Salisbury Plain
Project
Management of Chalk Grassland
on Salisbury Plain military training area
Ladies bedstraw, Salisbury Plain
INTRODUCTION.
Salisbury Plain in central Southern England survives
as a vast expanse of unimproved chalk grassland in
a sea of otherwise agriculturally improved land. The
wide expanses of grassland support a wonderfully
rich diversity of plants, birds and insects. This is the
largest remaining tract of chalk grassland in North
West Europe and is situated within the largest Military
Training Area in the United Kingdom.
The Training Area covers about 40,000ha on Salisbury
Plain, almost entirely on the chalk. The site is large even
by central and eastern European standards. Until 1993
only fragments of the chalk grassland on the Training
Area were protected under national conservation
legislation. A survey in the mid 1980s revealed the
extent of the herb-rich grassland, about 14,000ha
comprising approximately 41% of all the chalk grassland
in UK and over 20% of this habitat in western Europe.
As a result of this survey 20,000ha of the training area
was notified as a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI)
in1993. This was followed in 1994 by notification as
Special Protection Area for Birds (SPA) and candidate
Designed by CTS Media Graphics, Bath.
Special Area of Conservation (cSAC) under European
Legislation. As a result of these notifications it was
agreed between English Nature (statutory advisors to
Government on nature conservation) and the Ministry
of Defence that a management plan was needed for
the Training Area.
At that time there were 42 tenant farmers and licensees,
most of them farming both fully tenanted (Schedule
1) and licensed land (Schedule 3), the former being
mainly arable, the latter grassland. The military training
area is not fenced apart from a few permanent pens
and any grazing occurred within temporary electric
fences. Constraints of military training did not allow
any grazing on the live-firing areas on the western
and central areas and where grazing was permitted a
maximum of 4 hectares for any penning was the rule
to minimise the effect on training. The grazing which
was carried out was on an ad hoc basis which paid
little attention to wildlife needs.
Photography © Stephen Davis unless stated otherwise
ISBN 1 85716 822 4
M an a gem en t o f C ha lk Gra ssl an d on Sa lisbury Pla in m ilita ry tra ining a re a
© English Heritage
The Grassland
2
The unimproved semi-natural grasslands which
cover about 14,000 ha are mainly dominated by
Upright Brome Bromus erectus (CG3 Rodwell 1991)
with a large area of about 4,000 ha dominated by
False Oatgrass Arrhenatherum elatius with a strong
calcareous element (MG1 Rodwell 1991). There are
however a wide range of other grassland communities
present (see below). Chalk heath and extensive areas
of Juniper Juniperus communis and mixed calcicolous
scrub are also present.
John Aubrey, writing in the 17th Century described
the Plain extending from Redhorn Hill above Urchfont
to the North, extending to Salisbury in the South, and
between Mere in the West and Ludgershall in the East,
“The turfe is of a short sweet grasse, good for the
sheep, and delightful to the eye, for its smoothness like
a bowling green…not a tree, or rarely a bush to shelter
one from a shower”
Historically the area has alternated between grassland
and arable over the past two thousand years, with
most of it ploughed during the Roman period.
(There is Paleo-environmental evidence that this was
an open downland landscape at least 4000 years ago).
During Saxon times it reverted largely to pasture which
remained until the 19th century when it once again
became used for significant areas of arable. During the
mid 19th century many farms were built on the plateau
and much of the area was in plough until world trade
Battesbury Hill Fort
pressures made cereal production uneconomic.
Much of the arable land then reverted back to grassland
and low land prices encouraged the military purchase
at the end of the century and final abandonment of
the farms. Significant areas on the periphery were
still farmed and in arable until the later part of the
20th century. As a result of this history of management
there are grasslands on the Plain of widely differing
ages, Stone Age and Bronze Age on the barrows, Iron
Age on the hillforts, large areas not ploughed in the
19th century and the bulk probably dating from the
late 1800s. In the mid 1960s the area was “a scrub-free
open grassy plain stretching as far as the eye could
see” (PT from memory), but already rank grassland was
developing following the reduction in rabbit grazing
after myxomatosis in the mid 1950s. By notification in
1993 this had dramatically changed with significant
scrub invasion over large areas, mainly Hawthorn
Crataegus monogyna and Gorse Ulex europaeus. The
latter has increased very rapidly and now forms large
dense patches affecting hundreds of hectares.
NVC GRASSLAND COMMUNITIES OF WILDLIFE IMPORTANCE
Community
Area
%
Comments
21.8
644.6
0.1
2.0
8554.7
26.7
CG4 Brachypodium pinatum grassland
2.6
0.0
CG5 Bromus erectus-Brachypodium pinatum
grassland
CG6 Avenula pubescens grassland
CG7 Festuca ovina-Hieracium pilosella-Thymus
praecox/pugeloides grassland
CG Mosaic
Chalk Heath
1.7
0.0
271.9
20.1
0.8
0.1
708.6
14.4
2.2
0.0
CG/MG Mosaic
3674.2
11.5
MG1 Arrhenatherum elatious grassland
3937.5
12.3
Very local in Bulford Ranges where rabbit grazing has been high
Scarce but widely scattered mainly on areas where rabbits have
exerted a high grazing pressure or on steep slopes.
The dominant grasslands occurring widely on the deeper soils.
Areas of quite recent arable which were MG6/7 in the 1996 survey
are often now attributed to CG3 because of the colonisation by
Bromus erectus. There is a variant of this community described by
Porley (1986) which is not found in the NVC with constant
Filipendula vulgaris which he calls CG3di
Brachypodium pinatum is invading much of the grassland
especially on the Impact Area. There are still only a very few areas
where it is dominant but this may become a management issue in
the future.
Brachypodium pinatum is invading much of the grassland
especially on the Impact Area.
Scattered on Centre and East mainly on old arable land
Small patches associated with bare chalk, mainly in shell holes in the
Impact Area.
Widespread, particularly where disturbance has altered the vegetation.
Isolated patches on areas of very old grassland on, or near, plateau
tops. Usually associated with invasion of Ulex europaeus indicating
slightly less calcicolous soil.
These are quite dynamic due to changes in grazing pressure,
disturbance and seasonal rainfall.
Much of this community shows a strong affinity with the calcicolous
grassland and it is recognised as of importance in the SSSI.
(ha)
CGI Festuca ovina-Carlina vulgaris grassland
CG2 Festuca ovina-Avenula pratensis grassland
CG3 Bromus erectus grassland
Birds
Salisbury Plain is of outstanding interest for a variety of birds and the SPA was notified for Stone Curlew, Quail and
wintering Hen Harrier in particular. The area also supports nationally important populations of several key species.
BIRDS OF SALISBURY PLAIN (BBS 2000)
Quail
Stone Curlew
Corn Bunting
Barn Owl
Whinchat
Stonechat
Grasshopper Warbler
Skylark
Summer visitor
Summer visitor
Resident
Resident
Summer visitor
Resident
Summer visitor
Resident
% UK POP’
Grassland
Grassland
Grassland
Grassland
Grassland/Scrub
Grassland/Scrub
Grassland/Scrub
Grassland
12
10
1.95
1.7
2.09-4.19
1.01-2.62
2.51
1.46
36M
21P
391P
74P
586P
223P
264P
14600T
P= Pairs M= Males T= Territories
Maan
naa ggem
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hallk
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G ra ssl an
a nd
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M
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© CEH, Centre for Earth Observation
Landsat Image of Salisbury Plain
Getting Management Started
The Area
The Salisbury Plain Training Area is divided in to three
rather different areas. The East is a dry training area
(no live firing) apart from the small arms ranges at
Bulford. This area has been available almost without
restriction to farmers for many years. Prior to 1993 the
whole area was subject to heavy grazing at times of
high demand. As a result much of the grassland had
become improved and locally there was a lot of heavy
winter feeding of straw and hay leading to excessive
poaching. Despite this a large core area of herb-rich
grassland has remained at the less accessible extremity
of the farms.
The Centre is largely an Impact Area where live firing
with artillery, mortars and other weapons has taken
place for nearly one hundred years. This area has been
abandoned agriculturally for most of this time and
the only management has been incidental sporadic
burning, due to the impact of shells, and some
armoured vehicle training. As a result of this the area is
a mosaic of longer and shorter grasslands which burns
on an irregular rotation as litter builds up. To the south
of the Impact Area land has been grazed regularly and,
as on the East, large areas of grassland have been used
for winter feeding and were being fertilised.
The West is mainly within the Live Firing Danger Area
and is used heavily by armoured vehicles, in particular
Challenger tanks and Warrior armoured personnel
vehicles. It has received very little grazing in the past 40
years or more. The peripheral areas are all within grazing
licences and much of this comprises improved grassland
which has been in arable in fairly recent times.
A direct result of these activities has been the gradual
deterioration in the species richness of the grassland
over much of the site and considerable invasion by
scrub.
At the time of notification of the SSSI, SPA and cSAC
in the early 1990s large numbers of sheep were
being brought in “on tack” for the winter from
upland areas in both England and Wales. Summer
management focused on mowing, although some
of the farmers did have stock, particularly cattle,
throughout the year. In good summers more hay
was made and in wet years there was more grazing
and less accessible grasslands tended to be left
un-grazed. A huge part of the training area was
basically un-managed with the consequent increase
in rank grassland and scrub already referred to.
The notification of the SSSI and cSAC and the
consequent pressure on MoD to manage the site
for its wildlife led to a requirement for management
plans and the employment of dedicated
conservation staff with the first starting in 1993.
There was early concern amongst nature
conservationists that military damage to the
grasslands was perhaps the most important threat.
However, it quickly became apparent that the most
important issues to be addressed were agricultural.
These included the widespread use of fertiliser, and
winter feeding of roughages on the east and central
areas, and lack of grazing on the western area.
In contrast, military activity was relatively benign
and often beneficial. The creation of disturbed
ground and muddy pools support unusual ruderal
communities and a range of invertebrates including
the rare Fairy Shrimp and a huge population of
Common Toads. In fact, the activity of tracked
vehicles across the grassland has been instrumental
in keeping patches of herb-rich grassland open, a
process described by some as “tank grazing”.
Initially there was not sufficient information to
formulate really good management plans. The first
requirement was to stop the damaging activities of
fertiliser and winter feeding of roughages on the
herb-rich areas, a relatively simple task. The second
was to produce individual management plans for
the farms, which would enable military training to
continue as the main activity whilst at the same time
supporting a viable farming enterprise.
© English Heritage
Early concerns from farmers that constraints
imposed to meet conservation requirements on
top of military training constraints would lead to
abandonment of the land have proved unfounded.
Letting of any available new grazing is still a
competitive process and is a relatively easy task.
Silk Hill, Bronze Age Barrows
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M an a gem en t o f C ha lk Gra ssl an d on Sa lisbury Pla in m ilita ry tra ining a re a
Salisbury Plain LIFE project
The combined expertise of partners and significant
additional financial resources has enabled a clearly
focused project supporting nature conservation
management across the Plain. The Project has enabled
the Ministry of Defence to deliver significantly more
than would otherwise have been possible, improving
the grassland management, increasing the rate of
scrub control and enhancing the significant increase in
grazing which began in 1993.
Grassland restoration by grazing
Grazing has been restored to over 4800ha of grassland
during the Life Project since 2001. Perhaps the most
interesting individual project has been the introduction
of a herding project. Most of the extensive grasslands
of Europe have been created and maintained by
extensive grazing using herds or flocks attended
during the day by a shepherd or herdsman, often
folded back to enclosures during the night. This is
in sharp contrast to the penning system adopted on
Salisbury Plain where a large herd or flock is penned
on an area of about 8 ha (within a larger overall
compartment of approximately 40ha) for a week
or more before moving on to another penning.
The penning system is dictated by two main factors:
Examples include:
1. The maximum size of a penning is 8ha,
required by military training needs.
1. A large arable farm: with farmer and family
coming to an age when they will want to join
the business. They have embraced opportunities
offered by countryside stewardship
(Agri-environment measure) and are now
prepared to switch to an extensive cattle grazing
regime taking on the grazing management of
large areas of the Impact Area and other
licensed land.
2. The necessity of having herds of around 80 or
more cattle and 400 or more sheep to maintain
economic grazing regimes.
2. A large arable and beef farm developing on
the experience of running the herdsman project,
utilising extensive grazing on the training area.
Under the Life Project a herdsman has been walking a
herd of around 120 beef cows out onto the grasslands
of Salisbury Plain West most days (between June and
February) to graze extensively before folding the herd
back into a penning for the night.
3. A single-suckler beef farm – where the tenant has
expanded his business to include a Texas ranch,
and also taken on more than a thousand hectares
of extensive grazing on Salisbury Plain West.
Herdsman Stock grazing on the Imber Ranges, June 2003
4
Cattle in temporary penning, Copehill Down
Results have been very encouraging as the rank
grasslands which had not been grazed for decades
are developing an interesting mosaic structure as cattle
wander around picking clumps of grass here and there
throughout the day. The increased grazing offered
within the training area has required graziers with the
vision to see and develop opportunities. There have
been several different approaches adopted on the
training area, partly driven by personal circumstances.
Grassland restoration
by scrub management
M an a gem en t o f C ha lk Gra ssl an d on Sa lisbury Pla in m ilita ry tra ining a re a
The loss of grassland to scrub invasion has been
extensive and has accelerated in recent years,
particularly due to the expansion of Gorse Ulex
europaeus. One of the main objectives of the Life
Project has been to address this.
Scrub management in particular is constrained by
a number of issues, mostly related to the use of
the area for military training. The most significant
issue is the presence of unexploded ordnance, the
inevitable legacy of a hundred years of firing.
Despite these constraints, by working together in
close co-operation with the Military, it has been
possible to clear 370ha of scrub.
Scrub encroachment, Battlesbury Strip Lynchets
CONSTRAINTS ON MANAGEMENT’
Constraint
Comment
Live firing. Closed ranges
Access restricted on about 300 days per year to various parts
of the training area.
Vehicle exercises
Area in constant use with an average of 2000 troops on any
one day.
Unexploded Ordnance
Methods of scrub clearance severely constrained.
Vehicle access very restricted in some areas.
Small windows of opportunity
Have to be able to carry out work in some areas in one or
two days and then switch to other sites.
Sudden changes
Military exercises are liable to sudden alterations with
consequent changes in access for management work.
Need to fit with the Military template
Close liaison is needed at all times with the military to fit with
the prime user of the site.
To address health and safety concerns during
management, in areas where live firing has taken place
an armoured tractor with flail ‘Armtrac’ has been used
to clear large areas of gorse. This has proved to be
very cost and time efficient. Such management does
however require a follow up treatment with a chemical
herbicide (most often in the second year after cutting).
Hand cutting and burning is by far the most ecologically
sensitive method of scrub clearance but is much more
expensive and time consuming. This method has been
used extensively in areas of archaeological sensitivity
such as the medieval strip lynchets in Battlesbury Bowl
(see above).
RELATIVE COSTS OF MANAGEMENT
£/Ha
€/Ha
Dense scrub, hand cutting
2000
2860
Scattered scrub, hand cutting
1000
1450
Dense gorse using ‘Armtrac
400
572
Conifer plantation felling
4000
5720
5
M an a gem en t o f C ha lk Gra ssl an d on Sa lisbury Pla in m ilita ry tra ining a re a
Slopes of Sidbury Hill, Cleared of plantations
Chalk grassland restoration by tree
clearance
The Life Project has enabled some ambitious restoration
of chalk grasslands to be undertaken. The largest single
exercise has been the felling of 40ha of non-native
pine plantations (over 50,000 trees) from the slopes of
Sidbury Hill Iron Age Hill Fort to the north of Tidworth.
Trees were cleared over a six month period. The trees
were felled whole, chipped and removed from the site,
leaving very clean ground conditions. The chips were
used for both power generation and garden mulch.
The site has been subsequently fenced and divided into
4 compartments. The first year after felling (2003) was
exceptionally dry (as in most of Europe). Consequently
there was not sufficient growth to graze the site. The
first colonisers of bare ground have been species
of disturbed ground such as vipers bugloss Echium
vulgare, mulleins Verbascum spp and thistles Cirsium
spp. In year two only the northern compartment (8 ha)
was grazed with sixteen young dairy cross beef animals
in the paddock from May through to December, a
prolonged light grazing regime which is not possible
over most of the training area. However under the
influence of cattle grazing a good grass and herb cover
is already establishing well. In year three (2005) a herd
of cattle will graze three of the four compartments on
rotation. The vegetation in the fourth compartment
remains too sparse to support livestock at present
though it is heavily rabbit grazed.
Ruderal species , early colonisers of bare ground, Sidbury Hill
Farm management plans
The farm management plans (see below) drawn up for
each licensee are based on a detailed botanical survey
carried out in 1996/7 and further modified in the light
of other data such as the presence of rare species, eg.
Marsh Fritillary Euphydryas aurinia. Marsh Fritillary
habitat management has been studied by Defence
Estates and Butterfly Conservation across the Plain.
This research has enabled the development of carefully
controlled grazing regimes aimed at maintenance and
enhancement of the population.
Fertiliser is usually permitted on the improved
grasslands dominated by Perennial Ryegrass Lolium
perenne and sometimes on the MG1 Arrhenatherum
elatius grasslands depending on the individual farm
circumstances. Mowing, often considered harmful
to wildlife is encouraged to a large extent because it
plays a significant part in controlling scrub. However,
it must be emphasised that mowing in this context
means an area of no more than 8 hectares which is
surrounded by a 5 metre wide long grass margin,
with large areas of long grassland nearby. This is
very different from mowing a complete field with no
headland with intensively managed farmland adjacent.
The management plans drawn up with the farmers
are the primary tools for supporting the favourable
condition for the chalk grasslands and associated
species on the Plain.
6
Typical Farm Plan Map
• Ensure there are positive clauses in Farm Plans.
• Specify the end point of grazing rather than the
grazing regime in detail eg. Sward height to
be a minimum of an average of 5cm at end
of grazing period. Not more than two thirds of
compartment to be grazed in any year.
• The importance of leaving long grass margins
for a variety of wildlife: small mammals and many
invertebrates. This has been demonstrated in a
study undertaken by Centre for Ecology and
Hydrology (CEH 2004). (see below)
• It is impossible to graze such extensive areas of
grassland unless the regime is attractive to graziers.
Minimum herd sizes need to be of 80 cows plus
calves or flocks of 300-500 sheep.
• The grazing regime, under the penning system in
short bursts of quite intensive grazing is more like a
mowing regime than classic conservation grazing.
It does however support a very rich wildlife habitat
as demonstrated by the study carried out by CEH
(CEH 2004). Grazing pennings are located on
rotation such that areas of grassland are not
grazed again for anything between 6 and 24
months.
• There is no great motivation to create more herb
rich grassland quickly, as might be the aim on
smaller sites. The Plain supports a large resource
already and it is easier to let the change take place
more naturally.
PLANT SPECIES RICHNESS
• Even quite recent grasslands which were
dominated by Lolium perenne in 1996 are now
becoming interesting with the Lolium replaced by
Bromus in many places alongside a gradual
increase in herbs.
• The difference between sheep and cattle, and
between breeds is of much less importance than
the way they are managed, and the outlook of the
grazier. There seems to be no particular call for
rare breeds although they are present on the Plain.
Most important is that the grazier has stock which
he or she likes to farm with. A great variety of
breeds are farmed on the area. Some are rare
breeds (eg. White Park cattle), others comprise
mixed breeds and there are also several organic
farms.
M an a gem en t o f C ha lk Gra ssl an d on Sa lisbury Pla in m ilita ry tra ining a re a
Lessons learned
• Need for farmers with a vision. The opportunities
offered by the new grazing within the training
area called for graziers with a vision to develop
opportunities. It has been the large size of the site
and the economics of scale that have allowed
some farmers to see a way forward and to
establish large ‘ranching’ style operations
• Water supply remains a major constraint especially
as the larger farms have expanded their numbers
of stock. Time spent hauling water is a major drain
on resources.
• Conservation grazing systems will rarely reduce
scrub and most regimes will not prevent scrub
invasion over time. There will remain a long-term
need and commitment for further scrub removal
unless very large areas of grassland can be wholly
freed of scrub.
No
Response of plant species to grazing
FLY SPECIES RICHNESS
Marsh Fritillary Butterflies
No
Response of fly species to grazing, CEH 2004
White Park cattle
7
M an a gem en t o f C ha lk Gra ssl an d on Sa lisbury Pla in m ilita ry tra ining a re a
Monitoring
A range of monitoring has been introduced to inform
management and to demonstrate the maintenance
and enhancement of wildlife of the site. These include
annual botanical survey of a proportion of the site
following comprehensive baseline NVC surveys
undertaken in 1996/7. Regular surveys of invertebrate
populations and periodic breeding bird surveys.
Invertebrates on Salisbury Plain
In 2002 a survey of invertebrates was carried out across
the spectrum of habitats on the training area (Edwards
2002).
This supported previous information and
highlights the importance of the area for a wide range
of species. Only selected groups were looked at and a
total of 849 species was recorded, including;
• Orthoptera; 8 species, all phytophagous
(1 Nationally scarce)
The area is also of great importance for a wide variety
of other invertebrates which were not looked at in
this study. There are important populations of several
species of butterfly including Adonis blue Lysandra
bellargus and Brown hairstreak Thecla betulae and a
huge meta-population of Marsh Fritillary Euphydryas
aurinia (the largest in Britain).
Prospects for the Future
Hopefully the recent reform of CAP will make the
grasslands of Salisbury Plain more attractive to graziers
as Single Payment will attract large sums for extensive
areas. However, the future for the beef industry is far
from clear and it may be difficult to maintain sufficient
grazing. The experiences on Salisbury Plain have shown
that with good will and commitment between partners
it is possible to integrate military training and nature
conservation management without any real conflict.
References:
• Coleoptera; 295 species, the majority
phytophagous (28 Nationally Scarce, 4 Red
Data Book)
BBS 2000: Breeding Bird Survey of Salisbury Plain
Training Area. RSPB and Defence Estates 2000
• Diptera; 241 species (20 Nationally Scarce,
10 Red Data Book)
CEH 2004. Pywell et al. The response of calcareous
grassland to contrasting management regimes on
Salisbury Plain . Report to Defence Estates.
• Hymenoptera Symphyta; 87 species,
all phytophagous
• Hymenoptera Aculeata; 123 species of which
89 were bees. (15 Nationally Scarce,
4 Red Data Book)
Of these species, 261 are associated with herb-rich
grassland and 64 with bare ground, an indication of
the importance of grazing and of the valuable effect of
military training. The presence of such a large number
of bee species reflects the importance of the flower-rich
nature of the grasslands. Further survey in 2003 (Pywell
et al) produced 8 species of Diptera new to the British
list, indicating the enormous potential that exists for
further investigation of the Salisbury Plain grasslands.
Porley 1986: A botanical assessment of the chalk
grasslands of Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire. NCC England
Field Unit Project No 38.
Rodwell 1991. British Plant Communities; Cambridge
University Press
Edwards 2002. An Insect Survey of Selected Sites
within ATE Salisbury Plain 2002. Entec Ltd. Report to
Defence Estates.
Red Admiral butterfly nectaring on Devils bit scabius
Authors: Dominic Ash, Defence Estates, Paul Toynton Defence Estates and Stephen Davis, English Nature.
Sa l i sb u ry Pl a i n Li f e Pro j ect
B u i l d i n g 21, Westd own Camp, Tilshead, Wiltshire SP3 4R S. web-site: www.english-nature.org.uk/sa l i s bur y /