Wayne State University
Kinesiology, Health and Sport Studies
College of Education
10-1-2009
Motivational Factors Influencing Sport Spectator
Involvement At NCAA Division II Basketball
Games
Yun Seok Choi
Wayne State University
Jeffrey J. Martin
Wayne State University, [email protected]
Meungguk Park
Southern Illinois University Carbondale
Taeho Yoh
Southern Illinois University Carbondale
Recommended Citation
Choi, Y., Martin, J. J., Park, M., & Yoh, T. (2009). Motivational factors influencing sport spectator involvement at NCAA Division II
basketball games. Journal for the Study of Sports and Athletes in Education, 3(3), 265-284.
Available at: http://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/coe_khs/34
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the College of Education at DigitalCommons@WayneState. It has been accepted for inclusion
in Kinesiology, Health and Sport Studies by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@WayneState.
Yun Seok Choi, Jeffrey J. Martin,
Meungguk Park &Taeho Yoh
Motivational Factors Influencing
Sport Spectator Involvement At NCAA
Division II Basketball Games
The purpose of this study was to investigate the motivational
factors affecting sport spectator involvement using 304 spectators from NCAA
Division II men's and women's basketball games. Two aspects (behavioral and
socio-psychological) of sport spectator involvement were examined. The results
revealed that spectators at intercollegiate basketball games had a higher level
of socio-psychological involvement than behavioral involvement. A series of
multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine the affects of sociomotivational factors (perceived value, fan identification, involvement opportu­
nity, and reference groups) on sport spectator involvement. Fan identification,
involvement opportunity, and reference groups were identified as influential
factors that had a significant impact on overall sport spectator involvement.
The results also indicated that the four motivational factors predicted more
variance for socio-psychological involvement (R2 = .33) than behavioral involve­
ment (R2 = .22). The findings of this study provide valuable insight to Division II
athletic administrators about how to attract additional spectators to collegiate
basketball games.
Abstract
Collegiate sports play a significant role in g en erating m eaningful grow th in
the sport industry, especially in th e U nited States (Ho & Jiang, 2006). Fur­
therm ore, college sports have b e e n recognized as a significant m arket se g ­
m ent due to their unique characteristics such as a diverse fan base, high
levels of spectator involvem ent, an d intense m arket com petition (Fink, Trail,
& A nderson, 2002). As collegiate sports have developed into a big business,
m any colleges and universities se ek opportunities to accom plish their m is­
sions, such as increasing their visibility, enhan cin g their im age, and gener­
ating financial success through athletic departm ents (Howard & Crompton,
2004). Several researchers (e.g., Fulks, 2000; Robinson, Trail, Dick, & Gillentine, 2005) have reported th at athletic departm en ts w ith com petitive athletic
program s g en erate profits for their universities. Direct reven ue from ticket
sales as w ell as indirect revenue from sponsorship, broadcasting rights, and
m erchandise are typical incom e stream s for college athletic departm ents.
For exam ple, som e Division I institutions attract m ore th a n 95,000 spectators
for each gam e, an d g enerate approxim ately $3 million for a single football
Journal for the Study o f Sports a n d Athletes in Education, Volume 3, Issue 3, Fall 2009, pp. 265-284.
Copyright © 2009 Left Coast Press, Inc. All rights reserved.
265
266
Yuri SeokChoi etal.
contest (D eScheriver & Jensen, 2002). In 2006, th e U niversity of Florida
athletic d ep a rtm e n t g e n e ra te d $82.4 million in rev enue. H owever, today's
colleges an d universities have ex p erien c ed rapid ch a n g es (Jam es & Ross,
2004).
E ducational adm inistrators are confronted w ith ch an g es associated w ith
ad ap tin g technology, ch an g in g dem ographics, increasing com petition, ris­
ing costs, an d fundin g cuts. In addition, th e se ed u cational adm inistrators
also are ch allen g ed to anticipate ch a n g es an d to form ulate proactive re ­
sponses w hich will fu rth er th e universities' ed u catio n al missions. Because
athletic program s are considered p art of h ig h er edu catio n institutions, a th ­
letic d ep a rtm e n ts face th e sam e financial problem s as do th e institutions to
w hich they belong (Shulm an & Bowen, 2001). M any colleges a n d universi­
ties h av e b e e n facing increasingly tight b u d g e ts in rec en t years an d have
b e e n struggling to provid e m ore fu nding for th e ir ow n athletic program s.
M oreover, athletic adm inistrators in intercollegiate sports m ust d ea l w ith p e ­
riods of decline, g o v ern m en t m an d ates an d guidelines, a n d various financial
difficulties.
U nlike Division I schools, athletic d ep a rtm e n ts a t Division II schools g e n ­
era te relatively sm all am ounts of rev e n u e from financial sources including
m edia rights fees, luxury seating, sponsorship, a n d advertising (Jam es &
Ross, 2004). M any athletic program s at Division II institutions h av e lim ited
public attention, only m inor m ark etin g efforts, a n d en co u n ter difficulty o b ­
taining sponsors (H ow ard & C rom pton, 2005). Robison e t al. (2005) rep o rt­
ed th a t th e av erag e b u d g e t for a n entire Division II athletic d ep a rtm e n t is
$1,900,000, an d nine p e rc e n t of entire rev e n u es are g e n e ra te d by ticket sales
at hom e gam es. O ne of th e m ost pervasive ch allenges facing th e se athletic
d ep a rtm e n ts is sustaining a tten d a n ce at intercollegiate sporting ev en ts and
m inim izing th e d ec rea se an d fluctuation of atten d an ce. A n athletic d e p a rt­
m ent's an n u a l b u d g e t g enerally consists of central university appropriation,
rev e n u e from advertising, an d ticket sales for sport ev en ts (Jam es & Ross,
2004). B ecause athletic d ep a rtm e n ts heavily rely on institutional su pport and
stu d e n t fees as funding sources, th ere is n e e d for athletic adm inistrators in
Division II to m axim ize rev e n u e from ticket sales.
S pectators are th e key constituent of a sport organization's success. Thus,
u n d e rsta n d in g spectators an d their behaviors is crucial for sport o rg an iz a­
tions to effectively m a n ag e a rapidly ch a n g in g m arketplace. S pectators of
collegiate sports are a u n iq u e group of individuals w hose consum er b e h a v ­
iors are co nsidered to b e different from those of typical consum ers (Ferrerira
& A rm strong, 2004). T h ese groups of fans an d spectators look for u niq ue
consum ption value w hich they can ex p erien ce only at collegiate sport
events. In o rder to h av e a b ette r u n d ersta n d in g of th e sport spectator b e h a v ­
ior, it is essential to identify th e m otivational factors influencing a tten d a n ce
an d overall satisfaction (Mullin, Hardy, & Sutton, 2007). A rm strong (1999)
Sport Spectator Involvement
267
also em p h asize d th e im portance of studying m otives of spectators at various
sporting events. A ccording to him, exam ining th e reasons of atten d in g col­
lege sporting ev ents is critical for college athletic d ep a rtm e n ts to b e su ccess­
ful in a highly com petitive m arketplace.
As M ilne an d M cD onald (1999> stated, kn ow ing an d u n d ersta n d in g
sport sp ectato r involvem ent also helps college athletic d ep a rtm e n ts ac cu ­
rately se g m en t th e ir ta rg e t m a rk e t an d effectively ev alu ate th e ir m ark etin g
efforts, b e c a u se sport spectator involvem ent has a pow erful influence on the
level of atten d a n ce . In addition, they describ ed sport spectator involvem ent
as consisting of tw o aspects of consum er behavior: affective involvem ent
an d b ehav ioral consum ption. To see an increase in atte n d a n c e at a sporting
event, sport spectator involvem ent should be se e n as a first step to b ecom ­
ing a loyal sport fan w ho is com m itted, loyal, an d identifies strongly w ith a
specific te am or player (Capella, 2002). Thus, dev elop ing a profile of sport
spectator involvem ent provides an opportunity for a sport organization to
identify spectators' interest an d com m itm ent.
W ell-designed a n d cond u cted m ark et rese arch in sp ectato r behavior
provides accurate co nsum er inform ation related to sp ectato r behaviors, p ref­
erences, trends, characteristics, an d reaction p atte rn s (M ullin e t al, 2007).
Such inform ation should prove useful to sport m a rk e te rs an d adm inistrators
in college sports to d eterm in e their ta rg e t segm ents, to satisfy consum ers'
dem an d , an d to m e et th eir n e e d s effectively a n d efficiently. A lthough m any
Division II athletic adm inistrators are aw are of th e significant role of ticket
sales in increasing revenu es, th e y h av e little inform ation about th e d eterm i­
nan ts of spectator a tten d a n ce at th eir sporting events. M oreover, althoug h
num ero us studies h av e b e e n conducted to investigate spectators' m otiva­
tional factors, th e y are lim ited a t professional an d m ajor collegiate sporting
events. As stated previously, studying spectators' m otivational factors influ­
encing their decision m ak ing process reg a rd in g atten d in g collegiate sport­
ing events m ight b e essential to u n d ersta n d sport spectator behavior. By
doing so, it is possible to identify an d im prove th e are as of th e sport m a rk e t­
ing in th e p u rsu it of m ore spectators at collegiate sporting events.
Purpose of the Study
Therefore, th e prim ary purpo se of th e current study w as to investigate m o­
tivational factors (e.g., p erceiv ed value, involvem ent opportunity, fan id e n ­
tification, reference group) affecting th e level of sport spectator involve­
m en t w ith tw o aspects of sport spectator b ehavior (socio-psychological an d
behavioral involvem ents). Specifically, this p re se n t study w as d esig n ed to
identify th e factors w hich have th e g rea test influence on th e spectator d ec i­
sion m aking processes reg a rd in g atten d in g Division II collegiate b ask etb a ll
268
YunSeokChoietal.
gam es. An additional purpose of the presen t study w as to provide valuable
inform ation to athletic directors, sport m arketers, and adm inistrators in col­
lege sports to m ore effectively segm en t an d predict spectators' behavior. A
third purpose w as to determ ine if th ere w ere age, stu d en t status, and gen d er
differences (e.g., spectator and athlete gender) am ong individuals w ho a t­
te n d e d gam es.
T he following section provides a theoretical overview of sport spectator
behavior, and discusses its application in literature.
L ite r a tu r e R e v ie w
Sport Spectator Involvement
D uring th e p ast decade, th e im portance of sport spectator involvem ent has
g ained a lot of attention in literature (Capella, 2002; Funk, Ridinger, & M oor­
man, 2004; Lough & Kim, 2004). Rothschild (1984) defined sport spectator
involvem ent as an unobservable state of motivation, arousal, or interest to­
w ard a sporting event or associated product th a t is evoked by particular m o­
tives. In addition, Laverie and A rnett (2000) utilized th e construct of sport
spectator involvem ent, defined as the active interest in, en g a g em en t with,
an d com m itm ent to a sport event exhibited by th e sport spectator.
In previous sport spectator and fan behavior literature, sport spectator in ­
volvem ent has b e e n tre a te d as a m ultidim ensional construct. Theoretically,
tw o im portant aspects of sport involvem ent hav e b e e n proposed in study­
ing sport spectator involvem ent: psychological and behavioral involvem ent.
Funk et al. (2004) su g g ested that this m ultidim ensional perspective of sport
spectator involvem ent provides useful insights to und erstan d in g th e differ­
ent patterns of sport spectator behavior useful in segm entin g fan or sp e cta­
tor base. In their study, th e Team Sport Involvem ent (TSI) w as designed to
assess relationships am ong th e 18 antecedents w hich fell into tw o categories
(individual characteristics and social situation) and th ree facets (attraction
self-expression, centrality to lifestyle, an d risk) of psychological fan involve­
m ent w ith a professional sport team . A ccording to their findings, th e utility of
psychological spectator involvem ent allows sport m arketers to b etter u n d er­
stand spectator behaviors in an increasingly diverse sport industry. C apella
(2002) also d eveloped th e F an Behavior Q uestionnaire (FBQ) to exam ine the
em otional and behavioral involvem ents of fans. T he results indicated that
sport fans w ho are em otionally or psychologically attached to their team will
likely m ak e m any purch ases of team apparel. T hese tw o studies suggested
th at psychological spectator involvem ent is a m eaningful area of research.
Funk, Mahony, N akazaw a, an d H irakaw a (2001) have also asserted
th at spectators' psychological attachm ent to sporting events is a n essential
predictor of sport spectator behavior b ecause it allows sport m arketers to
Sport Spectator Involvement
269
identify th e p attern of sport consum er behavior associated w ith the differ­
en t levels of motivation. However, M ilne an d M cD onald (1999) hav e stated
th at the behavioral aspect of spectators also plays a significant role in sport
spectator involvem ent b ecause a person m ust p articipate in sport events in a
direct or indirect w ay to becom e a sport ev en t consum er. Furtherm ore, they
suggested th at psychological involvem ent rep resen ts em otional responses
th at spectators experience during the sporting events or are associated w ith
their team in g en e ral w hile behavioral involvem ent is considered displays
of positive support for the team . Therefore, behavioral aspects of spectators
in term s of purchasing ticket, searching for inform ation about th e team or
player, an d cheering actions should b e included an d m easu red to predict
sport spectator behavior as a result of psychological involvem ent.
Motivational Factors Influencing Sport Spectator Involvement
D ue to the im portance of sport spectator behavior, scholars in th e field of
sport m arketing have paid considerable attention to m otivations of sport
spectators. As a result, a w ide array of interpersonal motives of sport con­
sum ers have b e e n proposed to explain sport spectator an d fan behavior. To
b etter u n d erstan d such m otivation, m any researchers (e.g., Fink, Trail, &
A nderson, 2002; Jam es & Ridinger 2002; Ja m es & Ross, 2004; Lough & Kim,
2004) h av e proposed scales to m easure sport spectator motives. W ann (1995)
developed the Sport Fan M otivation Scale (SFMS) to assess sport spectator
motives. T he SFMS included eigh t m otivational constructs: eustress, self-es­
teem benefits, escape, entertainm ent, econom ic factors, aesthetic qualities,
group affiliation, and family needs. M ilne an d M cD onald (1999) developed
th e M otivations of th e Sport C onsum er (MSC) scale, b ased on M aslow's H i­
erarchy of N eed s (1943) w hich contained 12 m otivation factors: risk-taking,
stress reduction, aggression, affiliation, social facilitation, self-esteem , com ­
petition, achievem ent, skill mastery, aesthetics, value developm ent, and
self-actualization.
Trail and Ja m es (2001) developed th e M otivation Scale for Sport C on­
sum ption (MSSC) w hich possesses satisfactory psychom etric properties. The
M SSC included nine m otivational constructs: achievem ent, acquisition of
know ledge, aesthetics, dram a, escape, family, physical attractiveness of par­
ticipants, th e quality of th e physical skill of th e participants, an d social inter­
action. H owever, F unk et al. (2004) indicated th a t the studies on m otivation
in sport spectator or fan behavior hav e several challenges; 1) u n derstanding
the interrelationships b etw e en m otives and specific behavior, and 2) d ev el­
oping a list of m otivational factors com prehensive en o u g h to m easure the
w ide variety of m otivating forces w hich influence spectator behavior. T h ere­
fore, m otives of sport spectator behavior are a difficult concept to m easure
an d num erous arg um ents have b e e n p rese n ted in literature concerning re ­
searchers' ability to m easure an d anticipate it (Fink e t al, 2002).
270
Yun Seok Choi et al.
T here h as not b e e n m uch consensus in th e literature as to w hich fac­
tors best explain an d p red ict th e m otives an d b ehavior for sport spectators.
A lthough the n u m b er of m otivational factors influencing sport spectator in ­
volvem ent h ave b e e n v arie d am ong scholars, th e theories th a t h av e received
significant attention in literature can be classified into four g en e ral c a te g o ­
ries: (a) involvem ent opportunity as a significant elem en t of stim ulation, (b)
p erceived v alues from v arious product benefits, (c) em otional affiliation w ith
fan identification, an d (d) social interaction w ith significant others including
reference groups (Iw asaki & Havitz, 1998). See F igure 1.
Involvement Opportunity
Ja m e s an d Ridinger (2002) identified th e m otives of
spectators atten d in g m en's an d w om en's college bask etb all gam es. T heir
findings revealed th a t individuals atten d in g th e g am es w ere significantly
influenced by e n terta in m e n t values an d the involvem ent opportunities. In­
volvem ent opportunity refers to a variety of fan services provided by the
sport organization to en h a n c e spectator involvem ent, including stadium a c ­
cessibility, facility aesthetics, inform ation availability on g am e schedu le an d
ticket price, an d direct interaction w ith fans th ro u g h th e team w ebsite (Mahony, N akazaw a, Funk, Jam es, & G ladden, 2002; M ilne & M cDonald, 1999).
O ther research ers h av e found th a t involvem ent opportunities can have
considerable im pact on spectator behavior (G reenw ell, Fink, a n d Pastore,
2002; Ja m es & Ridinger, 2002; W akefield & Blodgett, 1994). For exam ple, the
ICR Survey R esearch G roup, w hich conducted a nationw ide survey of 1,000
sport fans (1994), found th a t th e m ost im portant factor fans v alu ed w h en
atten d in g professional sport events, w as a d e q u a te p ark in g or good public
transportation. Furtherm ore, S hank (2002) no ted th a t th e physical su rro u n d ­
ings of the stadium can affect spectators' desire to stay at th e stadium and
retu rn to th e stadium .
Perceived Value
P erceived value can be defined as th e p erceiv ed difference
b e tw e e n all th e benefits a n d all th e costs of consum ption (Kotler & A rm ­
strong, 2008). C onsum ers have dynam ic p erceptions of consum ption value
w ith th e sam e product or service. A lthough a certain type of value in term s
of quality of product a n d service m ight b e universal, perceiv ed valu es of
individuals vary b a se d on the dynam ics of individual value system (Kim,
2003). For exam ple, one consum er could value a certain pro d u ct d u e to a
low price, w hile oth er consum ers value th e sam e pro d u ct b ec au se of its v ari­
ous benefits w ith relatively low price. Thus, it m ak es sen se th a t p erceived
values of various pro duct benefits, g re a te r th a n consum ers' expectations in
th eir consum ption ev aluatio n process, plays a significant role in th eir fu ­
ture decision m aking process. M cDonald, M ilne, a n d H ong (2002) ind icated
th at p erceived value is a n essential predictor to identify sport spectators'
motives. Funk, Mahony, a n d Ridinger (2002) also su g g e sted th a t p erceived
271
Sport Spectator Involvement
Figure 1.
Relationship
between spectator
motivational factors
and overall spsort
spectator involvement.
Fan
Identification
Overall Sport
Spectator
Involvement
values from various service areas including facility attractiveness, accessi­
bility, cleanliness, parking, an d en terta in m e n t valu e should b e included in
th e psychological scale to m easu re sport spectator m otivation. A ccording to
F unk et al. (2004), p erceived value is a pow erful predictor of sport spectator
involvem ent influenced by individual an d environm ental factors.
Fan Identification
A nother im portant m otive for spectator a tten d a n ce is fan
identification. Trail, Robinson, Dick, an d G illentine (2003) rep o rted th a t in ­
tercollegiate athletics sport fans an d spectators w ere m ore likely to b e m o­
tivated by fan identification an d loyalty rath e r th a n en terta in m e n t values.
Team or fan identification is defined as a spectator's perso nal com m itm ent
an d em otional involvem ent w ith h is/h er sport te am (Sutton, M cDondald,
M ilne, & C im perm an, 1997). G reenw ell, Fink, an d P astore (2002) noted,
"A m ong psychological variables, team identification m ay be th e m ost im ­
p o rtan t v ariable in influencing perceptions of th e service ex perience" (p.
234). Spectators w ith h ig h levels of identification te n d to display different
behaviors th a n those w ith low levels of identification (W ann & Branscom be,
1990; W ann, Dolan, M cG eorge, & Allison, 1994).
Reference Groups
R eference groups c an also h ave a significant influence on an
individual's decision-m aking processes (Blackwell, M iniard, & Engel, 2001;
Shank, 2002). "R eference groups" are defined as individuals w ho influence
th e inform ation, attitudes, an d behaviors of oth er g roup m em bers (Shank,
2002, p. 169). M any research ers (i.e., F un k et al., 2002; F unk et al., 2004;
Trail & Jam es, 2001) proposed th a t reference group s directly an d indirectly
influence sport spectator behaviors in m any w ays; (a) sharing experiences,
(b) social interactions, an d (c) en h a n cin g th e im ag e of sport products.
T he em otional ex perience of reference groups on sport spectator b e h a v ­
ior g e n e rate s social bonds an d interactions w ith friends an d family m em bers.
From this perspective, reference groups can b e se e n as pow erful p red ic­
tors of sport spectator involvem ent. T he level of sport spectator involvem ent
272
YunSeok Choi etal.
fluctuates due to various factors such as values, needs, the initial behavioral
experience, social support from others, and personal satisfaction (Funk et al.,
2004). However, few researchers have attem pted to assess sport consum er
behavior and preferences regarding factors th at jointly affect sport spectator
involvem ent in collegiate sports, especially at th e Division II level (Chelladurai & Chang, 2000). See Figure 2.
M e t h o d o lo g y
Participants
A sam ple of sport spectators (N = 304) w as random ly selected from ten
NCA A Division II m en's and w om en's basketball gam es (NCAA Division II)
at a large M idw estern university. Six different seat sections to b e surveyed
w ere random ly selected for each gam e (five m en's gam es and five w om en's
gam es) and five trained surveyors, including the researcher, distributed the
self-adm inistrated questionnaires to those w ho w ere in th e selected sections
d uring half-time, as w ell as before an d after th e gam es. T he final sam ple
w as com prised of m ore m ale (69.7%) th a n fem ale (30.3%) spectators an d the
participants' ages ran g e d from 18 to 80 years w hile th e majority (70.0%) fell
b e tw e e n 23-46 years of age. T he largest sub-groups of th e participants w ere
w hite (64.8%) and African A m erican (30.9%).
Instruments
SportSpectator Involvement A modified Sport S pectator Involvem ent Scale (SSIS)
developed by Kim (2003) w as used in th e p resen t study. The questionnaire
consists of two parts (behavioral & socio-psychological involvem ent) w ith a
com bined total of 14 items. A six-point Likert-scale ran ging from 1 ("strong­
ly disagree") to 6 ("strongly agree") w as used to m easure sport spectator
involvem ent. Kim (2003) reported ad e q u ate reliability alpha coefficients for
behavioral (.91) and socio-psychological involvem ent (.94).
Spectator Motivational Factor T he 12 item s of th e Spectator M otivation Scale
(SMS) developed by P ease and Z hang (2001) w ere used to assess m otiva­
tion. Each item w as w ritten to m easure spectator m otivational factors such as
perceived value, involvem ent opportunity, fan identification, and reference
groups. Pease and Z hang found th e reliability coefficient for th ese four m o­
tives ran g ed from .69 to .92. A six-point Likert-scale rangin g from 1 ("strong­
ly disagree") to 6 ("strongly agree") w as also used to m easure spectator m o­
tivational factors. E ach factor w as assessed w ith three items.
Demographic Scale S even questions assessed socio-dem ographic information,
such as age, gender, occupation, income, hig hest level of education, etc.
273
Sport Spectator Involvement
Figure 1.
Relationship
between spectator
Sociopsychological
Involvement
motivational factors
and the two aspects
of sport spectator
involvement
Behavioral
Inv olvement
Data Analysis
T he d ata w as analyzed using th e Statistical P ackage for Social Science
(SPSS, version 16.0). First, w e exam ined th e reliability and validity of the
instrum ents. Second, descriptive statistics for th e tw o aspects of sport sp ec­
tator involvem ent as well as th e four spectator m otivational factors w ere
com puted. A series of t-tests w ere also conducted to exam ine differences in
the involvem ent level w ith respect to the socio-dem ographics of the sport
spectators (e.g., age, gender, and team difference). Third, a series of multiple-regression analyses w ere conducted to pred ict overall sport spectator
involvem ent and ea ch aspect of sport spectator involvem ent w ith th e four
in d e p en d e n t spectator m otivational variables; perceived value, involvem ent
opportunity, fan identification, and significant others as predictors.
Results
First, C ronbach's alpha w as em ployed to analyze reliability and can be
found in Table 2 and 3. C orrelations w ere com puted an d reported in Table
4. Second, b ecause all alphas ex ceeded .70, reliability w as considered a d ­
eq u ate (Crobach, 1951). D escriptive statistics can also found in Tables 1, 2,
an d 3. M oderate correlations w ere found am ong th e variables. In p articu­
lar, the relationship b etw een behavioral involvem ent an d psychological in­
volvem ent suggests th a t a high d eg re e of sim ilarity exists b etw e en th ese two
aspects (r = .76) of sport spectator involvem ent. H owever, this relationship is
understan d ab le b ec au ese both dim ensions m easu re difference concepts of
the sam e construct: Sport spectator m otivation. Socio-psychological involve­
m ent (M = 4.67, SD = 1.02) w as higher th a n behavioral involvem ent (M =
4.07, SD - 1.16). Spectators (n = 161) w ho atte n d e d m en's basketball gam es
show ed statistically significant higher behavioral involvem ent th a n those
(n = 143) at w om en's basketball gam es (t = -2.00*), b u t there w ere no
274
Table 1.
Games
Yun Seok Choi et al.
Descriptive Statistics of Sport Spectator Involvement at NCAA Division II Basketball
Variable-Mean (SD)
N
Psychological
Involvement
Behavioral
Involvement
Overall Sport
Spectator
Involvement
Female
92
4.06(1.05)
3.60(1.19)
4.52(1.07)
Male
212
4.50 (0.99)
4.28(1.10)
4.73(1.00)
22 >
91
4.39(1.14)
3.86(1.34)
4.13(1.19)
2 3 -4 5
108
4.78(0.91)
4.25(1.02)
4.52 (0.88)
46 <
105
4.80 (0.98)
4.07(1.13)
4.44 (0.99)
Gender
Age
Ethnicity
White
197
4.67(1.00)
3.93(1.18)
4.30(1.01)
African
92
4.72(1.08)
4.42(1.00)
4.57(1.00)
American
Asian
3
4.33 (0.86)
3.48 (0.93)
3.90 (0.89)
Hispanic
7
4.35 (0.92)
3.92(1.44)
4.13(1.16)
Native
American
1
3.14 (N/A)
1.57 (N/A)
2.36 (N/A)
Others
4
4.75(1.02)
4.21 (1.66)
4.48(1.46)
143
4.60(1.08)
3.93(1.21)
4.27(1.08)
161
4.72 (0.97)
4.20(1.12)
4.46 (0.98)
Non-Students 219
4.75 (1.00)
4.10(1.14)
4.42(1.00)
Students
4.45(1.06)
4.00(1.23)
4.23(1.10)
Game
Women's
Game
Men's Game
Student Status
85
Table 2. Sport Spectator Involvement Construct means, Standard Deviations and Cronbach
Alphas (N = 304)
Construct
M
SD
Behavioral involvement
4.07
1.17
.88
Psychological involvement
4.67
1.02
.90
Overall Sport spectator involvement
4.37
1.03
.89
Note. The range of mean scale = 1 to 6, average means are reported.
a
Sport Spectator Involvement
275
Table 3. Socio-Motivational Factor Construct means, Standard Deviations and Cronbach Alphas
(N = 304)
Construct
SD
M
a
Perceived value
4.29
, 1.08
.75
Involvement
4.23
1.05
.78
Fan identification
4.90
1.01
.74
Reference groups
4.06
1.06
.74
opportunity
Note. The range of mean scale = 1 to 6, average means are reported.
Table 4.
Correlation Matrix of Sport Spectator Involvement from phi matrix (N = 304)
10
1
FI
SO
Bl
PI
.70“
1
FI
.48”
.50"
1
SO
.55"
.62"
.44"
1
Bl
.31"
.43"
.29"
.41"
1
PI
.39"
.46"
.46"
.76"
I
IO
00
PV
PV
1
PV = Perceived Value, 10 = Involvement Opportunity, FI = Fan Identification, SO = Significant
others, Bl = Behavioral Involvement, PI = Psychological Involvement. Note. ** p < .01
differences in socio-psychological involvem ent. T here w as a significant dif­
ference in behavioral involvem ent by g e n d e r (f = -4.78* *). M ale spectators
show ed h ig h er behavior involvem ent th a n fem ales. N on -studen ts show ed
statistically significant higher socio-psychological involvem ent th a n students
(f = 2.27*). R egarding age, older p articipants exhibited h ig h er socio-psychological involvem ent com pared to y o ung er p articipants (F = 5.02* *).
M ultiple regression analyses w ere em ployed to predict sport spectator
involvem ent w ith th e four m otivational factors. S tandard regression coef­
ficients an d associated significant tests w ere used to assess th e relative d e ­
gree of im pact on overall sport spectator involvem ent. Figure 3 presents
results predictin g overall sport spectator involvem ent. T he R2 w as used to
assess m odels' overall predictive fit. T he result of th e first regression e q u a ­
tion found th a t involvem ent opportunity (p = .25, t = 3.32, p < .01) h ad a
strong positive im pact on overall sport spectator involvem ent, followed by
the reference groups (P = .24, t = 3.81, p < .01) an d th e fan identification (P =
.17, f = 2.97, p < .01). H owever, p erceived value (P = -.02, f = —.28, p < .77) h ad
no significant influence on th e overall sport spectator involvem ent. T hese
m otivational factors explained 29% of total v ariance in the sport spectator
involvem ent (R2 = .29, F = 30.96, p < 0.01).
276
YunSeokChoi etal.
Figure 3.
Results of multiple
regression analyses using the
Perceived
V alue
four motivation factors to
predict each factor of sport
■
Fan
Identification
02
spectator involvement. Note:
*p<. 05, **p<. 01.
.
1725 * . 24 '
R eference
Oroups
N ext a series of tw o m ultiple regression analyses w ere co n d u c te d u s­
ing th e four m otivational factors to p red ict th e sport sp ectato r involvem ent
subscales; socio-psychological involvem ent an d b ehavioral involvem ent
(see F igure 4). T he th re e m otivational factors, F an identification (P = .29,
t = 5.05, p < .01), referen c e grou ps (P = .23, t = 3.62, p < .01), a n d involve­
m en t opportunity (P = .17, t = 2.29, p < .05) h a d a significant influence on
socio-psychological involvem ent. A bout 33 p e rc e n t of th e total v aria n ce in
psychological involvem ent w as acco u n ted for (R2 - .33, F - 35.82, p < .01)
by four m otivational factors. Second, tw o m otivational factors, involvem ent
opportunity (p = .29, t = 3.63, p < .01) a n d referen ce groups (p = .23, t = 3.452,
p < .01), h a d a significant im pact on th e beh av io ral involvem ent. T w enty tw o
p erc e n t of th e v arian ce in b ehavioral involvem ent w as ex p lain e d {R2 = .22,
F = 21.1, p < .01). T h e im pact of p erc eiv e d valu e o n b o th aspects of sport
sp ectato r involvem ent w as not statistically significant.
Discussion
M any collegiate athletic d e p a rtm e n ts are facing various financial ch allen g es
from losing sponsors, rising p ro g ram costs, a n d d ec rea sin g a tten d a n ce . Be­
cause one of th e b ig g e st rev e n u e sources for m ost college athletic d e p a rt­
m en ts is g ate receipts, m a n y athletic d e p a rtm e n ts try h a rd to in c re ase the
level of sport sp ectato r involvem ent th ro u g h p ru d e n t m a rk e tin g activities.
In this study, w e identified th e m otivational factors affecting sport sp ectato r
involvem ent at N C A A D ivision II m en's a n d w om en's b ask etb a ll gam es. T he
predictive ability of e a c h m otivational factor w as d e m o n strate d th ro u g h a
series of regressio n analyses. O verall, 29% of th e v arian ce in overall sport
sp ectato r involvem ent w as p red ic te d by th e four m otivational factors (32%
of varian ce in psychological involvem ent, a n d 21% of v arian ce in beh av io ral
involvem ent).
277
Sport Spectator Involvement
Figure 4.
Results of mul­
tiple regression analyses
using the four motivation­
.02
Sociopsydioiogical
involvement
factor of sport spectator
involvement. Note:*p<.0S,
Fan
Identification
Involvement
Opportunity
al factors to predict each
**p<. 01.
Behavioral
Involvement
(if2 = 22)
Level of Sport Spectator Involvement
T he spectators in this stu d y h a d a h ig h e r level of socio-psychological
involvem ent to a tte n d collegiate b ask etb a ll g am es th a n b eh av io ral in ­
volvem en t w h e n th e y a tte n d college b a sk etb a ll g am es. T his finding m eans
th a t th e spectators view ed collegiate b ask etb a ll g am es as a v a lu ab le e x p e ­
rience, a n d w ere psychologically com m itted to su p p o rt a specific te a m or
sporting ev e n t m ore th a n atten d in g a gam e, for exam ple. From sport s p e c ta ­
to rs’ psychological p erspectives, w a tc h in g a n d ex p e rien c in g collegiate b a s­
k etb all g am es is a v alu ab le leisure activity in w hich th e y are w illing to be
psychologically affiliated w ith a specific te am or sporting event. This finding
is also consistent w ith previous stu d ies (Funk e t al, 2004; L ough & Kim, 2004;
M ahon y e t al., 2002). F unk e t al, (2004) found th a t m an y sport spectators
or fans are psychologically involved w ith sporting ev e n ts to m axim ize th e ir
p erso n a l ac h ie v em e n t an d em otional attac h m e n t w ith a certain te a m rath e r
th a n b ein g active to b e a long-term sp ectato r in term s of p u rch a sin g season
tickets or enthusiastically c h e erin g a specific te a m or player.
Demographic Differences in Sport Spectator Involvement
O ur results also rev e ale d th a t m ale sp ectators ex h ib ited h ig h e r beh av io r
involvem ent th a n fem ales. T his is consistent w ith th e literatu re on g e n d e r
differences in sport fan b eh av io r (Dietz-Uhler, H arrick, End, & Jacq u em o tte,
2000; G antz & W enner, 1991), w h ich sh o w ed m ales e n g a g e d in m ore sport
fan b eh av io r th a n fem ales. D ietz-U hler e t al. (2000) in d icated th a t b ec au se
sports h av e traditionally b e e n v iew ed as a m ale dom ain, m ale spectators
sho w ed h ig h e r b ehavio r involvem ent. Furtherm ore, G antz an d W enner
(1991) su g g e ste d th a t m ales w ere m ore likely to enjoy social g ath e rin g s th a n
fem ales w h e n a tten d in g sporting events.
W ith resp e c t to age, older spectators w ere found to possess h ig h e r so­
cio-psychological involvem ent th a n y o u n g er ones. G iven th e fact th a t fan
identification an d involvem ent opp ortunity h a d a significant influence on
278
YunSeokChoietal.
th e socio-psychological involvem ent, older participants, rath er th a n y ou nger
ones, m ay have stro n g er em otional attach m en ts w ith th e team du e to their
g re a te r tim e associated w ith th e team . In addition, G reenw ell et al. (2002)
show ed th a t older spectato rs w ere m ore satisfied w ith th e fan services (e.g.,
facility an d staff m em bers) th a n y o u n g er fans. Thus, su g g estin g older fans
te n d to exhibit h ig h e r levels of involvem ent opportunities.
Impact of Socio-Motivational Factors on Overall Sport Spectator Involvement
O ur m ajor purpo se w as to identify th e relationship b e tw e e n th e four m otiva­
tional factors a n d overall sport spectator involvem ent. T he results indicated
th a t th ree socio-m otivational factors (e.g., fan identification, involvem ent o p ­
portunity, reference group) h a d a significant im pact on overall sport sp e cta­
tor involvem ent. T he results also su g g est th a t am ong those factors, involve­
m e n t opportunity h a d th e m ost significant influence, follow ed by reference
groups. T he involvem ent o pportunity factor u se d in th e study in clu ded item s
indicating accessibility to stadium s an d inform ation availability reg ard in g
g am e schedule, price a n d direction.
S everal other authors rea ch e d sim ilar conclusions. M ilne an d M cD onald
(1999) stressed th a t sport m ark eters n e e d to provide a place for potential
fans to b e affiliated w ith a te am or sporting ev e n t b ecau se it is a crucial
w ay to attract fans to sporting events. T he findings of this study su g g ested
th a t providing co nv enient access to inform ation, close proxim ity of venues,
co nvenient transportation to v en u e s an d conv enient g am e tim es m ight be
a n effective w ay to e x ten d involvem ent op portunities for th e fans. C reating
or providing various involvem ent opportunities m ight help collegiate a th ­
letic d ep a rtm e n ts facilitate a strong affiliation w ith th e ir spectators, fans, and
supporters. M ahony e t al. (2002) su g g e sted th a t sport m ark eters a t any level
of sport n e e d to foster positive associations th ro u g h involvem ent op p o rtu n i­
ties. For instance, providing various types of inform ation th ro u g h te am w eb
sites is one w ay to in crease spectator affiliation w ith th e sporting ev e n t or
team , particularly w ith y oung spectators or fans w ho m ay be fu ture season
ticketholders.
E stablishing fan clubs, creating new sletters, an d develo ping com m unity
relationships are also m ethod s of opportunity involvem ent to prom ote affili­
ation an d participation. E stablishing a m a rk e t env iro n m en t w h ere potential
spectators are intentionally given an involvem ent opportunity m ight be a
first step to increasing spectato r a tten d a n ce at collegiate sporting events,
especially at th e Division II level. H owever, according to Lough an d Kim
(2004), sport spectators at professional w om en's b ask etb a ll g am es prim ar­
ily ex p e cted g rea t en terta in m e n t values. This difference b e tw e e n th e find­
ings of th e cu rren t stu d y an d Lough an d Kim's in vestigation (2004) m ight be
du e to differences in culture, region, or social norm . M oreover, spectators at
professional sport ev en ts pay significant am ounts of m oney for tickets. As a
Sport Spectator Involvement
279
result, professional sport spectators m ay h ave different expectations of q u a l­
ity of service an d perceiv ed or e n terta in m e n t value from w h at college sport
fans exp ect at collegiate sporting events.
Impact of Socio-Motivational Factors on Two Aspects of Sport Spectator Involvement
We also investig ated how socio-m otivational factors w ere rela te d to sociopsychological an d behavioral involvem ents. A ccording to m ultiple re g re s­
sion analysis, th e four m otivational factors p red icted m ore v ariance in p sy ­
chological involvem ent (R2 - .33) th a n behavioral involvem ent (i?2 = .22). For
socio-psychological involvem ent, fan identification, referen ce group, an d in ­
volvem ent opportunity w ere identified as significant influences. F an id en ti­
fication h ad th e m ost significant im pact on socio-psychological involvem ent,
follow ed by reference group an d involvem ent opportunity. M ilne an d M c­
D onalds (1999) defined fan identification as th e p erso n al com m itm ent an d
psychological affiliation fans h av e w ith a sporting event. T he fan identifica­
tion factor u se d in th e cu rrent study consisted of a set of item s indicating the
level of psychological attach m en t to team , organization, an d sporting event.
It a p p e ars th a t our p articip ants a tte n d e d collegiate b ask etb a ll g am es to be
loyal fans th a t consistently su ppo rt their favorite team s or players ra th e r th a n
to sim ply ex p erien ce a sporting event. This is consistent w ith p revious stu d ­
ies th a t h ave found th a t te am identification an d p erso n al ach iev em en t w ere
significantly an d positively rela te d to te am success (M ahony et al., 2002).
A ccording to M ilne an d M cD onalds (1999), fan identification plays a sig­
nificant role in m inim izing th e effects of te am perform ance since th e sport
m ark eters an d m ark etin g activities cannot directly control te am success.
This finding is significant for collegiate athletic directors an d practitioners
to strategically d esig n an d develop th e ir future m a rk e tin g plan. Spectators
reporting being involved in collegiate b ask etb a ll g am es w ith positive p sy ­
chological com m itm ent are also behaviorally involved in term s of a tte n d ­
ing a gam e, rea d in g college-sport-related m agazines, an d talking ab o u t th e
team or ev e n t w ith significant others. T he findings of th e cu rren t study also
in dicated th a t p articipan ts' reference groups of cow orkers, friends, an d fam ­
ily m em bers positively influenced th ese spectato rs to a tte n d th e gam es. A c­
cording to Kim (2003), sport consum ers rely on perso n al recom m endations,
visible inform ation, an d self-im age from referen ce groups to inform their
decisions to a tte n d gam es.
T hrough th e application of m ultiple regression analysis, involvem ent o p ­
portunity w as th e m ost significant influence on behavioral involvem ent such
as p u rchasing season tickets, atten d in g gam es, a n d cheering, follow ed by
reference groups. Sport spectators are often influenced by a d eep -ro o ted
sense of fan identification w ith sport team s an d th e team s becom e an e x ­
tension of their self-concepts (Robinson et al., 2005). O ur findings indicate
th a t affective an d cognitive affiliation w ith a te am m ight b e a first step for
280
YunSeokChoietal.
spectators to becom e a loyal fan of collegiate basketball gam es. Being a loyal
fan m eans spectators express their interest and involvem ent by purchasing
a ticket and attending a gam e. However, there m ight be m inim um visible
contributions of these spectators to the team or sporting event if there are
low levels of spectators' psychological com m itm ent. The ideal sport fans are
those w ho have both h igh psychological and behavioral involvement.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the findings of th e current study suggest that to im prove the
level of sport spectator involvem ent for fans w ho have intense socio-psy­
chological involvem ent rather th a n behavioral involvement, collegiate ath ­
letic departm ents n ee d to provide convenient an d extensive involvem ent
opportunities for their consum ers. T he sport m arketers at collegiate athletic
departm ents should develop a profile of their spectators' behaviors to effec­
tively com m unicate w ith their targ et m arket. C reating an im age and devis­
ing them es that provide their fans an d spectators a m ean s of being affiliated
and identifying w ith th e team a n d sporting event experience are strongly
suggested. Also, p ru d en t m arketing activities thro ugh print, electronic, or
grassroots m edia outlets should offer spectators opportunities to becom e loy­
al fans by having positive experiences. Furtherm ore, rew arding consum ers
w ith team m em entos at different gam es will enable them to have a tangible,
lasting memory of their experience, and m ay prom pt them to return more
frequently.
Limitations and Future Directions.
The results revealed th a t the th ree m otivational factors accounted for 29% of
the total variance in th e sport spectator involvem ent. Even though th ese three
factors w ere significant predictors for variance in spectator involvement, it
w ould be w orthw hile to find other factors that m ay have an influence on
th e sport involvem ent. T he literature on spectator satisfaction has suggested
th a t th e core product of sport, such as w in/loss record, star players, an d q u al­
ity of the visiting team , can have significant effect on spectator's level of sat­
isfaction (Greenw ell et al., 2002; Leeuw en, Quick, & Daniel, 2002). M adrigal
(1995) indicated that fans w ith h igh levels of team identification w ere likely
to experience em otional enjoym ent w hen th eir team s w on the gam e. H ence,
the w in/loss phenom enon an d th e content of th e gam e m ay also serve as a d ­
ditional anteced ents influencing the spectator involvement.
Sport Spectator Involvement
281
References
Arm strong, K. L. (1999). A quest for a m arket: A profile of the consum ers of
a professional w om en's basketball team and the m arketing implications.
W om en in Sport & Physical A ctivity Journal, 8(2), 103-120.
Blackwell, R. D., M iniard, P. W., & Engel, J. F. (2001). C onsum er behavior
(9th ed.). Orlando, FL: H arcourt College Publishers.
Capella, M. (2002). M easuring sport fans' involvement: The fan behavior
questionnaire. Southern Business Review, Spring, 30-36.
Chelladurai, P., & Chang, K. (2000). Targets and standards of quality in sport
services. Sport M anag em ent Review, 3(1), 1-22.
Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests.
Psychometrika, 16, 296-334.
DeSchriver, T. D., & Jensen, P. E. (2002). D eterm inants of spectator atten ­
dance at NCAA Division II football contests. Journal oi Sport M ana ge­
m ent, 16, 311-330.
Dietz-Uhler, B. D., Harrick, E. A., End, C. M., & Jacquem otte, L. (2000). Sex
differences in sport fan behavior. Journal of Sport Behavior, 23, 219231.
Ferreira, M., & Arm strong, K. L. (2004). An exploratory exam ination of a t­
tributes influencing students' decisions to atten d college sport events.
Sport M arketing Quarterly, 13, 194-208.
Fink, J. S., Trail, G. T., & A nderson, D. F. (2002). An exam ination of team
identification: W hich motives are m ost salient to its existence. Interna­
tional Sports Journal, 6, 195-207.
Fink, J. S., Trail, G. T., & Anderson, D. F. (2002). E nvironm ental factors asso­
ciated w ith spectator atten dance an d sport consum ption behavior: G en ­
der and team differences. Sport M arketing Quarterly, 11(1), 8-19.
Fulks, D. L. (2000). R evenues and expenses of division I and II intercolle­
giate athletic programs: Financial trends and relationships - 1999. O ver­
land Park, KS: N ational Collegiate Athletic Association.
Funk, D. C., Mahony, D. F., N akazaw a, M., & H irakaw a, S. (2001). D evel­
oping of the sport interest inventory (SII): Implications for m easuring
unique consum er motives at team sporting events. International Journal
of Sports M arketing & Sponsorship, 3, 291-316.
Funk, D. C., Mahony, D. F., & Ridinger, L. L. (2002). C haracterizing con­
sum er m otivation as individual difference factors: A ugm enting the Sport
Interest Inventory (SII) to explain level. Sport M arketing Quarterly, 11,
33-43
Funk, D. C., Ridinger, L. L., & M oorman, A. M. (2004). Exploring origins
of involvement: U nderstanding the relationship betw een consum er m o­
tives an d involvem ent w ith professional sport team s. Leisure Science,
26, 35-61
282
Yun SeokChoi etal.
G antz, W., & Wenner, L. A. (1991). Men, w om en, an d sports: A udience ex ­
periences and effects. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic M edia, 35,
233-243.
G reenw ell, T. C., Fink, J. S., & Pastore, D. L. (2002). Perceptions of the service
experience: Using dem ographic and psychographic variables to identify
custom er segm ents. Sport M arketing Quarterly, 11(4), 233-241.
Ho, J C., & Jiang, P. (2006). E nhancing revenue in college sport events by
practicing yield m an ag em en t and e-com m erce. The Costal Business
Journal, 3(1), 47-55.
H ow ard, D., & Crom pton, J. (2005). Financing Sport (2nd ed.). Fitness Infor­
m ation Technology, Inc.: M organtow n, WV
Iwasaki, Y., & Havitz, M. E. (1998). A p ath analytic m odel of th e relationships
b etw e en involvem ent, psychological com m itm ent, an d loyalty. Journal
of Leisure Research, 30, 256-280.
Jam es, J. D., & Ridinger, L. L. (2002). Fem ale an d m ale sport fans: A com ­
parison of sport consum ption motives. Journal of Sport Behavior, 25(3),
260-278.
Jam es, J. D., & Ross, D. S. (2004). C om paring sport consum er motivations
across m ultiple sports. Sport M arketing Quarterly, 13, 17-25
Kim, Y. (2003). D evelopm ent and validation of instrum ents for assessing
sport spectator invo lvem en t and factors affecting sport spectator invo lve­
m ent. U npublished doctoral dissertation, University of N ew Mexico,
N ew Mexico.
Kotler, P., & Arm strong, G. (2008). Principels of M arketing (12th ed.). U pper
Saddle River, N ew Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
Laverie, D. A., & A rnett, D. B. (2000). Factor affecting fan attendance: The
influence of identity salience an d satisfaction. Journal of Leisure, 32(2),
225-246.
Leeuw en, L. V., Quick, S., & Daniel, K. (2002). The sport spectator satisfac­
tion model: A conceptual fram ew ork for und erstan d in g the satisfaction
of spectator. Sport M an a g em en t Review, 5, 99-128.
Lough, N. L., & Kim, A. (2004). Analysis of socio-m otivations affecting spec­
tator atten d an ce at w om en's professional basketball gam es in South Ko­
rea. Sport M arketing Quarterly, 13, 35-42.
M cDonald, M. A., M iline, R. G. & H ong J. B. (2002). M otivational factors
for evaluating sport spectator and participant m arkets. Sport M arketing
Quarterly, 11(2), 100-113
M adrigal, R. (1995). C ognitive an d affective determ in ants of fan satisfac­
tion w ith sporting ev en t attendance. Journal of Leisure Research, 27,
205-227.
Mahony, D. F., N akazaw a, M., Funk, D. C., Jam es, J. D., & G ladden J. M.
(2002). M otivational factors influencing the behavior of J. league sp e cta­
tors. Sport M a n a g em en t Review, 5, 1-24.
Sport Spectator Involvement
283
Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of hum an motivation. Psychological Review,
50, 370-396.
Milne, G. R., & M cDonald, M. A. (1999J. Sport m arketing: M anaging the
excha nge process. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.
Mullin, B. J., Hardy, S., & Sutton, W. A. (2007). Sport M arketing 3rd edition.
H um an K inetics:Cham paign, IL.
Pease, D. G., & Zhang, J. J. (2001). Socio-motivational factors affecting sp e c­
tator atten d an ce at professional basketball gam es. International Journal
of Sport M anagem ent, 2, 31-59.
Robison, M. J., Trail, G. T., Dick, R. J., & G illentine, A. J (2005). Fans vs. sp ec­
tators: An analysis of those w ho atten d intercollegiate football gam es.
Sport M arketing Quarterly, 14, 43-53.
Rothschild, M. L. (1984). Perspectives on involvem ent: C urrent problem s
an d future directions. A d va n c es in Consum er Research, 11, 216-217.
Shank, M. D. (2002). Sport M arketing; A strategic perspective. U pper Saddle
River, N ew Jersey: P earson Education, Inc.
Shulm an, J., & Bowen, W. (2001). The g am e of life: College sports and e d u ­
cational values. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Sutton, W. A., M cDondald, M. A., Milne, G. R., & Cim perm an, J. (1997). C re­
ating and fostering fan identification in professional sports. Sport M ar­
keting Quarterly, 6, 15-22.
Trail, G. T., & Jam es, J. D. (2001). T he M otivation Scale for Sport C onsum p­
tion: A ssessm ent of th e Scale's Psychometric Properties. Journal of Sport
Behavior, 24, 108-127.
Trail, G. T., Robinson, M. J., Dick, R. J., & G illentien, A. J. (2003). M otives
and points of attachm ent: fans versus spectators in intercollegiate ath let­
ics. Sport M arketing Quarterly, 12(4), 217-227.
W akefield, K. L., & Blodgett, J. G. (1994). T he im portance of servicescapes in
leisure service settings, Journal of Service M arketing, 8, 66-76.
W ann, D. L. (1995). Prelim inary validation of th e sport fan m otivation scale.
Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 19, 377-396.
W ann, D. L., & Branscom be, N. R. (1990). D ie-hard and fair-w eather fans:
Effects of identification on BIRGing an d CORFing tendencies. Journal of
Sport and Social issues, 14, 103-117.
W ann, D. L., Dolan, T. J., M cGeorge, K. K., & Allison, J. A. (1994). Relation­
ships b etw e en spectator identification an d spectators' perceptions of in ­
fluence, spectators' em otion, an d com petition outcom e. Journal of Sport
& Exercise Psychology, 16, 347-364.
Zang, J. J., Pease, D. G., Lam, E. T., Bellerive, L. M., Pham, U. L., Williamson,
D. P., & Wall, K. A. (2001). Socio-motivational factors affecting spectator
attendance at m inor league hockey gam es. Sport M arketing Quarterly,
10(1), 43-56.
284
Yun SeokChoi etal.
About the Authors
Dr. Yun Seok Choi is an assistant professor in the Division of Kinesiology,
H ealth and Sport Studies at W ayne State University, Detroit, M ichigan. His
prim ary research interests include sport m arketing and organizational b e ­
havior in sport organizations.
Dr. Jeffrey J. M artin is currently a full professor at W ayne State University in
Detroit, M ichigan. His m ajor research ag e n d a has b ee n on the psychosocial
aspects of disability sport and physical activity
Dr. M eu ngguk Park is an A ssistant Professor in the D epartm ent of Kinesiolo­
gy at the Southern Illinois University C arbondale, specializing in sport m an ­
agem ent. His research interests include prom otional strategies for nonprofit
sport organizations, corporate sponsorship associated w ith the Paralym pics
a n d Special Olympics, corporate social responsibility in sport, and charity
affiliated sporting events.
Dr. Taeho Yoh is an associate professor in the D epartm ent of Kinesiology at
Southern Illinois University C arbondale. His areas of research interest in ­
clude m arketing and academ ic issues in sport m anagem ent.