100 Erdkunde Band 42/1988
References
Australian
Thai
Tung
1983.
study. Canberra
Characteristics
Somsri:
Arunin,
Kula
ADAB:
affected
soils in the Northeast
in Asia,
FFTC
Boonsener,
M.:
on
Review
Thailand.
Northeast,
Resources
Mineral
Ser. No.
Book
Khon
Thailand,
1982.
27, 1984.
of
University
1985,
of Quaternary
geology
of the
and
Geology
the Northeast,
229-234.
geomorphology
Thai
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a. Geology,
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First Symp. Geomorphol.
1983, 106-111.
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Bangkok
Chulalongkorn
S. a. Abrol,
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Soil Saliniza
S. A., Arunin,
El-Swaify,
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Land
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Bangkok,
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in Northeastern
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1982, 7-35.
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11/4,
R. M.:
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a. Liengsakul,
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In: Proc. Conf. Geology
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Department
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R.:
The
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In:
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FEATURE OF HUMID TROPICAL
SULTRINESS AS A CHARACTERISING
TO THE PHILIPPINES
WARM CLIMATE: WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE
With 5 figures, 5 tables and 1 supplement (IV)
Philip
als charakteristisches
Schwiile
Zusammenfassung:
unter besonderer
mal der warm-feuchten
Tropen
Merk
Beriick
sichtigungder Philippinen
Die
sind durch das ge
trockenen Tropen
und
der geringsten photoperiodischen
Eine
charak
der
Saisonalitat
gekennzeichnet.
feuchten
meinsame
und
Merkmal
thermischen
der feuchten Tropen
ist jedoch,
Eigenschaften
von ihnen dauernd,
oder taglich
jahreszeitlich
feucht und warm
sind, um schwiil zu sein, d. h.
genug
die von den Menschen
klimatische
zeigen,
Bedingungen
teristischen
dafi Teile
Tilley
werden.
Das
und
feucht empfunden
nicht auf die tropische
obwohl
Schwiile
die warm-humiden
unterscheidet
Welt beschrankt
Tropen
von
die nachts
starker
tropischen Regionen,
denjenigen
als
heifi
druckend
Phanomen
der
zu kuhl sind, um schwiil zu sein, als von
oder permanent
zu trocken
oder permanent
den Gebieten,
die jahreszeitlich
sind.
Die
meisten
trockenen
Koppens
Versuche
zwischen
zu unterscheiden,
Tropen
(1900) mit der Abgrenzung
den
feuchten
und
folgten dem Beispiel
und
der ganzjahrig
Philip
Sultriness as a characterising feature
Tilley:
von klimatischen
feuchten Tropen
jahreszeitlich
aufgrund
nicht aber
fiir die Pflanzenwelt,
die unmittelbar
Kriterien,
fiir die Menschen
sind. Taylors
bedeutsam
singularer
die tropischen Klimate
des nordlichen
Versuch
(1916),
ihrer Schwiile
und anderer Gebiete
aufgrund
zu differenzieren,
Scharlaus
ging dem Versuch
Dar
eine erste, weltweite
voraus,
kartographische
Australien
(mugginess)
(1952)
von Gebieten
und ganz
episodischer,
periodischer
stellung
zu liefern. Taylor
tat nichts anderes
als
jahriger Schwiile
festzustellen
auf der Basis der mittleren Monatswerte
der
und Humiditat
-, wie oft und wie lange pro
Temperatur
schwiil (muggy) war. Scharlaus
Einfiih
Jahr eine Station
einer
Schwiile-Skala
den
Grad
erlaubte
ihm,
rung
(1950)
der
Schwiile
schnittlichen
Humiditat,
der Schwiile
und
deren
zu messen.
Andauer
durch
Die
der Temperatur
und
um seine Weltkarte
taglichen Terminwerte
die Scharlau
benutzte,
zu zeichnen,
zeigen an, dafi die Philippinen
nicht nur zu den Teilen
der Erde mit ausgepragter
Schule,
zu der weltweiten
sondern
auch
Zone
innertropischen
Schwiile
ganzjahriger
gehoren.
Die
raumliche
Differenzierung
wechselnden
periodisch
der
Beziehung
und
tur, Humiditat,
Niederschlag
vier reprasentativen
Stationen
tages- und jahres
zwischen Lufttempera
an drei von
Bewolkung
auf den Philippinen
bestatigt
der Grad
der Schwiile
betrachdich,
dies.
Jedoch wechselt
von einem konstant hohen
zeitlich
stark wechselnden
Niveau
zu jahres
insbeson
fiirHinatuan
Werten
fiir Cebu
und
in Baguio
ist es kiihl genug, um nicht
oder nur gerade eben schwiil zu sein, und dann nur zur Zeit
der grofiten Feuchtigkeit
und Bewolkung.
Als eine tropische
dere Manila.
Nur
monsunale
Klimaten
bieten
von
mit
Inselgruppe
unterschiedlichen
und
zu
Insel
Insel
deutlich
in einigen Fallen
stark saisonalen
die Philippinen
eine ?geeignete Versuchs
der Natur"
anordnung
schieden der Schwiile.
zur
It's because
know
people
their knowledge
of nature
Prufung
von
so little about
themselves,
to them.
is so little use
Bertolt
the
'cool'
humid
locational
sense'.
seasonal that theirdifference in temperature between
daytime and nighttime easily exceeds that between
the coolest and warmest times of the year. They have
been aptly described as the latitudes of 'diurnal'
rather
than
'where
cold
to
that
are
winter
anymore
warm.
plants
or humans.
as
'humid
With
Garnier
tropical'
when
we
can
its mean
'reac
regard
atmos
a
pheric water vapour pressure is 20mbs or higher and
itsmean relative humidity is 65 % or more with the
mean
no lower than 20 ?C. We
temperature
like Garnier,
the continuously
distinguish
can
than
does
So we
as
'summer'
how constantly
no matter
how
to differentiate
need
and
light
1943), or as those
no matter
comes'
not
only
from
the
or
less
concerned,
still
form
part
temperature
no
the most
more
non-tropical,
of
lower
reference only to plants Lauer
tions . . . only partly governed by climate' of either
month
never
far
the warm
or
hot
tropics?Without reference to either plants or humans
Garnier
(1961) suggests a 'hot' tropical month has
Brecht
the
as
climate
seasonal coldness of extratropic higher latitudes but
more especially from the equally tropical warmth of
intertropic lowlands. How cool can tropical climate
become and stillbe warm as far as plants or humans
that
reference
'seasonal'
temperature is concerned (Troll
lands
The humid tropics can be delimited on climatic
criteria alone. Garnier
(1961) does so to define
without
as
In as much
Intertropic low latitudes are inherently themost
tropical inmore than just a conventional or technical
sense. As the latitudes in which the lengths of the
longest and shortest period of daylight in the year
differby no more than about three hours they are the
latitudes of most nearly constant photoperiodicity,
the latitudes least seasonal in their insolation and
therefore their thermal regime.Warm as the lowland
intertropicworld constantly is itshighland areas are
just as constantly cold. Both are thermally so un
a mean
tropicality'
are not.
which
tropics
the cool and cold humid tropics lack themonotonously
oppressive humid heat or Sultriness' humans find so
discomforting which is so characteristic ofmuch of the
tropicalworld, theyare less typically 'tropical'. Yet as
Garnier
admits, they are areas that display other
characteristics 'found only within the tropics in a
tropical, least seasonal coldness of intertropic high
The hygrothermal
differentiation
of tropicalclimate
'humid
climate101
humid tropics, continuously, diurnally or seasonally
humid and probably warm enough to be sultry, from
constantly
Unter
regionalen
of humid tropical warm
then,
or season
ally humid tropics as the area with at least eight such
humid months. But we can also differentiate the 'hot'
average
temperatures
of
than
20 ?C.
With
has suggested (1975)
between
16 ?C
and
18 ?C or more recently (1987) of between 12 ?C and
15 ?C separate thewarm tropics from the cold.
Koppen's
(1884) division of the earth surface into
warmth zones, among others a tropical zone, isbased
on the number ofmonths annually with mean tem
peratures above threshold values thought critical for
'Man
and
the whole
organic
world'.
stresses
He
how
very directly significantwarmth is forplants and so
called cold blooded animals, only much more in
directly so for 'warm blooded animals whose body
temperature ... is almost completely independent of
the temperature
of the surroundings'.
He
goes
on
to
1Q2_ Erdkunde_Band
add
in a footnote:
'fewer human
beings
from ex
know
the
42/1988
degree
to which
'potential
evapotranspiration'
perience that their body temperature remains at its from the landscape is actually realized, Lauer and
maximum not only under low air temperatures but Frankenberg
(1981a, 1985) have correlated mean
also if it exceeds thenormal temperature
of theblood\As a monthly total rainfall with a temperature equivalent
measure
warm
of how
the tropical
to the available heat energy reduced by a factor allow
condi
constantly
tion is, Koppen divides it from the subtropical of
ing for six landscape variables. By using such for
more
but
mulae
Gentilli
potentially greater
seasonally varying
(1970) evaluates the 'hydroxeric
warmth by the isotherm of 20 ?C mean temperature
balance' or 'hydric biopotential' of a month, Lauer
for the coolest month, the value Garnier adopted on
and Frankenberg
(1985) it's 'optimal landscape
different
to
then
area
'isothermomens'
quite
grounds.
map
evaporation'
by
But in Koppen's
later (1900) attempt to classify differences in the number ofmonths
with
annually
areas by climate type '. . . chiefly in relation to the mean
above
threshold
temperatures
significant
values (d laKoppen) and by geoecological (landschafts
plant world', 'Man is somehow left standing along
the sidelines' (Terjung
the okologische) 'isohygromens', area differences in the
1966a). For Koppen
number of humid or arid months annually.
tropical condition is still one of the coolest month's
mean temperature exceeding a threshold value of
as unashamed
an environmentalist
as Taylor
Only
would have tried in 1916 to likewise differentiate
warmth, though this isnow 18 ?C. But he isnow more
as well
as
to separate
wet
concerned
the constantly
humid from arid tropical warm climate with direct
warm tropical latitudes from those effectively dry at
reference not to plants but to the discomfort heat
least seasonally in conditions no less constantly
stress produces in humans (Taylor
1916). Taylor's
warm. Effective dryness is judged from the degree to
was
immediate
to compare
the
of
purpose
which
the potential
natural
shows
vegetation
variety
a pre
dominance of plants xerophytic in form and behav
iour orwith the ability tominimise their transpirative
loss ofmoisture when the lack ofmoisture becomes
stressful. Koppen's
idea of tropicality is now so
definitively associated with constant or seasonal
as well
wetness
as
constant
he
warmth
can
recognise
tropical climate well beyond the tropics though not in
equatorial highlands!
Most
1933,
(though certainly not all: Bowen
Davidson
1936,
et.
Fitzpatrick
al.
Garnier
1966,
1961, for example, and notably Taylor
1916, 1923,
1940) subsequent efforts to geographically differen
tiate 'humid tropicality' from more arid follow
Koppen
effective
in using
natural
dryness
to
as an
vegetation
measure
indirectly
indicator
tropical
of
at
mospheric humidity or aridity. But they differ fun
damentally in seeking to calculate an hygrothermal
index of the functional relationship between rainfall
and
the atmosphere's
heat
energy
available
to eva
porate this.Numerous formulae have been developed
to index annually or month by month, how moist or
dry tropical conditions constantly are, or seasonally
become. This is done by correlating mean monthly
rainfall eitherwith dry bulb air temperature as a sur
rogate
measure
of
the atmosphere's
heat
energy
to
1951,
1933, Lauer
evaporate (Andrews a. Maze
or
with
1952, Jatzold
atmospheric water
1979)
vapour
pressure
or
saturation
deficit
if not
evapora
tion as such (Prescott
1938, Thorthwaite
1948).
More recently, to take some account of the role the
ground surface's plant cover itselfplays inmediating
Australia's climate especially in its tropical north with
that expectably similar elsewhere "where the white
settler has had longer to adjust" than he has in
Australia (cp. Troll
1933). As part of his campaign
the
then
against
prevalent view of 'Australia Un
limited' (Brady 1918), Taylor's
central concern is to
compare the climate of different areas as to how often
they are likely to include conditions threatening the
bodily comfort or even health of white anglo-saxon
settlers of the British race (sic) or "our type of Euro
pean settler", and so put "climatic difficulties in the
path to a white Australia". His immediate purpose is
to demarcate
the climatically
"most
favourable
areas
(ofAustralia) for closer settlement by whites . . . the
limitswithin which the British race may be expected
to exhibit itsoptimum development" (Taylor 1916).
Taylor
compares by what he calls climographs
selected places' twelve monthly means of wet bulb
temperature and relative humidity with that for an
ideal "most habitable
type for white settlers"
(Taylor
1940) the climogram forwhich is a com
posite of twelve cities selected as "typical of the
regions where white energy is at its best" (Taylor
1916) (Fig. 1). But places are compared not only with
this composite ideal but also with each other as to in
how many months of the year their climate tends
towards becoming chillingly 'raw' or 'keen' or no less
discomfortingly 'scorching' or oppressively 'muggy'.
Taylor
constrasts
Melbourne,
muggy
on
only
a few
days in the year with Sydney, where "there are
usually many unpleasant muggy days in February"
(Taylor 1923), with Bisbane's two such disagreeable
Philip
Sultriness as a characterising feature
Tilley:
of humid tropical warm
climate103
Relative humidity
_30%_40%_50%
oC
I
scorching
*
60%_70%_80%_
^
^
,\
239-
...
... -
21
-_^TZZ~Z-_^-:
\/
?i5-6
?-N^--\
a Nullagine
>s
E
'^""^^^^^^
*
1
1
<A
V^. '"^
d
\
u
\Brisbane
\A?
-Often
| \ ^?S^Sydney
f
^1 Sometimes
'
"uncomfortable
W \
VCi
\-60=
^ \W/<Iwlfc \
rare,y
-Very
uncomTOrtable
^^^^^^i
%
i^^^^^*-50
^
io-?^
^
-|dea| c,imate
CanberTa^. \IMK//\
^
keen
_Very
rarely
uncomfortable
\
'^>^^////Wn
???
uncomfortable
=
-65
*\
^^^^^^^^
uncomfortable
-Usually
^-70 =
\?
,
Y//
>w ''\irJ^^^K^^^?MJaO^ ^ ^
X*T
"
^vL^
^
op
-ts-i
-"muggy
.^'"^rownsville
?
xlLj.J^.7^
/
\ /DalyWaters
3- 18
^
Darwin
^-^
raw
Empirical boundary between arid and moist climographs
"Composite white race climograph based on twelve typical cities"
^^^^
Fig.
1: Climograms
stations, and a
(Climographs)
'composite white
of mean
race
monthly
climograph'
relative
der mittleren monatlichen
relativen Feuchte
Klimagramme
sowie ein ,composite white race climograph4
(nach Taylor,
months,
six, and Thursday
Mackay's
Island's
twelve.
He draws 'isohygromens' of thenumber ofmonths in
the year the climate of Australia can be expected to
become muggy when theirmean wet bulb tempera
ture
exceeds
21 ?C.
how
extremely
conditions
approach
a
stressful
'raw'
or 'keen' coldness as he is with climate
becoming
stressfullyhot. But in facthe has his tentative scale of
discomfort apply only to conditions producing heat
stress,
"to
those warmer
regions
where
humidity
temperatures are the chief factors". And
and
though
at nine Australian
temperature
fiir neun
australische
Stationen
1916)
Taylor
of heat
theoretically distinguishes a 'scorching' kind
stress,
his
scale
of discomfort
ranks
represen
tative station climograms only as to the likelihood of
their climate imposing that particular kind of discom
fortinglyhot condition on humans he calls 'muggy'
more
termed
generally
sultry. Taylor
is con
vinced that thebest testof thehabitability of a tropical
region is forhow long 'day after day formonths at a
time' a climate is sultry (Taylor
1923). He claims
that
is an early attempt to differentiate geo
the
several quite different interactive
graphically
combinations of air temperature and humidity which
impose thermal stress on thehuman body. Theoretic
is just as concerned with how often and
ally Taylor
Taylor's
bulb
1916)
und der Feuchttemperatur
but
Determiningwhen a climate is sultry,and towhat slowly or
quickly varyingdegree itssultriness
and wet
humidity
(after Taylor,
'white
not
do
humans
anglo-saxon'
sense
the
atmosphere as sultrywhen thewet bulb air tempera
ture
is below
- a
value
21 ?C
he adopts
as
correspond
ing to a dry bulb air temperature of about 32 ?C 'in
most dry climates'. His
grading of conditions within
a range ofwet bulb temperatures as
likely to produce
discomfortingly
'sometimes',
sultry conditions
'often'
or
'usually'
'very rarely',
depends
on
the
likelihood of wet bulb temperatures above 21 ?C
recurring that thesemean monthly wet bulb tempera
ture
category
ranges
represent.
It is not
a
hygrother
mal scaling of the interactive combination of
specific
104 Erdkunde Band 42/1988
air temperatures and humidity to produce sultriness.
And Taylor
applies the same wet bulb temperature
test to all warm conditions regardless ofhow absolutely
humid, of how much warmer the human body senses
air warmer than about 12-14 ?C to be the higher its
water
and
content,
vapour
ratio
of the
the
between
air's latent and 'sensible' warmth he takes wet bulb
to
temperature
represent
a.
(Lauer
Frankenberg
mean
1982). Primarily based on conditions with
an
arbitrarily
monthly relative humidity above
uses his scale of
selected 'empirical' 55%, Taylor
as
discomfort
Taylor
for all warm
standard'
'an approximate
including those so hot and dry that, as
climates
himself
"comfort
says,
controls
are
some
what different again", climates where "humidity is
always fairly low (by definition) and the absolute
amount of insolation is the chief control" (Taylor
tentative scale of discomfort is one
1916). Taylor's
that attempts to scale warm climate in general, but in
particular the warm tropical climate of northern
Australia, as to how often and how persistently it is
sultry
or
not on its degree
of sultriness.
how charac
recognise
generally
the total thermal
climate
of an area's
non-sultry,
now
Geographers
a feature
terising
stress it imposes on the human body is; many also
a
recognise how characteristic and significant feature
of some
warm
intertropic
areas'
climate
sultriness
is
as one particular kind of heat stress. But some would
stillquestion the purpose of seeking to geographically
differentiate the conditions inwhich air temperature
and humidity interact toproduce sultriness; "no par
ticular significance should be attached to atmospheric
moisture in the thermal context, apartfromthereduction
increases
ofevaporativeheatdissipation and thecorresponding
of strain imposedupon thebody3}(my italics) (Auliciems
con
a. Kalma
1981). These authors dispute that "in
ditions
of
biological
free
air
movement
. . .
temperature
value
thresholds,
at
least
21 ?C wet bulb value used by Taylor.
do
not
any
particular
significance" can be attached to specific
question
that
in some
conditions
not
to
the
They evidently
air
tempera
enough for the body to have to
increase its normal heat loss to keep its inner tem
perature close to 37 ?C mainly by the cooling
water
evaporative loss of skin surfacemoisture. The
a
in
factor
is
air
content
the
of
very
significant
vapour
that evaporative heat dissipation. Perhaps theydoubt
the value of trying to relate only the twomost impor
tant variables, air temperature and humidity, and not
solar radiation and air movement. Or do they ques
tion thatwe can standardise the threshold interactive
combination of temperature and humidity at which
individual humans let alone whole groups first feel it
tures are warm
'muggy'? For admittedly, our
to be oppressively
autonomic
to
response
sensing
that
our
to
need
dissipate body heat evaporatively isbeing inhibited is
psychoculturally as well as physiologically condition
ed, and changes with acclimatization. We should be
less concerned however with "precisely denning and
exactly understanding the physiological significance
a given stress represents" (Lee 1954) and more with
gaining a detailed appraisal of where sultriness oc
curs, how long itpersists if it isnot perennial, and how
more or less sultry itbecomes from time to time.We
are then in a position to geographically differentiate
the complex of conditions that produce and maintain
so
a condition so readily discomforting because
health-even
potentially
life-threatening.
Sultriness is the condition of climate we subjectively
sense
as
hot or
oppressively
'close'
not
simply
because
we feel hot but because we also sense how difficult it
has
become
for us
to lose body
heat
at the rate neces
sary to keep inner body temperature close to 37 ?C.
And this not necessarily if especially only when our
body is exposed todirect and atmospherically diffused
solar radiation. Typically it isa condition inwhich the
still and stable air around us feels warm enough for
the normal healthy body to spontaneously increase its
normal loss of body heat by all available means, but
increasingly as body heat rises by the cooling evapo
rative loss of body moisture diffused and sweated to
the skin surface. But it is also one which, if the air
already holds more than a quite specific amount of
water vapour (14.08 g/m3), causes us to sense the
need to regulate our use of vital body moisture to
effect
Our
evaporative
sense
of
cooling.
sultriness
is associated,
as
has
long
been known, with quite specific combinations of
relative humidity with air temperatures as low as
16.5 ?C if the air is saturated (relative humidity
100% ) though not at the highest' scorching' tempera
tures ifthe relative humidity is too low.During twelve
years work in tropical East African climate Castens
and later his co-worker Berke (1925, 1929) drew up a
'curve of sultriness'. Using and verifying boundary
had already experimentally estab
values Lancaster
lished (1898) they approximately delimited the non
sultriness producing interaction of temperature and
humidity from that at temperatures higher than
16.5
?C
producing
sultriness,
and
at
lower
tempera
tures above 16.5 ?G the greater the relative humidity.
is that
Implicit in this curve of the limit of sultriness
to
produce dis
temperatures certainly high enough
our sensing the
in
not
stress
result
do
heat
comforting
condition sultry unless it is also humid enough. So
to
establishing an effective upper temperature limit
Philip
thermal
comfort
the onset
For
reason
attempts
trated
Table
concen
is, have
humidity
the most
the
factor:
important
air's evaporative cooling power, aided perhaps by its
movement.
ventilating
equations
formulated
represent
the air's
or
More
to do
less
complicated
as a
incorporate
prin
this
energy
to evaporate
that
can
the atmosphere
humidity
100
it.
In reality the healthy body regulates the use of its
moisture to dissipate heat by sensing the vapour
pressure gradient between itselfand the ambient air.
Barkley
(1934) realized this in setting a vapour
pressure of 12.7 mm Hg as the limit above which
"transpiration outflow is checked sufficiently to raise
the body
temperature,
in
spiration
earlier Ruge
confirmed
the
causing
white
average
the
discomfort
man".
per
years
(1932) had tested and experimentally
the Lancaster-Castens
from
sultry
and
Two
curve
the non-sultry
separating
condition.
Assuming
that the regularity of the curve must reflect some
calculable physical relationship of constant physio
logical significance, Ruge also found that the curve of
a water vapour content of 14.08
g/m3 coinciding with
the lower
temperature
end of the Lancaster-Castens
vapour
content
of the air was
the decisive
factor in thebody sensing it tobe sultry.This was con
firmed by Scharlau
's finding (1941) that the vapour
pressure curve of 14.08 mm Hg (18.8 mbs) virtually
coincided
with
experimentally
the Lancaster-Castens
established
that
curve.
a
water
*)
Taylor's
und
Scharlau,
(nach
He
vapour
pressure of 18.8 mbs (a figure somewhat lower than
the 20 mbs selected by Garnier
(1961) as one of the
criteria defining a humid tropical month) was a
physiologically significant constant causing us to so
regulate our using vital body moisture thatwe feel the
air around us to be oppressively 'close' or
sultry at
temperatures as low as 16.5 ?C and when its %
relative humidity is great enough to give it a vapour
pressure of 18.8 mbs (14.08 mm Hg). Having estab
Temperature
16.5
16.8
98
96
17.2
94
17.5
17.8
92
90
18.2
58
56
54
52
50
25.4
26.0
26.6
27.2
27.9
18.5
88
18.9
86
84
19.3
19.7
82
80
20.1
48 28.6
46
44
42
40
29.3
30.1
30.9
31.8*>
78
20.5
76
20.9
74
21.3
72
21.8
70
22.2
38
36
33.6
34
32
30
32.7
68
22.7
66
23.2
64
23.7
62
24.2
60
24.8
28
26
24
22
42.8
20
38.2
39.6
41.1
21 ?C wet bulb
(1916)
(?C)
34.7
35.8
36.9
44.6
limit inmost
as a constant
this relationship
lished
curve at 16.5 ?C and a relative
humidity of 100%, so
as
follows
it
to suggest that this ab
closely
throughout
solute water
Feuchte
humidity
(%)
(?C)_(%)
cp. Lauer
evaporate
relativer
Relative
Temperature
and Frankenberg 1981 (Leistner 1951, King 1955).
They assume that the human body is a kind of wet
bulb thermometer simply giving up itsvital moisture
in the measure
von
Schwulegrenze
Relative
cipal value either the readings of standard or devel
oped varieties of wet bulb thermometer such as the
Katathermometer
1923, Stone 1938, Thom
(Hill
1959) or an equivalent temperature calculated to
heat
der
1950)
and
measuring
an
Temperatur
sultriness-producing
to standar
and
humidity,
how
far above
these minima
temperature
zum Verhaltnis
Datenreihe
and
scale measuring
on
recent
minimum
of temperature
the actual
more
climate105
1: Sample series of co-related relative humidity and tempera
turedelimiting the onset of sultriness (after Scharlau,
1950)
mark
necessarily
and
older
many
to calculate
a
not
does
of sultriness.
this
values
dize
but
may
Sultriness as a characterising feature of humid tropical warm
Tilley:
dry climates
Scharlau
could
calculate the inversely varying but quite specifically
co-related
values
of relative
ture above which we
and
humidity
tempera
sense the condition sultry
he
had quantified an approx
(Table 1). Conversely,
imate "threshold of sultriness" (cp. Troll
1933)
short of which we feel the condition non-sultry, or
as
"comfortable"
Scharlau
and
others
have
loosely
termed it, threateningly close to sultry though the
condition may be. Lee (1955, 1957) recognised that
"relative humidity" (alone) is not a good measure of
humidity in so faras itaffects the cooling of a (human)
animal". And he expected that "the relative effectsof
temperature and humidity upon animal functionmay
be well enough known, in thenot toodistantfuture,to be
expressed
metric
lau's
...
chart".
as
lines
He
work. And
was
superimposed
apparently
upon
unaware
the psycho
of Schar
although he does not distinguish
42/1988
106_Erdkunde_Band
a condition of sultriness for humans
of
nomogram
psychometric
as such, his
thermal
strain-line
values of relative humidity, dry bulb temperature and
vapour
coincide
pressure
we
Moreover,
can
with
exactly
from
it that
read
Scharlau's.
a
at
(Lee 1957); he could move tomake a firstprovisional
attempt to geographically differentiate the complex of
conditions imposing the "hygrothermal stress" on
humans so characterising of humid tropical warm
areas
climate
vapour
that
sultriness
represents
(Scharlau
pressure of 14.08 mm Hg thedry bulb temperature of
1952) (Fig. 2).
32 ?C coincides not only with Scharlau's
limiting
relative humidity of 40% but also with Taylor's
How extremely
and constantlysultrya part of the intertropic
(1916) wet bulb limit for 'mugginess' of 21 ?C!
are thePhilippine Islands?
world
Scharlau's
of
values
warmth
and
limiting
humidity
represent
two most
the
only
variables
important
interacting to produce sultriness; no allowance is
made for any modifying effectventilating air move
ment, solar radiation, or indeed individual human
differences of constitution and health may have in
the
determining
exact
of
combination
or
short
we
can map
as
this marker
of
a measure
of
and
a
or non-sultriness,
sultriness"
"thermal
value
falls
by
We
"isohygrotherms".
mean
monthly
gain
have
a
recognises
In lowest
sultriness.
at more
sultriness
stations, worldwide
Scharlau
temperature
and relative humidity at which we firstsense the at
mosphere as sultry.More important forgeographers
however is that by using as a zero marker the limiting
temperature at which, given the air's actual relative
humidity we first sense it sultry,we can use the dif
ference in ?C by which the actual temperature ex
ceeds
Using only three daily daytime observations of
relative humidity and temperature to calculate the
a
than
thousand
but very unevenly distributed,
areas
latitudes
of particularly
of sustained
intensive
sultriness
on the east
he singles out places such as Mogadiscio
African coast of the Somali Republic, Jaffna at the
in southermost
northern tip of Sri Lanka, Rangoon
Burma,
nawa
on Vietnam's
or Hue
as
in Guyana,
those where
east
coast
mean
and
monthly
Dada
max
ima of sultriness, usually at the time of highest mid
day
values
sun elevation,
are
not
10? although
that much
higher
exceed
always
these
than
extreme
annual
scale against which to compare conditions as they mean values (Mogadiscio: extreme (April) 10.7?; an
nual mean 9.5? for example). On the other hand he
vary from time to time as well as from place to place.
as
to
not
from
And
points to places in somewhat higher latitudes such as
theyvary
being non-sultry
simply
on theTropic ofCancer on China's southeast
or
how
for
and
vice-versa,
long they stay sultry Swatau
sultry
and thereby become increasingly stressful; just com
coast, Bushire on the Persian Gulf, and Muscat and
Karachi on theGulf ofOman and theArabian Sea as
paring actual values of relative humidity and temper
ature with theircorrelated limitingvalues would tellus
having no less extreme values but ones well above
extreme (August)
their annual means
that. But in the degrees of thermal sultriness or non
(Swatau:
?
mean
And
these are
annual
1.1
for example).
sultriness by which the actual temperature exceeds or
10.6?;
values Lee
falls short of the limiting temperature we have a
(1957) confirms in 'climagrams' for
measure
of how
or
rapidly
sultriness
slowly
increases
Maracaibo
and
Bahrein.
Scharlau
suggests
that
the
in the southern
or decreases in intensity to reach itsmaximum and
'pole of sultriness' lies offDjibouti
or
extreme
values may
where
of
Sea
Gulf
Aden
Red
or
minimum values diurnally, monthly
annually.
to
from
exeed
10?
and
reach
we
im
of
in
the
know fromwhat level
And
12.8?,
September,
June
intensity
although Schulze (1956 b) gives an extreme monthly
mediately preceding period ithas moved upwards or
mean of 8.1 ? (May) fornearby Berbera. In any event
rate: a factor as important
in
downwards
and at what
it seems certain thatmaritime conditions off the high
the increase or lessening of discomfort and stress as
the intensity of sultriness itself.For it is sudden shifts sun, seasonally mist-laden coasts of arid Arabia and
theHorn ofAfrica (Troll
towards a non-sultry condition becoming sultry, or
1964) come closest to the
of
the
humid
or
towards
the con
sultriness
concept
tropics as a condition of
popular
conversely
increasing,
dition becoming less or even non-sultry, which most
discomfortingly induce an increased sense of oppres
sive
sultry
'closeness'
or
or
relief
therefrom,
non-sultry
it actually
to "postpone
serious
rather
is. Since
than
how
Scharlau
already had for sultriness an "index of the combined
effect that climatic elements have upon Man" he did
not have
consideration
of classi
fying (tropical) climate until that index is available"
maxmimu human discomfort hygrothermally (Fos
berg 1961). These areas provide the stable conditions
in which the lower atmosphere of constantly warm
tropical air can most fulfilitspotential to evaporatively
attain such high humidity, given its constantly ex
this reduces
treme water holding capacity. While
the diffused
increases
it
direct solar radiation
greatly
so
in
radiation
intensifying otherwise
significant
sky
Philip
Tilley:
1
Fig.
2: The
Die
Zonen
Sultriness as a characterising feature of humid tropical warm
1Periodicallysultryzone
perennially
dauerhafter
and periodically
und
Perennially
sultryzone
sultry zones
periodischer
only moderate sultriness (Damann 1964). A similar
areas of
condition for the Port Sudan and Massawa
theRed Sea coast is confirmed, albeit using an essen
tiallydifferentmeasure of sultriness fromScharlau's,
on 'comfort climagraphs' for the Sudan and a map of
'Physiological climates' forAfrica as a whole by Ter
jung (1966b) andOjo (1977).
L53
In keeping with his view that important as the in
tensivity of sultriness is in the final analysis itsdura
tion ismore important, Scharlau does not add tohis
earlier (1950) map of the intensity of sultriness by
isohygrotherms for the southeastern Mediterranean
coastland ofEgypt, southern Lebanon and Israel and
the northern Read Sea. He does not attempt a map
for larger areas like the whole of Africa such as
climate107
Schwiile
of the earth
(nach
(after Scharlau,
Scharlau,
1952)
1952)
In thePhilippines monthly mean values of sultriness
commonly
exceed
Scharlau's
10?.
Mindanao's
east
Schulze*s
Even
coast
'extreme'
at lower
latitude
of 6? but
a mean
where,
with
exceeds
an annual
not
on
Hinatuan
monthly
temperature of 26.5 ?C and relative humidity of 88%
scarcely varying through the year, highest values can
be
expected,
sultriness
mean
value
of 7.9? to reach itsmaximum of 8.4? inMay although
it exceeds 8? for the eight months April-September
(Suppl. IV). At the central Visayan island ofCebu an
annual mean sultrines of 6.9? is exceeded in the seven
months
May-November
to reach
a maximum
of 7.6?
inJune, and a February minimum only 2.2? lower.
At somewhat higher latitudeManila as well, a rather
lower mean annual sultriness of 5.5? is exceeded in
mean
or
does
for annual
the sixmonths May-October;
butManila's February
sultriness,
by
isopleths, thenumber ofmonths sultryor non-sultry, minimum of 2.5? iswell below itsJune maximum of
the number of months with 'extreme' sultriness
annual
than that at lower
7.6?, a rather greater
range
latitude Lagos with only 2.4? with the same mean
(> 6?) and inwhich of fourmonthly groupings ifat all
the sultriestmonth occurs (1956 a, 1956 b). Again
annual value of sultriness as Manila
(Schultze
emphasising the concentration of the longest period of
1956b). Only at Baguio in Luzon's Mt. Province at
extreme sultriness along theAfrican west coast from
1482 m. is it cold enough to give a non-sultry annual
to Luanda beyond themouth of theCon
Monrovia
mean of -0,7? and a
monthly mean minimum of
go, and expecially along its east coast fromMassawa
-2,7? in coolest and driest 'lower sun' January;
to themouth of the Zambezi (Lindi: extreme 8.3?
Baguio's sultriness, less than 1? through fivemonths
mean
annual
Schulze
confirms
(March);
6.2?)
May-September,
peaks at only 0,7? inJune with the
to
Scharlau's
worldwide
in
increase
map
preliminary attempt
rainfall, cloudiness and humidity of
sharp
the occurrence of sultriness by itsduration as well as
the 'high sun' period. Hinatuan's markedly seasonal
intensity.But Scharlau did not reach the insight that but, even at its 'high sun' minimum, appreciable
not only are areas of highest annual mean values of rainfall is,with its lesser thermal
seasonality, enough
sultriness thosewith more sustanied levels of extreme
tomaintain high ifnot extreme sultriness
throughout
that mean
but
annual
sultriness
the year. The lesser but not very seasonally
sultriness,
appears
varying
rainfall and cloudiness of Cebu combine with some
proportional to itsduration.
Schulze
108 Erdkunde Band 42/1988
Table
humidity in hourly means atManila,
2: Relative
Stundliche
Mittelwerte
MONTHS:
der relativen
1961-1970
Feuchte
furManila
1961-1970
JFMAMJJASOND
Hours
1
78.4
75.4
74.2
72.1
76.3
86.0
89.1
88.2
88.1
86.4
84.7
84.2
80.12
76.5
75.2
73.9
77.7
86.9
88.7
88.7
88.4
87.3
85.8
83.5
81.13
78.3
76.7
75.0
79.1
87.7
89.1
89.4
88.8
87.6
86.3
84.7
81.64
79.5
77.8
75.6
80.1
88.1
89.1
89.9
89.2
88.2
86.7
85.2
82.65
80.1
79.1
77.8
81.2
88.0
90.3
90.4
89.6
88.7
87.5
86.0
82.76
81.6
80.2
79.2
81.1
88.9
90.5
89.5
90.2
88.9
88.0
86.4
82.67
81.0
79.3
73.3
75.5
84.8
87.8
89.6
88.7
88.1
85.7
85.2
78.2
8
76.1
72.7
68.3
64.0
67.5
79.4
82.6
82.9
84.3
81.5
79.8
9
67.6
63.7
61.3
58.9
62.0
74.3
77.8
78.2
79.0
75.6
71.7
70.1
10
62.2
59.0
57.8
56.0
58.1
70.3
73.4
74.7
75.4
71.8
68.5
65.4
11
58.8
55.9
54.8
53.3
55.5
66.7
72.1
73.1
72.9
69.4
66.5
63.2
57.8
12
54.3
52.9
50.4
52.6
64.6
70.5
71.8
70.8
68.3
65.6
61.8
56.5
13
53.0
51.1
48.1
50.8
63.2
68.9
71.0
69.6
67.7
64.0
61.0
14
55.5
51.4
50.4
47.4
49.9
62.7
69.2
70.1
68.8
67.2
63.5
59.9
15
55.3
51.4
50.6
48.7
50.8
64.4
69.4
71.0
70.8
67.7
64.8
60.9
16
56.7
53.7
51.6
49.1
53.7
67.0
70.9
72.2
72.4
69.5
66.9
63.6
59.9
17
55.7
54.7
52.2
57.3
70.4
74.2
75.5
75.0
72.1
70.0
67.4
65.1
18
60.9
60.7
57.0
62.4
74.2
77.5
77.9
78.3
76.8
74.9
73.0
68.6
19
65.1
64.2
61.6
66.0
77.3
80.8
82.6
80.8
79.2
77.7
75.4
71.0
20
67.9
67.2
62.9
68.4
79.6
83.0
82.8
83.1
81.0
79.5
77.3
74.2
21
75.5
22
76.9
23
69.7
70.5
72.0
69.0
70.3
71.6
65.7
68.1
68.8
70.4
71.7
72.9
81.6
82.7
83.8
84.5
86.0
86.7
85.5
85.8
86.8
84.7
85.9
86.6
82.7
84.1
85.0
81.0
82.1
83.4
78.8
80.2
81.3
78.5
24
73.5
72.6
70.8
74.5
85.3
87.8
87.6
87.9
86.1
84.2
82.1
what higher temperatures to give it sultriness inten
ifdefinitely
sities only a little less than Hinatuan*s
more
seasonal.
cloudiness
Manila's
produce
rainfall
seasonal
highly
sultriness
levels
as great
and
as Cebu's
as
cooler
'lower
sun'
January
and
February.
main purpose is twofold: firstly to
Scharlau's
delimit those areas worldwide never warm and humid
enough
together
ever
for sultrines
to occur;
secondly,
to separate the largely intertropic areas constantly
warm and humid enough to have a perennially sultry
'energy-sapping and sleep-inducing' climate from
the areas intertropic and extratropic where sultriness
gives way with periodic regularity to 'stimulating' as
well as relieving non-sultry conditions (Fig. 2). With
an isoline of 0 days of sultriness annually based on his
monthly mean values of relative humidity and tem
can most accurately delimit the
perature Scharlau
perennially non-sultry areas of intertropic highland
coldness such as those of central and southAmerica,
east
and
southeast
Africa,
or
southeast
Asia.
And
and
of constant
Arabian,
he
can delimit accurately enough the intertropic lowland
such
dryness
the
southern
as part
of the Saharan
African
and
central
deserts; in both instances monthly mean
Australian
are
most
representative
of
extensive
areas
the mid
latitude,
continental
values
at the time of 'high
and little less than Hinatuan's
sun' and temperatures higher than either Cebu or
Hinatuan, but reduce it tomuch lower levels in drier
as well
areas
accurately
the
predominantly diurnal variation of temperature and
with it of relative humidity. But of themuch more
non-sultry
perennially
more
seasonal
markedly
mean
values
for example,
monthly
of
are
not
areas,
an
accu
rate enough indicator of how only episodically but for
days
on end,
summer
of warm
incursions
tropical
air
brings sultry conditions to otherwise perennially non
sultry areas (Damann 1964). It is not unreasonable
to fix the absolute limit of
therefore for Scharlau
sultriness altitudinally in the colder, thermally least
seasonally varying, tropical highland climate areas of
latitudes at between 1600 m and
near-equatorial
1700m. Following Marner's
(1940), Semmelhack's
(1956 a) lead in Africa, all
(1942) and Schultze's
three presumably following Ruge's
(1932) rather
earlier
still
than Taylor's
example, Domros
(1916)
the
twelve monthly
in
'climagrams'
(1981) plots
means
of
sultriness,
relative
and
humidity
compares
and
them
temperature,
with
the
Scharlau
not
Philip
60%,-1-1?;-1
Sultriness as a characterising feature
HINATUAN
MANILA
70%-|f_A-4?
Tilley:
'
demarcate
80%-1[
^
.r
t
gO%
90%
Non-_$/_I_i
sr
sultry
-
J00% |-1-1?|-1
60%,-,--r?j-1
co,/
sultry /
I-1-L_l-1
CEBU
BAGUIO
|-1-1-j-1
>
<?
*
70%-j-'
I i
80%-'
-1--^!
90%-j--1
areas
/
/
ioo%\-1-i_J-1
10?
0?
20?
Dry
30X
bulb
I-1-1?I-1
0?
10?
20?
30?C
temperature
relative humidity
of mean monthly
'Climagrams'
Fig. 3:
at four stations in the Philip
and dry bulb temperature
pines and the threshold of sultriness
(after Scharlau,
1950)
relativen
monatlichen
der mittleren
Klimagramme
auf
und Trockentemperatur
fur vier Stationen
Feuchte
der Schwiile
sowie der Schwellenwert
den Philippinen
(nach
Scharlau,
1950)
sultriness threshold. He uses the evidently periodic
(1248 m) and the
ally sultry station of Diyatalawa
station of
non-sultry
equally evidently perennially
Nuwara Eliya (1896 m) to fix the absolute altitudinal
limit of sultriness in Sri Lanka at about 1500 m.
None of the four climagrams of mean monthly
relative humidity and temperature for four Philip
Table
3: Relative
intertropic
areas
of lowland
tropical
warm
climate seasonally too dry rather than too cold to be
perennially sultry.Three of thePhilippine stations fit
into this category. But themuch less readily available
mean values of both relative humidity and tempera
ture through the 24 hours of the day and night at at
least 3 hourly intervals are indispensible ifwe are to
determine the limit of perennial sultriness in the
warm tropical highland areas not warm and relatively
humid enough nocturnally throughout the year to
remain uninterruptedly sultry.And these are just the
] tr
~?
climate109
pine stations lies completely on the non-sultry side of
the Scharlau
threshold: three lie compactly parallel
to iton its sultry side and one athwart it (Fig. 3). This
suggests thatmonthly mean values of either sultriness
or of relative humidity and temperature can accurately
I-1-1?i-1
? m
of humid tropical warm
where
it becomes
non-sultry
with
greatest
periodic regularity. Scharlau
provisionally put the
altitudinal limit of perennial sultriness in theVene
zuelan Andes, in southeastAbyssinia and theMalayan
Peninsula at 1000m (Domros a littlehigher at 1100m
in Sri Lanka on the basis of diagrams for threehourly
daily means for four selected months). In doing so
Scharlau
recognises how critical a feature the 24 hour
diurnal as well as the 12month seasonal variation of
sultriness ismethodologically. Both are indispensable
in our differentiating humid tropical warm climate
geographically as to how hygrothermally seasonal
or predominantly diurnal its sultriness to which
humans are sensitive as well as in terms of itshygric
1964,
seasonality so important for plants (Troll
Lauer
a. Frankenberg
1985).
At about the same time as Scharlau
firstpublished
his work on themeasurement of sultrinessTroll had
revived the isopleth diagram technique to correlate
and
visually
characterise
the
simultaneous
variation
seasonally through the 12 months of the year and
diurnally through the 24 hours of the day of not only
humidity in three-hourlymeans at Cebu City, 1961-1970
DreistiindlicheMittelwerte der relativenFeuchte fiirCebu City 1961-1970
MONTHS:
JFMAMJJASOND
Hours
2
5
8
11
14
17
20
23
87.4
88.5
79.9
67.2
64.9
70.7
83.4
85.8
86.8
87.5
79.4
65.5
63.5
69.1
81.6
85.0
87.2
88.6
77.1
63.3
59.6
65.9
80.9
84.6
86.7
88.6
73.8
59.6
55.4
62.7
78.2
83.1
87.9
90.2
75.7
62.8
58.8
64.8
79.5
84.6
90.1
91.5
78.7
68.4
65.2
72.0
83.9
87.6
90.0
90.8
80.2
70.9
69.6
75.6
86.8
89.2
89.6
90.4
79.0
69.7
68.7
75.5
85.6
88.2
90.2
91.3
78.9
69.8
70.0
76.9
86.1
88.9
92.7
93.3
79.5
70.1
69.9
78.1
88.6
91.4
91.5
92.6
83.5
70.3
68.4
77.1
87.6
90.1
90.2
91.1
81.4
69.2
67.0
76.0
86.8
89.1
42/1988
110_Erdkunde_Band
Table
humidity in three-hourlymeans atHinatuan,
4: Relative
Dreistiindliche
MONTHS:
Mittelwerte
J
F
96.5
-
97.1
98.4
93.7
85.9
84.8
89.7
94.4
96.4
der relativen
M
Feuchte
1961-1967
furHinatuan
1961-1967
AMJJASOND
Hours
2
5
8
11
14
17
20
23
93.2
84.2
86.0
87.1
93.8
95.8
97.5
98.2
93.0
83.4
81.8
85.5
93.7
97.0
97.4
97.8
95.3
76.5
77.0
82.4
91.5
95.9
97.0
97.7
89.1
76.9
74.2
83.1
92.3
96.2
in the thermoisopleth diagrams,
96.5
97.1
86.9
73.0
73.6
80.6
91.1
95.0
96.0
97.2
87.3
73.0
73.1
81.1
91.8
95.9
96.3
97.4
86.3
73.5
72.7
82.2
93.3
95.6
96.7
97.3
86.3
72.3
72.7
83.2
92.4
96.3
97.2
97.6
87.7
92.6
73.7
84.0
92.7
96.1
98.0
98.2
88.7
78.0
76.9
85.2
94.0
96.9
97.6
97.9
91.6
79.5
78.6
93.5
93.6
96.3
but
occasionally typhoons at this time is still appreciable.
Under
conditions of daily cloudiness the temperature
sultriness,
kaumatoisopleth
and
both
kaumatoiso
between daytime and nighttime is in all
difference
grams. Using
thermoisopleth
in
of
rainfall
and
with
months
graphs
pleth diagrams together
markedly greater than that between the
temperature,
in
also
one
case
cloudiness
dia
so-called
he
later analysed
the seasonal
and
diurnal variation of sultriness at four tropical African
and
stations with which Hinatuan, Cebu, Manila
Baguio in the Philippines may be usefully compared
(Troll
1969).
a) Hinatuan (SupplementIV)
coolest
relatively
is to
protected
monsoon.
the northeast
from
the southwest
5: Relative
Dreistundliche
Though
monsoon
dur
humidity in three-hourlymeans at Baguio
Mittelwerte
MONTHS:
der
relativen
Feuchte
month,
especially
counterpart
Daressalam
early afternoon maximum
ween
the times
of
'highest
temperatures
rise
91
92
79
63
67
78
89
92
92
92
78
61
67
78
88
91
92
92
78
66
73
82
90
92
their
sun'
to somewhat
increase
the diurnal variation of temperature at this time of
relative wetness especially from typhoons. This
results in higher relative humidities at night tomain
1956-1960
fur Baguio
92
92
79
69
77
88
93
92
to
in the shorter period bet
1956-1960
JFMAMJJASOND
91
91
78
63
68
80
91
91
is
At Cebu neither thermal nor hygric seasonality is
very pronounced,
although like its east African
Hours
2
5
8
11
14
17
20
23
as
constant
IV)
b) Cebu(Supplement
ing the 'highest sun* period of July, August and
September, its rainfall from easterly trade winds and
Table
hottest
year (Fig. 4).
Even more strikingly than itswest African counter
represents the near equatorial
part Tiko, Hinatuan
lowland condition of least seasonal variation in tem
perature. Like Tiko its time of 'lower sun' falls in
December. But quite unlike Tiko Hinatuan*s very
pronounced period ofmaximum rainfall occurs with
this Tower sun' fromNovember toJanuary exposed
as Hinatuan
and
the temperature at night throughout the year. With
the relative humidity in the coolest early hours of the
morning before sunrise rising as high as 98% in all
months a degree of sultriness greater than that ofTiko
is maintained by daytime high temperatures and
nighttime high relative humidities throughout the
94
94
86
78
81
92
96
95
95
94
86
78
81
92
95
95
96
95
89
83
86
94
96
96
96
96
90
83
86
95
97
97
93
91
82
73
77
90
94
93
9090
9090
77 77
6468
7073
8385
9191
9091
Philip
1961-1970
Tilley:
HINATUAN
May
33o
-!-:?1-
32- zr
29?- /
28?- /
V
\
1961-1970
330
Sultriness
Mean ?C-
-
climate111
Sultriness as a characterising feature of humid tropical warm
3i?
BAGUIO
May
1-(-:
limit-. 32? - Sultriness
_ -
limit-.
?C
Mean
I 29?-28?-
-1
& 26?
Z 25?-j
Z 24?7
\.-\ 26?
d 25?
id24?
|>V
s^T*rfeL
?- 23? -
03
in 23?
E 22? -
Q- 22' -
2I? "
17?/
\A
-A)
-V^-
^ 19?
jj
^MYv
17?^
<_|___[
16? -
/y >
*" 2I?"
j'
19? /
^-->w
. 16? -
- 15? -
15? -
14?
-
14?
- - 100
too
May
- 90\I 130
\
"
" ?
370
X
-
Fig.
4: Mean
daily
17
Hours
20
variation
23
05
02
of thermal
sultriness
sultriness
as
at Daressalam.
But
like
Daressalam and in contrast with Hinatuan and Tiko
Cebu's sultriness shows a clear if limited seasonality
corresponding to the short but definitely drier season
in February and March.
c)Manila
(SupplementIV)
-
70 3
X
I
-50
50
I-1-1?I-1_1_1_1_I_1_1_
II
14
17
08
Hours
06
forMay
tain higher levels of nocturnal sultriness than at
other times of the year, and as noteworthy a diurnal
in
' ?
-60
at Hinatuan
(1961-1970)
Mittlere taglicheSchwankung der thermischenSchwiile imMai
variation
/
60
-
-1-1?I-1-1-1-1?I-1-1?I
14
II
06 08
\
"
Tabora,
23
02
05
and Baguio
(1961-1970) fiirHinatuan und Baguio
season
as wetter
20
during
the southwest
monsoon.
Like
but for the northern hemisphere, Manila's
temperature
curve
is of
the
so-called
Indian
type,
at
reaching itshighest daytime and nighttime levels
to
be
sun'
season
with
the end of the dry
'highest
followed by somewhat lower temperatures as thewet
season ensues, only to rise again somewhat with the
end of the wet season about October. At itsmuch
lower
altitude
than
Tabora
Manila's
diurnal
varia
tion of temperature is also less, but stillan appreciable
As at Tabora on the east African plateau, lowland
8? in the dry season, 5? in thewet. Correspondingly,
Manila has a much more pronounced seasonality of Manila's
diurnal variation in relative humidity is not
a dry season from as great as Tabora's;
there is a much more marked
rainfall than Cebu or Daressalam:
to ac
season
season
and wet
November toApril sheltered as it is from the north
between
variation
dry
eastmonsoon, followed by a distinctlywarmer as well
centuate the difference in sultriness between thehigh
112 Erdkunde Band 42/1988
phase of the year (Fig. 4). The coolness of the later
hours of darkness, close to ifnot below the thermal
too great even in condi
limit of sultriness (16.5?C)is
tions of high humidity to make itmore than mar
ginally sultry. And in the cooler, drier months of
in either marginally non-sultry
the year Baguio
or sultry to a low degree for
(December-February)
afternoon
hours of the day inMarch
the
early
only
o 2<]
and November (Fig. 5).
The Philippine Islands form part of theworldwide
intertropic zone inwhich the atmosphere over land
and sea is diurnally ifnot constantly sultry through
out the year, but to varying degree. They represent
influences
conditions under markedly maritime
with the
for
sultriness
favourable
compared
especially
rest of even thehumid warm tropics; the annual range
,MAN'LA
Low tomoderate sultriness
Y/y)
l^^i
Moderate to high sultriness
188883 High to extreme sultriness
Fig.
5: Mean
monthly
duration
(4to 7.9)
(>8)
(1961-1970) and Baguio (1956-1960)
Mittlere
monatliche
Manila
(1961-1970) und Baguio (1956-1960)
Dauer
der
at
sultriness
Manila
thermischen
Schwiile
fiir
dry
is never
season,
sultriness-free.
its
And
lower sultriness intensities of nighttime December
and throughout the days of January and February
and at least the early morning hours ofMarch are
more than offset by the rapid change to higher than
moderate intensities throughout the rest of the year,
high to extreme in the hottest ifnot most relatively
humid midday hours ofJune to September (Fig. 5).
At 1482 m probably close to but not above the
altitudinal limit of sultriness and the northernmost
but stillclearly tropical of the fourPhilippine stations,
thermal
regime
is a
somewhat
lower
eleva
tion replica of itsAfrican highland counterpart Tan
dala, though distinctly warmer at night and with less
seasonal difference during the hottest hours of day
time; the very marked, extreme wetness of August
and September does little to reduce midday tempera
tures. But were it not for thiswetness even midday
warmth and humidity would not be great enough to
sustain
even
a
early morning
low
level
of
sultriness
through
from
to late evening in the 'highest sun'
that
exceeds
characteristically
water
of rainfall,
regimes
and
content,
vapour
inter
between
the
coolest
cloudiness,
therefore
direct
atmospheric
and diffus
ed solar radiation and sultriness despite their lack of
thermal seasonality. The archipelago as a whole offers
a
natural
testing
a
laboratory,
'geeignete
Versuchs
anordnung der Natur', to geographically differen
tiate the complex phenomenon sultriness is as one of
the 'natural handicaps' of the tropics (Huntington
1914).
d) Baguio (SupplementIV)
Baguio's
for the
and warmest months of the year, and brings temper
atures down closer to but not usually below that at
which conditions become non-sultry; the different
islands are subject tovery different, sometimes highly
seasonal
values of 7? and 8? day and night in thewet, only 2?
and 3? in thedry. Quite unlike high altitude Tabora's
Manila
even
tropic low latitudes though it increases nonetheless
with distance from theEquator; nocturnal cooling in
the highlands increases the degree towhich the range
of temperature between daytime and nighttime
(0to3.9)
of thermal
small
is unusually
of temperature
(<-4)
1 Non-sultry (not applicable)
\/'S\ Marginally non-sultry/sultry (>-3.9)
|
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A. V.: De
la maniere
d'utiliser
and
of temperature
humidity
14, 1955, p. 192-99.
Science,
W.: Die hygienische
und klimatische
Leistner,
Bedeutung
in Innenraumen
und die Behaglich
des Dampfdruckes
Vol.
In: Mediz.
keits- und Schwiilegrenze.
Meteorol.,
parative
in
plants
16,
a.
M. W.
R. E.,
Schein,
McDowell,
and com
H.: A method
for the analysis
K.,
M.
Ein Beitrag zur Frage der praktischen
Brauchbarkeit
a. d. Geb.
Schwiilekurven.
Veroff.
d. Marine-Sanitats
In: Yale
In: Medizin.
Vol.
10, 1955, p. 5-8.
der Erde.
Die Warmezonen
nach
Lauer,
Vol.
Schwulemafi.
empirisches
1, 1884, p. 215-26.
Zeit., Vol.
- :
Versuch
einer Klassifikation
Lancaster,
of cultivated
Biogeographica,
H.
Fohrman,
climatic
evaluation
73. London
D.
Lee,
No.
zones.
In:
of phytohydroxeric
58-77.
12,
1970,
p.
Colloq.
Geogr.,
L.: The Katathermometer
in Studies
of Body Heat
Hill,
and Efficiency.
In: Med.
Res.
Council
Rept.
Spec.
J.: The
Gentilli,
climate113
In: James, P. E.
Lee, D. H. K.: Physiological
Climatology.
a. Jones, C. F.
American
Inventory
Geography:
(eds.):
New York
and Prospect.
1954, p. 470-83.
- :
in the Tropics.
Climate
and Economic
Development
1957.
New York
M.:
Schwiile
Dammann,
W., Die
Dt. Landeskde.,
Vol.
32,
of humid tropical warm
Terjung,
United
W. H.:
States:
environments
study of warm
Settlement.
London
1940.
and
their
Climates
of the Conterminous
Physiologic
on
A bioclimatic
classification
based
42/1988
114_Erdkunde_Band
In: Annals
Man.
Ass.
Am.
56,
Geogr.,
179.
-
:The
Seasonal
Cumulative
March
Stress
in
of the Physiological
the Sudan.
In:
Geogr., 22, 1966(b), p. 49-62.
Thom,
E. C.:
The
Discomfort
Index.
141?
p.
1966(a),
and
Climates
Trop.
Journ.
In: Weatherwise,
12,
1959, p. 57-60.
Thornthwaite,
Classification
C. W.:
An
Approach
In: Geogr.
of Climate.
a Rational
toward
Review,
38,
Troll,
und
-
C:
p.32-36.
: Thermische
In: Pet. Geogr.
der Erde.
Klimatypen
1943, p. 81-89.
der Erde. Erdkunde,
der Jahreszeiten
Klimate
Mitt.,
- :
Karte
18, 1964, p. 5-28.
: Die
raumliche
und
-
und
1948,
p.55-94.
zeitliche Verteilung
der Schwiile
Beriick
Darstellung
(mit besonderer
In: Erdkunde,
p. 183-192.
23,1969,
ihre graphische
sichtigung
ENVIRONMENTAL
ihre Aussichten
Tropensiedlung,
In: Kolon.
25, 1933,
Rundschau,
Europaische
ihre Grenzen.
Afrikas).
PLANNING AND APPLIED
IN PAPUA NEW GUINEA
GEOGRAPHY
With 3 figures
E.
Marjorie
Sullivan
Philip
and
J. Hughes
und angewandte
Geo
Zusammenfassung:
Umweltplanung
in Papua-Neuguinea
graphie
der Umwelt
und ihrer Res
Die
traditionelle
Bedeutung
The physical and social setting
sourcen
sists of the eastern part of the island of New Guinea
and also several island groups (Fig. 1). It has a total
land area of about 463,000 square kilometres and
fiir die Gesellschaften
in der
wurde
Melanesiens
von
besonders
beriicksich
Papua-Neuguinea
Verfassung
fiir den Umwelt
Gesetzesgrundlage
tigt. Die wichtigste
Act von 1978, der
schutz ist der Environmental
Planning
fiir jedes Entwicklungs
eines Umweltplanes
die Erstellung
auf die
vorhaben
fordert, das eine nachhaltige
Auswirkung
haben
konnte. Dabei
ist der Begriff ?Umwelt"
er umschliefit
sowohl die soziale und kulturelle
gefafit:
Bis heute wurde
diese
Umwelt.
als auch die biophysische
beriicksich
bei Projektplanungen
allgemein
Gesetzgebung
in einem regionalen Mafistab
angewandt
tigt, ohne jedoch
Umwelt
weit
zu sein.
worden
Der
Erlafi weitreichender
zur Um
Gesetzesvorschriften
ahnliche Auswir
hatte in Papua-Neuguinea
weltplanung
von Ressourcen
wie z. B. ver
auf die Nutzung
kungen
Fallen wurden
beiden
in
In
Australien.
Gesetze
gleichbare
die
bereits
denen
existierenden
Gesetzesgrundlagen,
verschafft werden
Geltung
mit
nur
konnte,
ge
Schwierigkeiten
insofern die Entwicklungsgesellschaften
verpflichtet
die voraussichdichen
der Projektplanung
wurden, wahrend
starkt,
auf die natiirlichen
Wirkungen
zu beriicksichtigen.
und kulturellen
Ressourcen
bisher
schon
haben Geographen
In Papua-Neuguinea
der Umweltplanung
im Bereich
gespielt.
grofie Rolle
dafi sich deren Einflufi noch verstarken
Es ist zu erwarten,
eine
wird, wenn
bei den Verwaltungen
wendigkeit
von
regionalen
das Bewufitsein
Umweltplanen
wachst.
der Not
New
Papua
is
an
Guinea,
diverse
remarkably
environmentally
con
country,
equatorial
(see
e.
g.
Loffler 1977, Paijmans 1976). The interiors of all the
main islands are mountainous, with the highest peak,
Mount Wilhelm, rising to 4,500 metres. There are a
large number of volcanoes (some of which are still
active), especially in the seismically more active
northern
of
part
the
country.
The
largest
areas
of
lowlands occur along the south coast; within these are
areas
extensive
of freshwater
swampland.
Most of Papua New Guinea experiences a hot and
wet climate with temperatures generally between 22
and 31 degrees C and an annual rainfall ofmore than
2,500 mm. Such areas support tropical rainforest.
Other parts of the country, especially along the south
coast, are also hot but have a much lower rainfall and
a
pronouced
dry
these
season;
areas
support
savanna
and grassland vegetation. The highland areas, above
about
larger
1,200
daily
metres,
temperature
are
cooler
range.
and
experience
a
people of Papua New Guinea are generally
but there is in fact a great
regarded as Melenesians
deal of diversity in their ethnic structure. This diver
The
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