Seen but Unseen: Part-Time Faculty and Institutional Surveillance and Control
Author(s): Dan Krier and William G. Staples
Source: The American Sociologist, Vol. 24, No. 3/4 (Fall - Winter, 1993), pp. 119-134
Published by: Springer
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Seen but Unseen:
Part-time
Faculty
and Institutional
Surveillance
and Control
This
examines
article
less
on
more
of part-time
direct,
are
standards"
differences
sus
used
techniques
cess visible
maintained.
techniques
in
controllable,
of
of
these
in
used
simultaneously
are
relying
are
instead
using
and
educational
"acceptable
find
render
in
the
organizations
not
but
that while
make
signals
only
also
to
points
ver
institutions
"productive"
We
metropolitan
that with
practices
colleges
community
find
instructors,
college
institutions.
they
that
certify
use
The
"disciplinary"
at these
employed
and
instructors
these
to
several
by
We
faculty.
of
status
control
utilized
at these
practices
professional
in social
those
but
being
in the
Staples
administrators
supervision
surveillance
G.
techniques
part-time
faculty,
personal
"remote"
a decline
surveillance
to manage
colleges
community
use
creased
and William
Krier
Dan
the
surveillance
education
part-time
pro
invisible
faculty
controlled.
This
in the techniques
of social
control used by
study examines
changes
institutions of higher learning to monitor
and discipline
part-time faculty.
We
focus on community
since these institutions maintain
the highest
colleges
of
in
over
60
and
percentage
academia,
part-time faculty
percent
nationwide,
also enroll nearly half of all college
students nationally
of
(American Association
in the geographical
1992). At several community
University Professors
colleges
several
area we
80 percent
of the faculty.
studied, part-time faculty are approaching
on a semester by semester basis, these instructors
tend to be poorly
inte
into
their
and
have
little
contact
direct
with
or
administrators
grated
colleges
full-time faculty (AAUP 1992; Cohen
and Gunn
1989; Leslie, Kellams
1982; Gappa
In such an academic
1984; Biles and Tuckman
curriculum
1986).
environment,
Hired
course
control,
faculty management
ditionally,
emphasizing
Dan
both
Krier
are
and
personal,
is a doctoral
subjective
student
in the Department
2172.
Krier
standardization,
and educational
has been
factors
become
quality
with
accomplished
and collegiality,
in sociology,
and William
of Sociology,
The University
G. Staples
of Kansas,
uncertain.
direct
with
supervision,
heavy
emphasis
is an associate
Lawrence,
Tra
Kansas
professor;
66045
119
Staples
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upon
With
and
and the self-policing
review
of professional
academic
peer
disciplines.
in part-time faculty, such traditional forms of supervision
the large increase
review become
and difficult to vali
cumbersome,
increasingly
expensive,
date.
to these conditions, we find these community
are relying
colleges
more
"remote" surveillance
and disciplinary
Some
increasingly upon
techniques.
are remarkably
of these techniques
similar to those having their origins
in pris
institutions (Foucault
ons, asylums and other carc?ral (disciplinary)
1979; Staples
a
sources
information
from
of
1991; forthcoming).
Combining
variety
(personal
In response
interviews
observations,
with
faculty and administrators,
we find the following
techniques
literature),
management
toring in use at the community
colleges
chosen
division
administrators;
by college
and adjunct
faculty
of control and moni
studied:
2)
textbooks
1) mandated
course policies
standardized
pre
and
course
that
(grading,
assignments,
practices
listing mandatory
syllabus
topics
must be covered,
final
examinations)
3) supervisor/
pre-written,,
"departmental"
visits and evaluations;
4) computerized
colleague
"spot" classroom
monitoring
of student activity,
on
including
grade distribution,
adds/drops,
performance
standardized
of employment
final, teaching evaluations;
5) conditions
emphasiz
and unconditional
ing immediate
right of institution to fire/non-renew
part-time
faculty without
use
of
justification;
"card-access"
systems
6)
sign-in check-points
to monitor
for part-time
movement
and
While
faculty;
equipment
and 7)
usage.
the occupation
has for years ranked toward the
of "college professor"
measures
of
of
top
occupational
(Hodge,
1964; Davis
prestige
Siegel, and Rossi
these social control
and Smith 1983),
to the
contribute
techniques
effectively
of
these
education.1
Moreover,
deprofessionalization
postsecondary
practices may
so than other institu
in community
be most advanced
that, even more
colleges
are in the business
tions of higher education,
of "commodity
That
production."
is,while
colleges do offer trade programs and a few remedial courses,
community
more
than half of the students are enrolled
in transfer courses;
lower division
a
to
"distribution
that
will
later
be
transferred
requirements"
four-year college or
and Brawer
In this kind of environment,
1989).
can be managed
less like professionals
and more
the college
is primarily
in the business
of producing
(Cohen
university
instructors
college
workers
since
community
like factory
a standard
use of part-time
The
instructors
and of
increasing
commodity.
to
surveillance
and
control
the
both
the
educators
educa
techniques
tional process
In this article we offer two conceptual
reflects this basic orientation.
frames for understanding
such developments
in these
institutions
of higher
ized
academic
remote
first is to delineate
versus
of "productive"
the characteristics
use
that
institutions
disci
often
argue
"disciplinary"
productive
toward different ends than do disciplinary
institutions,
pline and surveillance
and the source of ultimate power
in these institutions?exclusion
in productive
education.
The
institutions.
We
coercion
in carc?ral
institutions?is
therefore
institutions;
vastly different. We
or
the
to
account
of
reservation
social
the
for
concept
spaces
ghetto
deploy
or "panoptic
institutions. The
ignored by the surveillance
gaze" of productive
a
is one such reservation,
colleges
pool of part-time faculty at these community
ghettoized
120
social
space within
the academic
institution.
The
American
Sociologist/Fall/Winter
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1993
versus
Disciplinary
One
the more
of
Michel
Foucault's
punish
as itmoved
asylum.
architectural
matic
accounts
original
of social
control
Punish
and
(1979).
Discipline
from the torture of the scaffold
saw Bentham's
He
institutions
Productive
model
for the Penitentiary
plan
and disciplinary
Foucault
through
in Western
is
society
to
the power
the discovery
of the
traces
as the paradig
Panopticon
institution.
for the closed
technique
as a voyeuristic mechanism
the Panopticon
that maintains
a non-verifiable,
the
activities
of
the subjects
gaze, watching
yet inexorable
The Panopticon
reversed
within
its field of vision to create "docile bodies."
the
Foucault
characterized
principles
darkness
and
effective
and efficient
ules
it is constituted
of the dungeon;
isolation. The
set
the rhythms
of space
organization
control
application
of life while
rather than
by light and visibility
of time and space
is also essential
for the
of disciplinary
Timetables
and
sched
power.
enclosure
the division
of internal
permits
into an orderly grid where
individuals may be placed:
the
or
own
location
"Each
has
of
individual
his
"partitioning."
elementary
principle
.. .
and each place
its individual.
tends to be divided
space
Disciplinary
place;
as
are
to be distributed"
sections
into as many
there
bodies or elements
(Fou
cault 1979, p. 143).
In concert with
use
of procedures
tivity that employs
these basic
such
as
is advanced
power
principles,
disciplinary
by the
a ritual knowledge
ac
"the examination":
gathering
"hierarchical
observation"
information collec
(surveillance,
of an individual's
tion, and analysis) and "normalizing
judgments" (the assessment
set
standard
These
introduce
indi
against
activity
specifications).
techniques
and in turn constitute
into a "field of documentation"
viduals
them as "cases"
Foucault ends his somber account with a discussion
1979, pp. 170-194).
(Foucault
a
a central position,
the prison occupies
of the "carc?ral city,"
society inwhich
at least symbolically,
and serves as the model
for and anchor of social control
in society.
institutions
the
and the spread of other disci
then,
ubiquitous
Panopticon,
is responsible
for the similarities of all modern
institutions,
plinary techniques,
"Is it surprising," he states, "that prisons resemble
both carc?ral and productive:
mechanisms
in other
For Foucault
factories,
228). His
schools,
barracks,
hospitals,
thesis leads him to consider
which
all resemble
(1979, p.
prisons?"
the points of identity between
carc?ral
on productive
activity here leads us to
and productive
institutions: our focus
discuss
In our view, most productive
differences.
and carc?ral
institutions di
lines: the ends to which
verge along two fundamental
disciplinary
techniques
are utilized and the underlying
source of power
that supports
these techniques
in each
type of institution.
or carc?ral
institutions
Disciplinary
warehouse
and control
undesirable
exist primarily to manage
illegalities;
they
deviants
and
the
populations,
unemployable,
"social junk" (Scull 1987).
Individuals
seek incarceration,
but
rarely voluntarily
rather are forcibly held inside the institution's perimeter
the
legal apparatus
by
of the state. Unlike disciplinary
institutions are not inter
institutions, productive
as
in social
control per
ested
control
se, but rather use social
techniques
Krier
and
121
Staples
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to increase
their productive
capacity, monitor
efficiency, to guard
or
to
of
time
and
decide
and the
dismissal,
property,
against
promotion
institutions such as factories and schools exist to produce
like. Productive
goods,
in disciplin
students, and may utilize techniques
services, or educated
perfected
in order to achieve
these productive
ends.
ary institutions
mechanisms
"abuses"
and productive
institutions may share a variety of
disciplinary
are different.
the
functions
served
techniques,
by these techniques
institution the panoptic
records
In a disciplinary
for
information
gaze
searching
are
so
to retain an individual and actions
coer
reasons
done
taken
through the
Yet while
both
control
social
of the state. By contrast,
in productive
the gaze
cive, legal power
institutions,
records information that may lead to the expulsion
of an individual.
It is the fear
cut off from the ability to produce
to con
of being excluded,
(and ultimately
to
use
underlies
and
force
that
the
of
sume),
gives
disciplinary
techniques within
institutions.
productive
of the asylum, it is the socially silent who prosper. Avoiding
the walls
the detection
of the gaze is the fastest way out, the best way to "make progress."
Within
bureaucratic
be it office, school, or prison,
it is exem
any
organization,
in
rules that leads to promotion
conformity with established
plary performance
and tenure. Individuals within productive
institutions, all the "potentially unem
voluntary,
Within
fear being cast out of the organization,
while
in disciplinary
individuals
ployed,"
on
to
institutions dread being kept inside. We
to our jobs"
of
"hold
trying
speak
to
out
are
of
Productive
while we
institutions
insofar
try
"get
prison."
"prisons"
as their bars
economic
are composed
not of iron and
steel, but of the fear induced
by real
need.
and
Reservations
in Productive
Ghettos
Society
texture of the disciplinary
the consistent,
gapless
society.
nor
surveillance's
Nothing
sight
grasp. Yet total
beyond discipline's
social neglect
would
make
Urban ghettos and reserva
panopticism
impossible.
not exist, for example,
tions for Native Americans
would
since they are places
Foucault
describes
lies outside
where
not
the comprehensive
the gaze, or notice,
societies,
postindustrial
all of those who
where
of the panoptic
least
gaze does not reach?at
the productive
institution. Yet
in contemporary
are the places
do exist. These
ghettos and reservations
vision
of
have been excluded
from production
reside; off-stage
are sent, the unproductive,
the socially banished
the discredited.
should be incapable
of neglect
and disregard,
since these terms
are literally antonyms for supervision
and observation.
Foucault's
orderly grid of
to
account
can
take into
how
individuals
space fails
"partitioned,"
disciplinary
spaces where
A panopticon
be controlled
Kasarda
will
through
(1983)
their social
argues
from
be separated
"architecture
of defense,"
exclusion
and banishment
into neglected
spaces.
live in gentrified sections of inner cities
the ghetto,
of the urban poor,
from the mass
by an
electronic
iron
home security,
gates, guarded
utilizing
that those who
entries, etc. to fortify and segregate from the other, poorer residents. The
is not really the holding
for the largest percentage
of "social
ground
122
The
American
Sociologist/Fall/Winter
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prison
junk."
1993
are (relatively)
areas where
these populations
acknowledged
and are certainly free from the
of disciplinary mechanisms,
stores and factories
institutions. Police patrol the perimeters,
and quarantine.
and public policy reflects "containment"
Only
Society has created
free from the gaze
gaze of productive
locate elsewhere,
to leave these desolate
and
are attempting
areas, the geographically
to
who
those
intend
consider
need
mobile,
disciplinary
techniques:
upwardly
of the prison do not really care about the rules
the walls
remain forever within
see themselves
to get out, nor are those who
schemes necessary
and classificatory
those who
in
as permanently
in the "hood" or the reservation
embedded
really interested
their chances
outside
of this
that would
the types of measures
help/hinder
social space.
encircled
the rules and conduct
of the ghetto and the reservation,
are
to
and
institutions
since those
suspended,
productive
disciplinary
appropriate
scheme
of disciplinary
fall outside
of the classificatory
within
society. Once
surveillance
these individuals are banished from the productive
becomes
system, any
is really nowhere
irrelevant. Why watch? Why classify? Why differentiate? There
the bounds
Within
for ghettoized
disciplinary
individuals
nor
and
they are in a liminal
areas
institution. These
neither a
space, within
are the realm of the
to move;
a productive
the neglected,
that are untended
and largely ignored
the
relative
of productive
affluence
system,
by
warn
to
construct
of
defense
off
the mass
architectures
of
that
spaces
surrounded
undisciplined
by the larger social
institutions,
ghettoized who might seek entrance.
The ghetto is not only a phenomenon
social form within many organizations
of the inner city;
rather
it exists
as a
and
and
institutions,
including
college
that
lack
individuals
positions
"visibility";
are not excluded
from productive
who hold these positions
activity, but are held
in institutional
These
advancement.
limbo, where
they labor without
positions
These
factories.
are
the
"dead-end"
are not strongly evaluated,
since the intensive, panoptic
gaze that may be appro
on
to
those
in ghettoized
monitor
"fast-track"
is
unnecessary
positions
priate
are
frozen in organizational
The occupants
contend
that
space. We
positions.
many
part-time
faculty occupy
such
an intra-organizational
ghetto within
higher
education.
to illustrate these ideas in the context of the community
colleges
we
that embody
focus on techniques
the disciplinary
of "hi
studied,
practices
and panoptic
erarchical
observation,"
"normalizing
judgments,"
scrutiny. But
"into the light" through the gaze,
instructors
rather than bring the individual
these procedures
illuminate the credibility of the education
process while
they
a
in
space. This is a
systematically
shadowy, ghettoized
keep part-time faculty
In order
space nonetheless,
disciplinary
threat of being further banished
Seen
these
outside
individuals
the productive
are
under
the constant
institution.
but Unseen
The American
cation Association
Krier
and
and
Association
(NEA),
of University Professors
(AAUP),
and other groups have long opposed
the National
the use
Edu
of part
123
Staples
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time faculty on a number of grounds,
including the erosion of the tenure system,
and the inability to monitor
the loss of academic
freedom, deprofessionalization,
and
standards
in the face of a tran
academic
educational
and maintain
quality
and
sitory
techniques
by part-time faculty in that these
and thus avoid
and quality
consistency
are contractually
and
universities
colleges
posed
remote
The
1992).
(AAUP
professorate
unprotected
as practical
here can be viewed
discussed
surveillance
to the problems
ensure and document
solutions
can
techniques
accreditation
difficulties.
Since
other
to accept
bound
college
community
tries to ensure and maintain
In the void left by
credits, the college
consistency.
of full-time faculty who could build an academic
the low percentage
environment
to teach a
enable
and a consistent
these
program,
practices
virtually anyone
course
and
similar
with
course
administrators
college
Community
that minimize
the effect of an individual
policies
outcomes.
educational
(measurable)
upon
results.
changeable
parts in this production
(Garson
1988; Ritzer
McUniversity
are
They
materials
faculty member
become
simply inter
"Instructors"
apparatus.
design
the fast-food
at
clerks
1993).
Textbooks
are pre-chosen
readings
supplemental
administration.
The process
of textbook
selection
college
review
time faculty input in the form of a curriculum
Textbooks
and
and
pre-approved
by
involves full
generally
final
committee, with
director. Part-time faculty
texts by the program
of any recommended
approval
are required
to use these texts. In academic
fields such as sociology
where
theoretical
exist
the
irreconcilable
choice
perspectives
multiple,
simultaneously,
a political
constitutes
decision
that commits
of a textbook
the instructor to a
line of inquiry. A pre-chosen
and perhaps
alternative,
exploring
at
one
college
community
ample,
text effectively
certain
an instructor
prevents
politically
unpopular,
perspectives.
the text mandated
for the social
from
ex
For
problems
that is intended to be a foundational
course,
class, is Social Problems:
sociology
A Critical
1987). The authors of this
(Baker and Anderson,
Thinking Approach
text (neither of whom
holds a Ph.D.
in sociology)
view
reject the "objectivist"
it with
the "constructionist"
of social problems,
but do not replace
view now
a "critical
in the sociology of social problems.
Instead, the authors develop
to analyze the rest of the readings in the text, which are composed
thinking" model
mass
of
media
articles:
largely
current
The
perplexities
tives
to
of plurality?too
and
a comprehensive
writing
sible
analyze,
..."
(Baker
and
too
many
many
and
Anderson,
definitive
1992,
to cover,
topics
conflicting
value
on
book
pg.
too many
positions
the
nature
theoretical
to be
of
social
perspec
reconciled?make
problems
impos
7).
as rhetoric,
is to view all statements
social problems
about
approach
to analyze the "logical consistency"
of the rhetoric. Rather than a sociology
the text requires an instructor to teach a journalism or communication
course,
studies class,
"critical
consis
stressing argumentation,
thinking" and "logical
Their
and
124
The
American
Sociologist/Fall/Winter
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1993
that
severe
believe
limitations on those instructors who
tency." This places
statements made about the plight of inner-city youth in books like The Way Things
in The
to Be by Rush Limbaugh have less inherent value than those made
Ought
by William
Truly Disadvantaged
Julius Wilson,
despite
similar
levels
of logical
consistency.
Course
Standardized
and
Policies
Practices
one community college
called the "Standardized Course Outline,"
written
for each course, mandating
and policies
the procedures
assign
a
other
of
lab
and
minimum
number
hours,
essay examinations,
policy
are college-wide
Also delineated
deemed
grading scales and
appropriate.
In a document
details
ments,
matters
from "B" work,
"A" work
for distinguishing
judgments
as incompl?tes,
such
for
unusual
grades,
giving
procedures
a
are written
committee
documents
These
cluded.
by
composed
normative
and
etc.
are
Policies
also
in
of full-time
and are updated
every few semesters. Part-time faculty
faculty and administrators,
are bound by contract to follow these edicts, and their course syllabi are reviewed
to ascertain
of each semester
administrators
prior to the beginning
by division
these standards.
conformity with
content
of
each course
The
of the individual
up to the discretion
col
instructor but rather is decided
by the institution. Most of the community
a
of
we
at
and
"standardized
looked
sort,
syllabi"
prepared
approved
leges
produce
in conjunction
with a curriculum
committee
of full-time
by a division director
instructors.
This
the topics that must be covered
during the
commands
the ordering of the topics. The faculty handbook
in
reads: "Usually instructors present
their content
college
outline
and even
semester,
for one community
is not
mandates
to alter the
If you wish
that it appears on the standard course outline.
see
to
director."
Each
instructor
of
be
studied,
your program
sequence
topics
course
cover
in
to
listed
the
is
the
then
bound, by contract,
outline, and
topics
contract
of the employment
if all topics are not dis
it is formally a violation
the order
cussed.
The
outline"
present,
control of actual course
content
ismore
de jure than defacto. While
"course
in
of
the
class
followed
guidelines
preparation
syllabi, at
no one formally polices
these guidelines
in-class instruction,
instead,
a social control function
in and of themselves,
of their en
regardless
are generally
perform
forcement,
to abide by the official rules.
instructors feel obligated
since many
one
is implementing
in
community
college
Beginning
Spring 1993, however,
course
outline has been followed.
finals to assure that the
departmental
and control
discussed
here work
Most of the management
pas
techniques
to
who
instructors
and
follow
the
of
seek
the
rules,
self-policing
sively, through
require vigorous
resistance. When
enforcement
enforcement
to maintain
effectiveness
in the face
can
of active
instructors
still maintain
is lax, individual
instructors generally follow the course outline
a
in
of autonomy. As noted,
reviewed.
be
that
these
will
that
their
realizing
Upon
writing
syllabi, knowing
current events,
are unsupervised,
class meetings
however,
they may discuss
degree
Krier
and
125
Staples
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choose
the
alternate
readings,
course
"required"
eliminate
thus abandoning
exams,
essay
elements
of
content.
a problem
in the actual course content poses
resulting degree of variation
ensure
to
courses
is
its
for a community
which
bound
that
college,
contractually
are 100 percent
to other universities.
In order to "ensure consis
transferable
The
in educational
tency
one
accreditation,
finals.2
partmental
outcomes,"
college
community
For example,
all
the same
will give
Psychology
This departmental
final exam
administrators
more
in order
accurately
has begun
instructors
standardized,
to ensure
continued
to implement mandatory
who
teach Introduction
de
to
choice
final examination.
multiple
the ability of community
college
the classroom
itself.
greatly increases
the instructor within
to control
an "Outcomes
to devise new,
Assessment
Committee"
to
student
of
and
document
that the
measuring
learning
techniques
is maintaining
consistent
college
quality in its transfer courses. The psychology
is
the
to implement
first
social
science
the departmental
program
department
This
college
has created
effective
are al
other departments,
such as math and career programs,
final, although
exams
to
standardized
monitor
student
results
of
The
these
progress.
ready using
exams will be evaluated
a
Assessment
Committee,
by the Outcomes
allowing
of the performance
comparison
of other instructors'
students.
of each
instructor's
students
variations
to the performance
can
performance
in student
Significant
a given instructor, both full-time and
in evaluating
and
affect
retention
and promotion.
may ultimately
part-time,
our
an instructor
that the departmental
It is
view
final severely limits what
can do in the classroom.
Any topics not included on the course
syllabus (such
then be
taken
into account
events or non-textbook
material)
or
text
deviation
the
from
any
syllabus will
that of other students whose
instructors
as current
not
will
result
spend
instructors will
appear
in student
the entire
on
the final; hence
below
performance
semester
on
only
In short,
to "teach the
be encouraged
syllabus material.
lose the ability to vary course content by individual preference,
final"3 and will
time constraints,
of depth over breadth,
choices
etc.4
professional
course
"Spot"
Supervisor/Colleague
Classroom
Observations
of instructors are not done at any of the com
observations
on a regular basis, although
a number of colleges
do perform
munity colleges
out
of
instructors.
carried
observations
These
administrators
be
may
"spot"
by
or designated
full-time instructors, generally
first semes
during an instructor's
Direct
ter. None
classroom
of the
instructors we
interviewed
who
had
been
evaluated
thought
the positive with
overly rigorous,
tending
just a
around
few "helpful" suggestions
the edges. This lack of rigor can be partially
rather
inwhich
the
uncomfortable
these evaluations
position
explained
by
place
act as an unofficial commitment
the college. Overly positive
to hire
evaluations
as a full-time instructor, while
the person
evaluations
may dis
overly negative
that these visits were
credit
dilemma
126
the lax hiring standards
the college performs
to stress
for part-time
instructors.
In order to avoid this
innocuous
evaluations.
As one instructor told us,
The
American
Sociologist/Fall/Winter
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1993
"They aren't going to really tell you
that they have observed
you."
of Student
Monitoring
Computerized
anything,
they
just want
to be
able
to say
Activity
can
student registration
and grade assignments
At many community
colleges,
can
for
each
At
and
be
cross-tabulated
instructor.
be monitored
electronically
instructor
one college
each
is
monitored
studied,
electronically
by the office of
of Instruction for student enrollment
the Dean
activity, final grade distribution
results. A report is generated
every two weeks
the
enrollment
registrar documenting
during
by
activity in each
course. All adds/drops
and changes to pass/fail status are tracked by the registrar's
to the instructor. The division
is forwarded
adminis
office and the information
trator is sent a summary report as well and any abnormally
high drops (or adds
and
student
teaching
the semester
evaluation
can be investigated
at that time.
for that matter)
a summary report of final grade distributions
At the end of the semester,
is reviewed
each course
within
low or
by the division administrator.
Unusually
most
the
In
director.
the
cases,
program
high grades
require
explanation
by
assure
director
will
the
division
administrator
was
that
the
instructor
program
are collected
in only a single course
etc.5 Student evaluations
competent,
taught
Some
do not release
the results
colleges
community
by each part-time faculty.6
to instructors; most do.
of student evaluations
of Employment
Conditions
In many community
the ones we
studied, hiring proce
colleges,
including
differ
for
and
full
instructors
dures
(AAUP
1992; Biles and Tuckman
part-time
for part-time faculty is to have hassle-free
instruction. There
1986). The emphasis
for prior teaching
is a strong preference
since
there are no real
experience
resources
to "help" an inexperienced
instructor
available, certainly no personnel,
learn remedial skills. In many community colleges
the organizational
responsibility
for hiring full-time instructors is kept separate from responsibility
for hiring and
evaluating
any interpersonal
part-time faculty, effectively preventing
advantage
for part-time faculty when
for
full-time
applying
positions.
Part-time faculty are not only organizationally
from full-time faculty,
separated
isolated from them. At these community
but are also physically
office
colleges,
is limited for part-time faculty. Some colleges
space
pool
adjunct
faculty into
large
rooms
known
to share an office
as
in size
offer part-time
A few colleges
do part-time faculty hold space
physical
exclusion
while
"bull-pens,"
similar
commensurate
instructor,
six hundred
part-time
Krier
and
require
four
or more
part-timers
by a single full-time instructor.
space at all. In any case, rarely
with that of full-time faculty. This
these marginal
effectively prevents
into the coll?gial
life of the institution
being integrated
full-time
invisible. One
proximately
others
to that occupied
faculty no office
after we
instructors
informed
faculty members
and leaves them
him
at his college,
from
largely
that there were
ap
looked around sus
127
Staples
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and
piciously
conditions
.
are they?" These working
"But, . . where
of defense,
the spacial
ghetto that sepa
from their full-time counterparts
and the administrators
in a low voice,
form an architecture
asked
then
rates part-time
faculty
them with
could provide
who
full-time
jobs.
conditions
of employment
Finally, these marginal
to teach
threat of dismissal.
The contract
present
are underscored
at these
by the ever
community
colleges
at any time, without
the college
the right to revoke
the appointment
pay, even after the start of the semester. No compen
justification, and without
an
sation is paid to
instructor who
is dismissed,
for
including any compensation
are common
of the course. These
at the community
the preparation
conditions
gives
colleges
we
Sign-in
Check
studied
reflect national
practices
(Biles
and Tuckman
1986).
Points
in a less-affluent
Located
in the area
ratio
and
suburb
and maintaining
the highest
part-time faculty
instruc
requires part-time
level of a campus building
sheet each day. The college
they arrive but also sign out
80%), one community
college
to a security station located in the lower
tors to walk
(over
and physically
sign their name on an attendance
that
the
instructors not only sign in when
requires
when
in practice
instructors
grounds,
they leave the college
although
sign in
to college policy, any instructor who does
and out at the same time. According
no pay for the day. This
not sign in receives
is a particularly
inconvenient
surveillance
as part-time
to spare
device
little
have
time
may
retired university professor
has difficulty walking
(he
and
is legally designated
for handicapped
more
than
the amount
doubles
requirement
this check-in
must
do
who
than one job and
faculty generally work more
in order to meet
their other obligations.
One
is teaching at this college has hip problems
and
each
spots),
parking
of walking
he
day.
a summary report of those who
of education
receives
president
failed to sign the sheet on a given day, and his office is charged with following
and reducing
the pay of those who have missed
classes. We
talked
up absences
to two instructors, neither of whom
have personally
lost any pay, but both have
The
vice
that it is a regular
noted
occurrence
for other
instructors
who
fail to sign
the
sheet.
Entry
Keyless
While
college
with
128
Security
Devices
leave buildings and classrooms
unlocked
community colleges
during
a
access
increased
number
have
In general,
hours,
security
procedures.
at several of
however,
faculty are not provided with keys to buildings;
to be
is controlled
areas
Electronic
most
adjunct
the colleges,
office
and
a part-time
instructor can make
with
the security
arrangements
admitted during locked hours. At one, access
to department
offices
with
combination
locks on the outer door, with more
restricted
as the program director's
office and full-time faculty offices secured
additional
keyed locks. The
"key request form" that must be filled out in
such
The
American
Sociologist/Fall/Winter
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1993
for keys, and
of persons
to get an office key, lists all categories
eligible
to
check
the
Part-time
the
the person
category.
appropriate
key
requesting
are
even
on
students
and
vendors
listed.
are
the
not
listed
form,
though
faculty
In the science building on the campus of one affluent community
college are
order
asks
courses
are
all evening
programs. Virtually
biological
to labs after the departmen
faculty, who need to have access
labs contain microscopes,
left for the night. These
training
and
the medical
housed
taught by part-time
tal office staff has
over
other
and
dummies,
In
theft.
equipment
expensive
secure
to
order
this
area
of
there
has
an
college,
some
been
electronic
concern
card-access
faculty are given an identification
as to time entered
and exited.
installed and part-time
system has been
of full reporting
This system is capable
card.
of Neglect
Functions
Productive
and
the
an array of remote
surveillance
tech
constitute
described
procedures
of "hierarchical
that reflect the intersection
observation,"
"normalizing
niques
use
With
the
of
"standardized"
and
textbooks,
scrutiny.
panoptic
judgements,"
The
exams and the like, administrators
course materials,
"watch over" the
effectively
education process, making any deviation from "approved" policies not only difficult
are enhanced
"remote" practices
to manage
but punishable
by dismissal. These
the more
by
visits
and
tems
direct,
to monitor
gaze
panoptic-like
evaluations,
computer
movement
of
"sign-in"
monitoring,
and
the
use
With
usage.
equipment
are better able to manage
and certify that "acceptable
educational
administrators
college
place,
sustain accreditation
"spot"
check-points,
and
of
classroom
"card-access"
sys
these
in
techniques
administrative
costs,
standards" are being
met.
documented
in preceding
section, one
given the amount of surveillance
a great deal
are
and
think these community
colleges
gathering
collecting
of information
about each of their part-time
instructors.
Foucault's
Indeed,
as a "...
a system of individualizing
and permanent
is described
Panopticon
on
In reality, the permanent
documentation"
file maintained
(1979,
p. 250).
Yet,
would
each
is quite
form, a copy
instructor
application
lack of a case
tion, amounts
kept on you,
are
colleges
descriptive
incomes,
only the instructor's
absence
reports and
information.
compensation
The
at one college,
thin, containing,
of any official student evaluations,
of documenta
history in an institution, a certain absence
a
to organizational
As
if a file is not
invisibility.
practical matter,
not
do
exist.
in
these
you literally
community
faculty
Adjunct
Most
institutions
incredibly undocumented.
simply do not collect
on their average
data regarding
their adjunct
faculty, information
external
obligations,
lected on the educational
research
alone.
interests,
Productive
career
goals,
institutions
data
etc.;
derive
is col
no direct
process
a pool of ghettoized
and classifying
from evaluating
individuals within
and may actually pay an indirect price for having done so since any
employees,
to be used against the
data that is collected
and maintained
has the capacity
benefit
organization,
Krier
and
and may
limit the power
of the institution
to make
decisions.
129
Staples
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accurate
records
is to take power
away from insti
or
is
limited
eliminated when
power
decision-making
subjective
tutions?personal,
and public.
accurate
documentation
of performance
is available
and complete
of evaluation,
To avoid such latent dysfunctions
Data can be dangerous.
perma
really have
To
evaluative
over
replaced
After the
that are biodegradable.
nent
records will
be
disintegrate
automatically,
this data. Staples
holding
are lighter, more
practices
time with
evaluative
measures
immediate
benefit
is derived,
preventing
or techniques
the data will
of
consequences
long-term negative
that
suggests
postmodern
disciplinary
case
less cumbersome.
The permanent
any
(forthcoming)
efficient and
surveillance.
with disposable
time intensive and tended
each part-time instructor was
Personally
supervising
to build interpersonal
between
the
rapport
part-time faculty and administrators,
to
limited the colleges'
hire
instructors from outside
which
full-time
the
ability
is replaced
such as electronic
surveillance
part-time pool. Remote
techniques,
were
However,
lighter and cheaper.
maintaining
data yielded an almost
rate, intensive evaluative
to embarrass
not only
the system, which
had the potential
ranked lower than part-time, but also administration
and
are a very tricky device
itself. Teaching
evaluations
for
college
within
individuals
full-time
examinations,
a permanent
file of fairly accu
of
infinitely varied classification
faculty who
the community
a community
that relies so heavily
college
the results there are hazards
involved.
In order
demonstrate
on part-time
quality does
to justify its reliance
that its educational
at one
college,
cation
stated,
in a speech
"...
we
make
upon
before
no
a state
adjunct
faculty, a community
not suffer. The dean
legislative
on
distinction
the
of
faculty. Regardless
committee
transcript
college must
of instruction
on higher
between
edu
those
faculty and, therefore, we feel an obligation
result of any
the only acceptable
Indeed,
measure
student evaluations
of teaching,
of educational
de
quality?whether
no difference
document
between
full and part
finals, etc?would
partmental
time instructors; any other result would
If teaching evaluations
be problematic.
classes
taught by full-time and part-time
to ensure that there is no difference."
the
full-time instructors,
instructors
outscoring
part-time
significantly
as
are
as
to
not
would
arise
folk
hired
these
full-time
instructors;
question
why
than full-time instructors, then
if part-time instructors scored significantly worse
showed
the strategy of using high percentages
of part-time instructors would
be discred
ited. Since accreditation
and
"educational
teaching
upon
hinges
performing
outcome"
the college cannot opt out of performing
these evaluations.
evaluations,
a
The solution is for the community
to devise
relatively benign evaluation
college
to discriminate
instructors. At one commu
form that would
be unable
between
are primarily structured around non-instructor-related
the evaluations
nity college
treatment. Another
factor that reduces
the
thus
differential
matters,
avoiding
are
of
these
devices
is
that
power
they
performed
immediately
discriminatory
so that only the early part of the course
is evaluated.
after midterms,
in order to attain a
Ultimately most part-time faculty at these colleges work
full-time position,
their
if
hard
that
work
enough,
believing
really show
they
130
The
American
Sociologist/Fall/Winter
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1993
In reality,
stuff, someone will notice and will hire them as full-time instructors.7
or "high visibility"
involved with part-time teaching. The
there is no "exposure"
of duties will not get an instructor
even exemplary
performance
competent,
spite of the teaching
There
simply are no institutional
it is a ghettoized
of part-timers;
noticed?in
itwould
admit
overly
It is our position
other surveillance
evaluation
data
structures
to allow movement
to throw
be
but
position,
its
hand.
up
that the community
not only
techniques
that would
allow
such
ranking.
out of the pool
to
for the community
college
and
college utilizes teaching evaluations
to control the instructional process,
but
out of the part-time pool. While working
the absence
of a career path
to mask
or
of an apprenticeship
has all of the appearances
as a part-time faculty member
it is not. It is instead a dead end, paraprofessional
other entry level position,
The college main
the labor structure of higher education.
within
occupation
to instructors, yet gives the appearance
tains a legal position of noncommitment
that it is always on the lookout for a good performing
distribute full-time position
administrators
openings
to
urge them
apply.
in fact, division
part-timer;
to all part-time faculty and
to evaluate
institutions
have come to expect productive
them, to
to recognize
their efforts. Part-time
instructors believe
their abilities,
in a continuous
that since they have been evaluated
way, extraordinarily
good
and
"rewarded" with a full-time position.
In
will
be
acknowledged
performances
a
are
in
used
dichotomous
data
extraordinar
manner;
only
reality, the evaluative
in
official
from a part-time
result
action?removal
will
poor
performances
ily
Individuals
measure
will receive no more notice
than
good performance
position. An extraordinarily
at
receives
notice
all.
a marginally
since
neither
one,
any
Only negative
adequate
are noticed
to. These
and responded
admin
colleges
community
performances
obsolete
faculty
the illusion
that
and
classified,
compared,
of control
here an evolution
see
We
to give part-time
ranked.
evaluations
continuous
ister subjective,
they are being
and
as old techniques
become
practices
The
final"
"departmental
implemented.
currently
that it should eliminate
the neces
is such an omnibus
technique
new
ones
are
being activated
sity for some of the others.
As noted earlier, it is capable
of radically controlling
that
would
continuous
data
enable
each
It
process.
produces
thus
the
instructor's students to be given a percentile
ranking,
satisfying
subjective,
"cooling out" function now being served by teaching evaluations.
psychological
No personal
light. No depth files need be maintained.
Finally, it is extremely
the educational
contact
The
vidual
need
a
single,
the evaluators
between
process
instructor becomes
to
reduced
be made
educational
average
will
be
invisible
score
and
the evaluated.
yet the indi
totally visible and controllable,
and controlled. An entire semester's
effort is
on
a
final
exam:
the
"educational
outcome."
from view, receding back into the darkness
instructor disappears
the panoptic
and obscurity of the ghetto, and for a brief, flickering moment
gaze
on
trace
of
five
months
the
before
evidence
settles
on, leaving it
labor,
moving
individual
The
to
decay.
Krier
and
131
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Conclusion
In various
are used to regulate
control techniques
to a decline
status of
in the professional
is a prestigious
white
collar occupation
of work generally
formal education.
distin
Sociologists
these
combinations,
social
survey part-time faculty, and point
education.
A profession
postsecondary
and
extensive
that requires
four characteristics
of a profession:
theoretical
self
unique
knowledge,
a
of
and
social
and
code
recognition
regulation
practice,
expertise,
professional
as a whole,
the social control techniques
discussed
of ethics. Taken
here dimin
to which
to
these characteristics
ish the degree
part-time faculty.
apply
a discipline
is reduced,
within
The need for theoretical
since the
knowledge
course
is already chosen
content
and the debates,
issues and themes of each
guish
are preselected
is reduced
regulation
course
within
an academic
for self
along narrow, easily mastered
paths. The need
since social control
is no longer performed
by colleagues
but is instead performed
via
discipline,
by administrators
techniques.
Finally, the need for a code of ethics is reduced,
control procedures
discussed
here regulate
instructors without
code
of
ethics.
In
for
the
of
of part
short,
any
management
regard
large pools
time faculty through the use of remote social control practices
seriously under
remote
since
surveillance
the social
the professional
who
Administrators,
mines
financial?not
for
these
the
standing of these faculty.
are utilizing
large numbers
techniques
will
serve
not
para-professionals,
to survey
them,
to
seek
academic?reasons,
the
and
control
professionals.
since a goal of many of these practices
between
part-time and full-time faculty,
of part-time
convince
only
faculty
that
of part-timers,
the pool
However,
is to document
faculty primarily
full-time
it is our
a "benign"
they must be implemented
in identical
all faculty, part-time and full-time, are captured
with
similar results. It is not merely
of part-time faculty
the work
quality but that of full-time faculty as well.
"professional"
Thus
view
that
equivalence
universally.
mechanisms
that loses
its
In a society dominated
There
als to be evaluated.
it is necessary
for individu
institutions,
by productive
are whole
classes of individuals
who
today
hunger for
of the panoptic
to
to
the attention
who
be
be
gaze,
watched,
long
socially
in productive
examined
In a system
and institutionally
institutions.
recognized
an individual
can remain
to individuals,
little feedback
in which
that provides
in neglect
mired
for long periods of time, the strongest desire is recognition
and
can I improve? What
are my faults, weaknesses
evaluation.
How
and, strengths?
a
in this case actually welcome
to be placed within
Individuals
their chances
schema
know
of objectification;
they desire the normalizing
oneself except
through how one ranks?
It seems
judgment;
does
how
one
to us that many
of disciplin
institutions may go through the motions
are
for
the
of
useful
fiction
that
the
ary procedures
purpose
watching
creating
they
in fact the institution is not really paying attention. We
their employees
when
institutions will use surveillance techniques to build "imaginary
argue that productive
career
tions,
132
paths"
out
surveillance
of
the
productive
practices
hide
ghetto.
ghettos
On
under
The
a micro-scale
a veil
American
within
organiza
of evaluation,
serving
Sociologist/Fall/Winter
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
to
1993
of
absence"
the
"mask
an
upward
career
mask
surveillance
ladder.
On
a macro-scale
in productive
of a carcerai
the absence
society.
practices
society,
to life within productive
or disciplinary
institu
The type of behavior
adapted
to
in.
needed
are
the
behavior
and
from
of
different
tions
get
types
Docility
a
tend toward progression
inside, an
system. Once
through
quiet competence
out. There
is a degree
of rationality
individual can relax, the rules are spelled
and reason
and one
that guides
finds oneself
ployees
in the same
through the system; the rules are clear
progression
a pre-established
put em
positions
path. Ghettoized
as
situation
of the institution;
the default
those outside
one's
on
and quiet competence
do
setting of the institution is to ignore them. Docility
and to progress,
not attract the panoptic
gaze in these spaces. To get noticed,
a louder, exhibitionist
style.
requires
Notes
in occupational
1. Both of these studies find "college professor" ranking second
prestige out of ninety occu
so far as we have found, no study has developed
separate prestige ratings for full-time
pations. However,
vs. part-time faculty, university vs. two-year college
of
instructor, etc. We suggest that as the percentage
increases, the prestige rating of "college professor" as an undifferentiated
part-time faculty in higher education
occupation will decrease.
for these colleges made reaccreditation
2. In 1989, the regional accreditation association
contingent upon the
outcomes
assessment process,"
the purpose of
implementation, before the next review, of an "educational
is to document
that students are meeting minimum
levels of competence
which
during the educational
the most common measure
In practice,
of "educational
outcomes"
has been the
process.
implemented
finals described
in this section.
standardized
departmental
in secret by a committee of full-time instructors they will have
3- Actually, since the final exam is prepared
of the exam and will be able to more accurately
teach to the final and thus outperform
prior knowledge
a bit more freedom in their topical choice during the
the part-timers. Thus, full-time faculty can maintain
which
the final exami
semester, while part-time faculty will be forced to teach to the course outline?on
4.
nation is based.
On 5-20-93, we spoke with the professor who designed
the "departmental final" for the psychology depart
she handed out the final exam to her students, they informed her that the other instructors
ment. When
their students to take the exam "open book." Shocked, she ordered her students to begin the
had allowed
exam "closed book"; however after thinking about it awhile, she told her students they could not only use
their books, but also their notes if itwould help them. "I figured why not? If the other instructors are going
to cheat, I might as well cheat too," she said. She plans to clearly specify the appropriate
test-taking
for next semester's
final.
conditions
chart of this particular college separates supervisory responsibility for full and part-time
5. The organizational
instructors. The division director has ultimate responsibility
for full-time instructors (and serves as dean of
a division). The program director has proximate
for the supervision of full-time instructors,
responsibility
as well as ultimate responsibility?including
hiring and firing?for part-time faculty.
that each semester all of his courses be evaluated. On 5-20-93, I received
6. (One of the authors) requested
a message
from the division director's office disapproving
of instructors "having students complete
non
official evaluations."
7.
The
issue of information control
discussion
below.
One
found
community college
positions at their college.
that 60 percent
of
appears
to be central
its part-time
at this community
faculty were
actively
college.
seeking
See
full-time
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CONSTRUCTING THE
SOCIAL SYSTEM
Barber
Bernard
Bernard Barber constructs a provisional, generalized, substantive
theory
of the social system, which he uses as the
starting point and focus of his
researches.
In this collection of his major writings in social
specialized
system theory, Barber shows how he has used and developed such a
framework over the last fifty
years. Constructing the Social System covers
the followingmajor areas of sociological work:
society, biology, physical
space, social structure, culture, personality, deviance, and social change.
ISBN:1-56000-102-X
500pp. $49.95
Order fromyour bookstore or direct from the publisher.
Major credit cards
accepted.Call (908)932-2280or fax(908)932-3138.
In the United
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and
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In the United
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tr?n??*
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State University
Brunswick, NJ 08903
Rutgers?The
transaction
134
The
American
Sociologist/Fall/Winter
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1993