 International Communication Association
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Therefore, this study asks the following question: Do screen shape and size matter for smartwatches
in terms of shaping user experience and processing conveyed information? Empirical investigations
of the effect of screen shape of media technology have not been actively conducted because for
typical consumer electronics, such as smartphones, tablet computers, televisions, and PC monitors,
rectangular-shaped screens have been customarily adopted since their introduction. On the other hand,
the psychological effects induced by variations in screen size have been extensively studied in both
the stationary (e.g., television) and mobile (e.g., smartphone) contexts to yield the general conclusion
that large screens are key to a more positive user experience (Lombard, 1995; Hou et al., 2012; Kim &
Sundar, 2014, 2016). However, the generalizability of the effects of screen size observed in prior studies
to the wearable context is questionable because size variation of smartwatches is limited in extent to a
few tenths of an inch.
Screen shape and size have together become salient structural features and modality cues in smartwatches; thus, their roles in determining the quality of wearable communication merit thorough investigation. To address this need, the current study probes the effects of screen shape (round vs. square)
and screen size (large vs. small) on hedonic and pragmatic qualities of smartwatches and examines how
such qualities influence information processing. Hedonic qualities are associated with the emotional and
nonfunctional characteristics of a technology, such as the feelings of enjoyment, happiness, and sensuality, serving as personal aspirations that explain “why” interaction occurs (Hassenzahl & Monk, 2010).
By contrast, pragmatic qualities are shaped by ease of use, efficiency, and functionality of the technology,
focusing on “how” interaction with the technology occurs. This two-dimensional approach is particularly useful in drawing a more comprehensive picture of smartwatch usage, because smartwatches are
convergent devices that serve both hedonic and pragmatic purposes (Kim & Shin, 2015). Further, given
that variations in shape and size of media technology suggest the utilization of different modalities (i.e.,
modes of presentation) for conveying information (Sundar, 2008; Kim & Sundar, 2016), this study examines whether the mode of information presentation (text only vs. text + image) moderates the effects of
screen shape and size.
Effects of Screen Size
Substantial research has consistently demonstrated that an increase in screen size generally has positive effects on user perceptions in various cognitive and affective domains, including those related
to memory, realism, immersion, presence, and arousal (Lombard, 1995; Hou et al., 2012; Kim &
Sundar, 2014, 2016). For example, Kim and Sundar (2014) assigned participants a web-browsing task
on smartphones with 3.7” and 5.3” screens and found that the larger screen induced a more positive
attitude and enhanced usage intention. They contend that large screens promote both the hedonic and
pragmatic qualities of the technology, satisfying both affect- and task-oriented needs and motivations
of users. Smartphones are convergent media that serve various user needs; thus, the hedonic and
pragmatic qualities of large screens play an integral role in providing a more positive user experience.
In this vein, the current study views smartwatches as another form of convergent media, albeit less
sophisticated than smartphones, and predicts that variations in screen size may signify similar hedonic
and pragmatic qualities, thereby influencing general user perceptions of the technology as well as users’
evaluation of the information transmitted through it.
From the hedonic perspective, users may see smartwatches with large screens as more attractive
than those with small screens. Individuals are drawn to objects that appear aesthetically pleasing (Dion,
Berscheid, & Walster, 1972). This is especially true for smartwatches because “while people buy watches
to tell time, the number one criterion in choosing a [smart] watch for most people is how it will look. It’s
a fashion statement, not a technology one” (Bajarin, 2014). In other words, smartwatches are viewed not
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only as mere time-telling devices, but also as aesthetic items that express one’s personality and character.
Large screens serve as salient modality cues that enhance the aesthetic value of smartwatches by evoking
the customary belief that large objects are generally more attractive and pleasing or, simply, by triggering
“the bigger the better” heuristic (Campbell, 1976; Josephs, Giesler, & Silvera, 1994; Silvera, Josephs, &
Giesler, 2002). Individuals depend on such size-based habitual judgments when attributing aesthetic
value to technology and when evaluating the quality of their interactions with technology. Consequently,
interacting with an attractive technological source or receiving information via an attractive medium
encourages users to ascribe greater quality and value to communicated content (Fogg & Tseng, 1999),
as seen in human–human interaction wherein they would rate information received from physically
attractive people as more credible and persuasive (Briñol & Petty, 2011). This suggests that the aesthetic
appeal of smartwatches, increased by large screens, may induce more positive evaluations of information
conveyed via the medium. The following hypotheses test these hedonic effects of large screen size.
H1: Large-screen smartwatches will induce greater perceived attractiveness compared with
small-screen smartwatches.
H2: Enhanced attractiveness will, in turn, lead to more positive evaluations of the conveyed
information.
In terms of the pragmatic aspect, smartwatches with large screens may provide a greater sense of control than those with small screens, enabling users to perceive that they have greater control over their
devices (Kim & Sundar, 2014). Given that touch-based interfaces are the predominant means of interaction on smartwatches, large screens induce a greater sense of control by enlarging the surface needed for
more dynamic, intuitive, and sometimes more delicate and controlled interactions. Consequently, users
who believe that they have sufficient control tend to perceive their devices as easy to use, useful for completing their tasks, and satisfying their needs (Koufaris, 2002; Lee & Park, 2008; Kim & Sundar, 2014).
One explanation for this is that perceived control promotes a sense of readiness, connectedness, and
efficiency, which helps to reduce the time and mental effort expended by users in reaching goals (Bandura, 1997; Shin, 2009). Furthermore, controllability provides users with the ability to set the pace of
their interactions and information acquisition; therefore, media devices that afford sufficient control are
likely to score high on representational information quality and enhance the user’s ability to understand
and interpret the value of information (Eveland & Dunwoody, 2002; Sundar, 2008). This suggests that
perceived control may serve as a mediator between the modality affordance offered by screen size and
the information conveyed by it. The next hypotheses examine these pragmatic effects of large screen size.
H3: Large-screen smartwatches will induce a greater sense of control compared with small-screen
smartwatches.
H4: Enhanced controllability will, in turn, lead to more positive evaluations of conveyed
information.
In addition to promoting the hedonic and pragmatic qualities of smartwatches, the use of large
screens can determine the mode and depth of information processing. Dual process theorists propose
two concurrent modes of information processing: systematic and heuristic assessments of the message.
The former is characterized by deliberate and analytic examinations of the message contents, whereas
the latter involves immediate and superficial evaluations of the message based on available heuristics
(Chaiken, 1980; Chaiken, Liberman, & Eagly, 1989). Individuals, by nature, default to heuristic processing of information before systematic processing when salient heuristics that facilitate quick, easy
Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication (2017) © 2017 International Communication Association
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judgments are available to them (Chaiken, Liberman, & Eagly, 1989). According to the Modality, Agency,
Interactivity, and Navigability (MAIN) model of technology effects, such heuristics can be easily triggered by sheer presentation of the technology’s structural features or modality affordances such as screen
size (Sundar, 2008).
Kim and Sundar (2016) adopt this dual process and heuristic approach to explicate how variations in
screen size determine the mode of information processing on smartphones, and demonstrate that information conveyed via small-screen smartphones is likely to be processed systematically and thus yield
more content-relevant, elaborated thoughts compared to identical information delivered via large-screen
smartphones. This is because the large screen triggers “the bigger the better” and realism heuristics, and
subsequently, the presence of these mental shortcuts activates heuristic processing, whereas its absence
(i.e., in the case of a small screen) promotes systematic processing of information. Extending this literature to the wearable context, large-screen smartwatches are likely to inhibit the systematic processing
of information because the screen size evokes the judgmental heuristics that lead to peripheral assessments of information, and thereby generate fewer content-relevant thoughts compared to small-screen
smartwatches. The following hypothesis tests this possibility.
H5: Information conveyed via large-screen smartwatches will yield fewer content-relevant thoughts
compared to information conveyed via small-screen smartwatches.
Effects of Screen Shape
Theoretical attempts to explicate the psychological effect of shape have largely been based on the Gestalt
principle of visual perception (Rock & Palmer, 1990) and on product packaging in marketing (Raghubir
& Greenleaf, 2006). However, compared with screen size, the relationship between screen shape and
media experience has not yet received significant attention from media effects scholars, because digital
media predominantly (almost always) use rectangles or variations on rectangles for screen shape. In
other words, the focus has been on identifying the ideal aspect ratio (e.g., 16:9 vs. 4:3) for rectangular
screens and applying design features to make them look better (e.g., rectangles with rounded corners),
while overlooking the psychological effects of geometrically different screen shapes (e.g., rectangles vs.
circles) on media technology.
The recent popularity of smartwatches, however, has motivated designers and manufacturers to
move away from conventional rectangular screens and adopt round screens as one possible way to promote products in the increasingly competitive wearables market. For example, recent smartwatches from
leading manufacturers, such as the Samsung Gear S2, Motorola Moto 360, and LG Watch Urbane, have
adopted round screens to differentiate their products from earlier smartwatches with square screens.
However, the question still remains: Does screen shape really matter for smartwatches?
The consensus on shape psychology has suggested that circles, squares, and triangles have psychological primacy as “good” shapes. Researchers have contended that these are naturally salient prototypes
and perceptually dominant forms that are more easily learned and recognized than other shape variants,
even for individuals who encounter such classes of shape for the first time and whose languages have no
terms for discerning shapes (Rosch, 1973; Bruce & Green, 1985). In contrast, another stream of research
has argued that these good shapes are extremely rare in nature and that objects in the natural world tend
to have irregular shapes (Hailman, 1977; Roberson, Davidoff, & Shapiro, 2002); therefore, perceptual
categorization and recognition of shapes develop with age and experience (Gibson, 1969). If the concept
of shapes is indeed acquired later rather than universally and prelinguistically present, round (circular)
screens for smartwatches may be more easily recognized and accepted than square screens within the
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wearable context, as the circular dial has been the predominant shape in analog watches for several hundred years. Given this existing familiarity or experience with the common usage of shape, the adoption
of round screens in smartwatches is expected to induce positive psychological effects.
From a design perspective, different shapes elicit distinctive psychological responses from users.
Design principles associated with shapes generally suggest that circles signify affection, comfort, harmony, warmth, and sensuality, whereas rectangles connote logic, order, singularity, homogeneity, regularity, and a mathematical foundation (Pinna, 2012; Bradley, 2013). Intuitively, the hedonic elements
of circles are more likely to be positively related to the hedonic qualities of smartwatches with round
screens, compared to those with square screens. On the other hand, given the pragmatic nature of rectangles, the pragmatic qualities of smartwatches may be more strongly promoted by square screens.
In terms of message elaboration, the dual process models would suggest that round screens, like large
screens, serve as a salient modality cue that triggers certain heuristics that promote peripheral, rather
than systematic, processing of the mediated contents. For example, round screens may evoke the novelty
heuristic because earlier media technologies, including the first generation of smartwatches, predominantly adopted square screens until Motorola released the world’s first round-screen smartwatch in late
2014. Sundar (2008) argues that, when this heuristic is triggered, users become so enamored by the technology’s novelty and originality that they attribute greater quality to the content delivered by the new
modality (e.g., round screens) compared to the identical content presented by a conventional mechanism. As reviewed in the preceding section, the assessment and processing of information is largely
influenced by heuristic cues irrelevant to the central content of the information, indicating the possibility that information presented on round screens may generate fewer content-relevant thoughts than the
same information presented on square screens. The literature discussed so far suggests that variations
in smartwatch screen shape are likely to have significant psychological effects on user perceptions and
information processing, but such shape-induced effects have not yet been empirically investigated in the
context of technology-mediated communication. Therefore, this study addresses the following research
question in an attempt to lend empirical support to the literature.
RQ1. How does the variation in screen shape (round vs. square) affect the perception of hedonic
and pragmatic qualities of smartwatches and processing of conveyed information?
Moderating Effects of Presentation Mode
The fact that digital media vary in screen shape and size means it is possible to present information in
various modes, via text, image, audio, and/or video. Studies (e.g., Raphael & Wagner, 1974; Unnava &
Burnkrant, 1991; Lalley, 1998; Hong, Thong, & Tam, 2004) demonstrate that each of these modalities features unique characteristics that influence the ways in which individuals process information, allowing
certain modality-specific contents to be remembered better and processed faster than others (Sundar,
2000). For example, Hong, Thong, and Tam (2004) found that online product information presented in
the text + image format outperformed the same content in text-only format in terms of shortening information search time, enhancing the recall of brand names, and inducing more positive attitudes toward a
website. According to the dual coding theory (Paivio, 1991), the superiority of text + image mode (over
text-only mode) is an outcome of a double effect independently and simultaneously induced by two
cognitive subsystems: one specializing in processing verbal (textual) information and the other specializing in nonverbal (visual) information. Increasing the number of presentation modes, from text only
to text + image to video, triggers the dual coding of information and develops both verbal and nonverbal retrieval routes to information, resulting in more realistic approximations of mediated contents and
enhanced information retention and recall.
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From the MAIN model perspective, the positive effect of multimodal presentation can be explicated
in terms of the operation of cognitive heuristics. Just as large screens and round screens can trigger
the heuristics that influence user interaction with smartwatches and processing of the mediated content, multimodal presentation may also evoke certain mental shortcuts, e.g., the realism heuristic, that
determine how users perceive the device and process given information. Sundar (2008) argues that multimodal information requires a greater number of perceptual routes (e.g., auditory, visual) for processing,
which resembles the ways in which humans use multiple sensory channels to perceive real-life experience
and information. Therefore, when the realism heuristic is triggered by such resemblance, it is likely to
interact with the other heuristics evoked by large screens and round screens, and consequently produce
additive effects on user perceptions.
However, the pattern or direction of this interaction is difficult to predict because the activation
of multiple channels involved in information processing does not always lead to desirable cognitive outcomes. For example, research indicates that news stories presented in text format are better
remembered and recalled than the same contents presented in audiovisual format or via radio and
television (DeFleur et al., 1992; Sundar, 2000). Some scholars have postulated that the simultaneous
activation of multiple modalities can serve to split attention by exposing users to stimuli irrelevant
to the core argument of the message and exhaust the human cognitive resources dedicated to the
encoding, storage, and retrieval of information (Thomas & Meglino, 1997; Lang, 2000). While these
contradictory perspectives suggest that presentation mode influences the outcomes of media usage,
they do not elucidate whether it induces positive or negative effects, particularly in the context of this
study. Therefore, this study proposes the following research question to examine how the presentation
mode by which information is presented on smartwatches interacts with variations in screen size
and shape.
RQ2: How does the variation in presentation mode (text only vs. text + image) by which
information is presented moderate the effects of large screens and round screens?
Method
Experimental Setup
A 2 × 2 × 2 between-subjects experiment with eight conditions representing the two screen sizes
(large vs. small), two screen shapes (round vs. square), and two presentation modes (text + image
vs. text only) was conducted at a large East Asian university. Four smartwatches with large/round,
small/round, large/square, and small/square screens were prepared. Brand logos were masked to
avoid the potential effects of brand reputation or familiarity. Products from Apple were intentionally
excluded from the selection pool for the same reason. A post-experiment questionnaire item assessing whether participants knew the brands of the four smartwatches indicated that 11 participants
could identify the brands of one or more of the smartwatches. Moreover, four of these 11 participants reported that they either owned or used a smartwatch on a regular basis. Given that users’
brand familiarity and prior experience are known to affect the evaluation of technology (Langton,
Lewis, & Clarkson, 2007; de Angeli, Hartmann, & Sutcliffe, 2009), the study excluded responses from
these 11 participants and conducted the final data analysis on the responses from the remaining 160
participants (86 males, 74 females, aged 18–30, M = 23, SD = 2.28). A power analysis verified that
the current sample size was sufficient for testing the hypotheses, with a power of 87% and medium
effect size.
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Given that one of the primary functions of smartwatches is to monitor the user’s health (Blakeway,
2014), stimuli messages sent via the smartwatches during the experiment contained information pertaining to skin temperature, heart rate, number of steps, and calories burned. To present the stimuli
messages to participants, an application called “If This Then That,” or simply, IFTTT, was installed in
the smartwatches, which enables the programming of the smartwatches so that if the experimenter
sends the messages through paired smartphones, then the messages would be displayed on the smartwatches. In the text-only condition, participants received the information in plain-text format, whereas
participants in the text + image condition received the same messages but with additional graphics that
illustrated their health condition (Figure 1). The size and color of the messages were identical across all
conditions, and the picture embedded in the multimodal messages was also identical in the text + image
condition.
Procedure
After signing an informed consent form, participants were randomly assigned to one of the eight
experimental conditions until each of them had 20 participants. The true purpose of the experiment
was not explicitly revealed; instead, participants were told that they were going to try a newly developed
wearable device and tell the experimenter about their overall experience and satisfaction with the
device. That is, no particular task designed to motivate participants to engage in a goal-driven action
was given; the hands-on experience was left up to them. After being informed of the experimental
procedure, participants were asked to wear the smartwatch and were given several minutes to become
familiar with it. They were then asked to leave the lab, walk along a specified path (designed and
explained by the experimenter) around the lab building for 15 minutes, and use the smartwatch freely
while walking. When participants returned to the lab, the experimenter sent the health messages to
their smartwatches remotely either in text-only or text + image format and asked them to access and
review the messages. After finishing the task, participants completed an online questionnaire on a
desktop computer that elicited their assessment of the measured variables discussed in the following
section.
Measures
Participants responded to each questionnaire item by indicating their agreement on a 7-point Likert
scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree/not at all) to 7 (strongly agree/very much so). All of the items
were adapted from validated studies and finessed to reflect the context of the current study. A team
of coders translated the items from English to the participants’ native language, and then another
team of coders back-translated the items to English to confirm that the first coders had not altered the
intended meaning of the original items. Internal consistency of the items was verified by calculating
Figure 1 Stimuli messages in text-only and text + image formats presented on round-screen and
square-screen smartwatches.
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the values of Cronbach’s alphas, which were all above the recommended value of .70, as indicated
below.
Perceived attractiveness (Cronbach’s 𝛼 = .87) was measured using an index composed of five items
adapted from Sundar, Tamul, and Wu (2014). Participants indicated the extent to which the smartwatch
they used was “stylish,” “hip,” “sexy,” “hot,” and “on the cutting edge.”
Perceived control (𝛼 = .90) was measured using four items adapted from Kang and Sundar (2016): “I
was able to control my interaction with the smartwatch,” “I was able to influence how the smartwatch
worked,” “I felt in charge of my experience with the smartwatch,” and “During my interaction with the
smartwatch, I was able to make choices freely.” These items were summed to assess the degree to which
participants felt that they had control over the smartwatches.
Information quality (𝛼 = .87) was measured by the news perception scale developed by Sundar
(2000). Participants indicated the extent to which they felt the given information was “believable,”
“informative,” “accurate,” “objective,” “comprehensive,” and “clear.”
Amount of content-relevant thoughts was operationalized as the total number of thoughts specifically relevant to the given messages (Chaiken & Maheswaran, 1994). Adopting the steps described in
Kim and Sundar (2016), participants were given three minutes and asked to list all the thoughts they
had while accessing the information via the smartwatches. Two graduate students then analyzed the
lists by counting the content (message)-relevant thoughts (e.g., “I burned 10 calories”) and excluding
thoughts irrelevant to the information (e.g., “the smartwatch was cool”). The two coders achieved satisfactory intercoder agreement with regard to the number of content-relevant thoughts (Krippendorff ’s
𝛼 = .90).
Results
Normality tests were conducted to verify the normal distribution of the data by examining the values of
skewness and kurtosis. In sum, the results indicated no significant deviation from normality. Three-way
analyses of variance (ANOVAs) were then conducted to examine the effects of screen size, screen shape,
and presentation mode. Next, Hayes’s (2013) PROCESS macro for SPSS was employed to examine the
mediating effects of perceived attractiveness and perceived control.
Effects of Screen Size
Consistent with H1 and H3, the ANOVA results indicated that the large-screen smartwatches were perceived to be more attractive, F(1, 152) = 49.97, p < .001, 𝜂 p 2 = .25, and easier to control, F(1, 152) = 9.54,
p < .01, 𝜂 p 2 = .06, than the small-screen smartwatches. The results also indicated that the messages delivered via the large screens, compared to small screens, were rated higher in quality, F(1, 152) = 31.28,
p < .001, 𝜂 p 2 = .17. As predicted in H5, the large screens inhibited participants from generating thoughts
about the specific contents of the given information, such that the messages presented on the large
screens elicited fewer content-relevant thoughts than the messages presented on the small screens, F(1,
152) = 12.31, p < .001, 𝜂 p 2 = .08.
H2 and H4 were also supported. The results of the mediation analyses showed that the indirect
effects of large screens on information quality through perceived attractiveness, B = .22, SE = .10,
LLCI = .04, ULCI = .44, and through perceived control, B = .12, SE = .05, LLCI = .03, ULCI = .26, were
both significant.
Effects of Screen Shape
With regard to the first research question, the ANOVA results showed that the round-screen
smartwatches were perceived to be more attractive than the square-screen smartwatches,
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F(1, 152) = 5.19, p < .05, 𝜂 p 2 = .03. However, the reverse pattern was observed for perceived control: the square screens were perceived to provide a greater sense of control than the round screens,
F(1, 152) = 10.54, p < .01, 𝜂 p 2 = .07. In addition, the messages presented on the round screens were
rated higher in quality, F(1, 152) = 4.57, p < .05, 𝜂 p 2 = .03, and although statistically nonsignificant, generally elicited fewer content-relevant thoughts than the messages presented on the square
screens.
The results of the mediation analyses indicated that the indirect effect of round screens on information quality through perceived attractiveness was significant, B = .11, SE = .06, LLCI = .01, ULCI = .25.
In addition, the sense of control heightened by the square screens had mediating effects on information
quality, B = .19, SE = .07, LLCI = .07, ULCI = .36.
Effects of Presentation Mode
Presentation mode significantly influenced the level of information quality and processing. The messages
presented in the image + text format were rated as higher in quality, F(1, 152) = 9.10, p < .01, 𝜂 p 2 = .06,
and generated fewer content-relevant thoughts, F(1, 152) = 27.21, p < .001, 𝜂 p 2 = .15, than the messages
in text-only format. Presentation mode, however, had no main effect on the perceived attractiveness and
control of smartwatches.
The interaction between screen size and presentation mode on information quality was significant,
F(1, 152) = 35.33, p < .001, 𝜂 p 2 = .19. When participants used the large-screen smartwatches, the messages in the image + text format elicited perceptions of higher information quality than did messages in
the text-only format. However, presentation mode made no difference to information quality when the
messages were delivered on the small screens (Figure 2).
A significant three-way interaction among screen size, screen shape, and presentation mode predicting information quality was found, F(1, 152) = 4.82, p < .05, 𝜂 p 2 = .03. When the messages were
presented in the image + text format, both the large/round and large/square screens elicited higher
perceptions of information quality than did the small/round and small/square screens (Figure 3, left).
However, when the messages appeared in text-only format, variations in both screen size and screen
shape made no difference to information quality (Figure 3, right).
Figure 2 Two-way interaction between screen size and presentation mode predicting information
quality.
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Figure 3 Three-way interaction among screen size, screen shape, and presentation mode predicting
information quality.
Discussion
One of the most divisive debates in the smartwatch market has originated from simple questions
about design features: Should smartwatches be round or square? Should they be big or small? The
current study empirically addresses these questions by demonstrating that screen shape and screen
size are salient structural features of smartwatches that can make significant differences not only to
the hedonic and pragmatic qualities of the devices, but also to the depth of information processing via
smartwatches.
Specifically, large screens are found to be more effective in promoting both the hedonic (perceived
attractiveness) and pragmatic (perceived control) qualities of smartwatches than small screens. Similar
to previous studies (e.g., Lombard, 1995; Hou et al., 2012; Kim & Sundar, 2014, 2016) that found positive
effects of large screens in both the stationary and mobile contexts, the large-screen smartwatches induced
a greater sense of attractiveness and control than did the small-screen smartwatches, which, in turn, led
users to rate information provided by the smartwatches more favorably. Therefore, this study extends
the existing screen size literature to wearable media technology by validating that a marginal difference
in screen size as small as a few tenths of an inch can, in fact, result in notable psychological differences in
user perception. This reconfirms the critical role of screen size in determining the quality of the media
experience and suggests that the relevant literature is applicable to future wearable technology. However, screen size cannot be too large in the wearable context; thus, one challenge for future research is
determining the optimal screen size that befits the wearable nature of the technology, guaranteeing the
anywhere–anytime access to information (Kim & Sundar, 2014).
Regarding screen shape, a different pattern was discovered: Round screens were positively associated with hedonic quality, whereas square screens were positively associated with the pragmatic quality
of smartwatches. Theoretically, round screens may serve as an aesthetic or novelty cue that triggers the
coolness heuristic, i.e., “a conscious acknowledgment of the hipness of the digital device suggested by its
newer modalities” (Sundar, 2008). Given that most earlier smartwatches manufactured by the industry
leaders (e.g., Samsung, LG, Sony, Pebble, Nike) predominantly had square screens, the sense of attractiveness and originality associated with round screens might have evoked the coolness heuristic (Sundar,
Tamul, & Wu, 2014) and provided users with a more positive experience compared to the conventional
square-screen smartwatches. Further, as Leland (2004) points out, coolness is more likely to facilitate
symbolic and identity-related goals than utilitarian and pragmatic goals; hence, the sense of coolness
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Figure 4 Research model examined by the phantom model analysis.
triggered by round screens might have led users to feel unique and different from others, allowing them
to express their identity via an attractive, cool device. On the other hand, users might have attributed
a higher pragmatic value to the square screens due to their greater controllability and ease of use and
perceived that they were more practical for completing the experimental task efficiently than the round
screens. Together, these findings also validate the generally accepted psychology regarding shapes, that
circles signify affection, comfort, and sensuality, whereas rectangles reflect logic, order, and regularity
(Pinna, 2012; Bradley, 2013).
To further explicate this two-dimensional conceptualization of the effects of screen shape and size,
the current study conducted a supplemental mediation analysis utilizing the phantom model approach
(Rindskopf, 1984; Macho & Ledermann, 2011), which enables examination of the simultaneous effects
of multiple independent and mediating variables on a dependent variable in a single analysis. In other
words, the indirect effects of round screens and large screens, via the hedonic and pragmatic qualities
of smartwatches, on information assessments were examined in the same model (Figure 4) in order
to ascertain which mediation paths were statistically valid. The results of the phantom model analysis (Table 1) indicated that the proposed mediation paths were significant except for Path 4 (round
screen → perceived control → information quality), such that large screens enhanced the quality of information by simultaneously boosting both the hedonic and pragmatic qualities of the smartwatch, whereas
the effects of round screens on information quality were mediated only by the hedonic quality of the
medium. This not only supplements the earlier finding that round screens are more closely associated
with the hedonic, rather than pragmatic, quality of smartwatches, but also demonstrates that such an
association holds even when an additional structural feature (i.e., screen size) is introduced to play a
role in the communication process.
Another noteworthy finding from the mediation analysis is that the overall magnitude of the
hedonic routes (Path 1 and Path 3) was larger than that of the pragmatic routes (Path 2 and Path 4),
despite the task-oriented nature of the assignment (i.e., accessing and reviewing health information),
suggesting that the “what is beautiful is good” (Dion, Berscheid, & Walster, 1972) phenomenon prevails even in the wearable technology context. This is consistent with previous studies (e.g., Kim &
Sundar, 2014, 2016) revealing that users place greater emphasis on the hedonic dimension of mobile
communication technology than on its pragmatic dimension, even when they engage in practical
and purposeful tasks. Kim and Sundar (2016) argue that the robust effects of hedonic factors in
mobile communication are largely due to the medium’s mobility providing a sense of availability,
expediency, and immediacy; the sense of mobility is likely to be strengthened in wearable communication and induce similar positive effects on the hedonic quality of smartwatches, even more so when
Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication (2017) © 2017 International Communication Association
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Table 1 Simultaneous Mediation Effects of Perceived Attractiveness and Perceived Control Underlying
The Effects of Screen Size and Screen Shape on Information Quality
Confidence interval
Mediation path
Path 1
Path 2
Path 3
Path 4
Large screen → Perceived
attractiveness → Information
quality∗∗
Large screen → Perceived
control → Information quality∗
Round screen → Perceived
attractiveness → Information
quality∗∗
Round screen → Perceived
control → Information quality
B
SE
Lower CI
Upper CI
.28
.10
.10
.50
.09
.05
.01
.22
.13
.06
.02
.27
.02
.01
-.01
.03
∗ p < .05, ∗∗ p < .01.
information is presented on large and round screens compared with small and square screens. Another
explanation is that hedonic qualities of a technology, such as beauty, tend to be regarded as the central
characteristics of that technology (Forgas, 1995) because they are easily accessible through the technology’s visual presentation while pragmatic qualities are revealed through the interaction with the
technology (Hassenzahl & Monk, 2010). That being said, the practical implication of the study findings
is that those interested in maximizing the persuasive potential of a message (e.g., advertisers and
e-health service providers) would do well to fully utilize the positive effects of large and round screens as
one effective way to increase the quality of information by enhancing the hedonic quality of the medium
that delivers it.
With regard to information processing, screen size is found to influence the level of message elaboration. Consistent with the understanding that individuals initially engage in heuristic processing of
conveyed information by resorting to easily accessible cognitive heuristics (Chaiken, 1980; Chaiken,
Liberman, & Eagly, 1989), participants in the current study demonstrated the tendency to inhibit message elaboration when given information via large screens, theoretically because this modality cue might
have triggered strong mental shortcuts such as “the bigger the better” and realism heuristics. In other
words, participants might have effortlessly relied on such heuristics to assess the conveyed information
via heuristic processing, whereas participants who received the same information on small screens were
more likely to engage in systematic processing because the modality cue (i.e., large screen) was not available to trigger the aforementioned heuristics. More importantly, the fact that participants showed such
differences, even though they received relatively short messages during the experiment, suggests that the
structural features of media technology such as screen size can be equally as influential as, if not more
than, the length, type, and content of information (i.e., message effects) and individual differences in
motivation and ability to process information.
In addition to screen shape and size, the role played by presentation mode helps to further understand how users perceive information in wearable communication. The significant main effects of
multimodal presentation (image + text) on information quality and content-relevant thoughts (but not
for perceived attractiveness and perceived control) indicate that presentation mode is more closely
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Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication (2017) © 2017 International Communication Association
associated with the processing of communicated contents than it is with the quality of the communication medium itself. One possible explanation is that enriching the presentation mode, from text
only to image + text, might have increased the number of perceptual systems involved in information
processing, enabling the messages to be more easily decoded and translated with a higher resemblance to reality (Sundar, 2008; Kim & Sundar, 2016). The enhanced realism of the conveyed messages
might have evoked a more peripheral processing of the given information with reduced cognitive
elaboration.
Furthermore, the moderating effects of presentation mode overall show that the messages in the
image + text format generally boost the positive effects of large screens and round screens on information quality. The two-way interaction between screen size and presentation mode predicting information
quality demonstrates that presentation mode plays a limited role when the messages are presented on
small screens, but the multimode (image + text) enhances the information quality when the messages are
presented on large screens. This pattern is consistent with the cue-cumulation effect suggested by Sundar,
Knobloch-Westerwick, and Hastall (2007), indicating that the presence of the two positive modality cues
(i.e., large screen and multimode) induces stronger additive effects on promoting the information quality
compared to one modality cue. Similarly, the three-way interaction among screen size, screen shape, and
presentation mode predicting information quality also suggests an interplay of the three positive modality cues (i.e., large screen, round screen, and multimode) inducing the cue-cumulation effect, such that
the positive effect of large screens and round screens on information quality is further enhanced in multimodal message presentation. However, the messages presented on large screens and round screens play
a limited role when the messages are delivered in the text-only format. One possible explanation is that
the text mode alone requires greater cognitive elaboration for processing the messages because, in reality,
human perceptual systems are used to processing multimodal information (Paivio, 1991; Sundar, 2008).
Consequently, the greater cognitive effort invested in processing the messages in the text-only format
might have inhibited the additive effect of large screens and round screens on promoting information
quality.
A key limitation of this study may arise from the question of whether the observed effects could
be attributed solely to variations in screen shape and size. Methodologically, it would have been ideal
to use smartwatches of the same brand, with identical structural and interface features. However, no
one manufacturer currently produces smartwatches with all four screen variations (i.e., large/round,
small/round, large/square, and small/square); hence, the experimenter selected smartwatches from three
different brands that were likely to show a perceptible (and ecologically valid) difference in their shape
and size. This leaves open the possibility that unexplored, uncontrolled hardware and interface features
(e.g., processing power, screen resolution, display panel, wristband material) of the smartwatches could
have played a role in influencing the effects of screen shape and size.
Another methodological limitation involves the absence of investigations into the potential moderating effects of different levels of exposure to health information and types of experimental tasks. For
example, prior studies have yielded two competing results pertaining to the message exposure frequency
(Tellis, 1997): the repetitionist perspective, demonstrating that repeated exposure to message stimuli
increases the accessibility and retrievability of the relevant information; and the minimalist perspective,
positing that marginal exposure is sufficient to elicit optimal responses from message recipients. Similarly, the type of experimental tasks, or mode (e.g., action-driven vs. goal-driven) of using an object
(i.e., smartwatch, as in this study), is found to influence how users perceive the hedonic and pragmatic
values of the object (van Schaik & Ling, 2009). Therefore, incorporating such variations in exposure
frequency and task type into the experiment could have further enhanced the explanatory strength
of this study.
Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication (2017) © 2017 International Communication Association
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The limited generalizability of the study’s findings should also be noted. Given that the current
experiment was conducted in the context of processing health information, other types of information
available through smartwatches (e.g., entertainment and advertising) may be processed and evaluated
differently when the size and shape of the devices vary, suggesting that the findings of this study may not
be applicable to all types of information conveyed via wearable devices. Similarly, the sample consisting
only of college students also limits the generalizability of the findings. The exponential growth of the
smartwatch market suggests that they are likely to be used by diverse demographic groups; therefore,
the homogeneous sample of students participating in this study may not represent the entire range of
current and potential smartwatch users.
Further, this sampling issue raises a question about the potential moderating effect of issue involvement. Given that younger populations tend to have relatively low involvement in health-related issues
compared with elderly users who constantly track and monitor their health, this study’s suggestion that
large and round screens be utilized may be effective only for the youth or those for whom health issues
are of low personal relevance. Therefore, future studies should recruit a more representative, diverse
sample and probe the moderating effects of information type and personal relevance to ensure greater
generalizability and explanatory strength.
Acknowledgments
The work described in this article was fully supported by a grant from City University of Hong Kong
(Project No. 7200509).
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About the Author
Ki Joon Kim is an assistant professor in the Department of Media and Communication at City University of Hong Kong, where he investigates how technological affordances of digital communication
media influence the behavioral and psychological outcomes of technology–mediated communication.
His works have appeared in international journals such as the Journal of Computer–Mediated Communication, Human Communication Research, Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, Computers in Human Behavior, Internet Research, and the International Journal of Human–Computer Studies.
Address: M5084 Run Run Shaw Creative Media Centre, 18 Tat Hong Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong
Email: [email protected]
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