10/5/2016
History of the Environmental
Movement
Early History
• In 1700s, the predominant attitude toward
environment was utilitarian
– Nature was to be conquered & used
– Transcendentalists of 1830s got attention, but
they were not typical
– Thoreau, Emerson, etc.
– See Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind
Conservationist Movement
• First Conservationists sought to save
wilderness to benefit people
– Americans recognized that the West was fading
away rapidly
– Yellowstone (1872) was established to protect
resources for later generations
– Adirondack Forest Reserve (1885) in New York
Preservationist Movement
– Pinchot wanted maximum sustainable harvests
• Muir was his assistant
– Muir wanted Yellowstone to preserve nature
U.S. Forest Service Creation
– To reduce destructive logging & claim land for the
people
– US Forest Service established in 1904 to manage it
– John Muir led the effort to create
Yosemite (1890)
– He broke away from Gifford Pinchot
–
• Pinchot was appointed to head a commission to
draw a plan for Yellowstone
• Forest Reserve Act of 1891: allowed president to
establish forest reserves from timber-covered
public-domain land
• Late 1800s movement to preserve
wilderness for its own sake
• By 1900, the two movements had
split
Gifford Pinchot v. John Muir
Teddy Roosevelt & John Muir
www.americaslibrary.gov/.../jazz/
jb_jazz_parkserv_1_m.jpg
• Mostly about claiming resources
– Timber, cattle ranges, mining
See Gifford Pinchot, “The Birth of Conservation.” In Roderick Nash, ed., American Environmentalism,
chap 11; John Muir, “A Voice for Wilderness.” In Roderick Nash, ed., American Environmentalism, chap
15.
1
10/5/2016
U.S. Forest Service Creation
• Malheur National Wildlife Refuge Occupation
(Jan, 2016)
– Occupiers claimed that the Federal Gov’t had no right to
claim the land
– Wise-Use Movement
• Layzer, Environmental Case, chap 13, 3rd edition
Ammon Bundy
Conflicting Values & Movements
• Nature & wilderness have many
values--mostly economic
– Ranching, mining, timber, tourism
• Nature & wilderness have their
own intrinsic value
– Beauty, the sacred
Parks & Preservation
• 1908 National Conservation Conference
– 44 governors + 500 others
– Most states created conservation commissions
– State park systems began
Forest Service vs. Park Service
• Congress established the Forest Service (1904)
– Dept. of Agriculture
– Motto: “Caring for the Land and Serving the People”
– “Land of Many Uses”; or Multiple-Use Management
• National Park Service (1916)
– "...to promote and regulate the use of the...national
parks...which purpose is to conserve the scenery and the
natural and historic objects and the wild life therein and to
provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by
such means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment
of future generations."
Progressive Era (1890 - 1920)
• Antiquities Act (1906)
– Allowed President to bypass Congress & establish
national monuments
– T. Roosevelt established Devil’s Tower, Crater Lake,
Mesa Verde, & 13 others
– Obama used it more than any president
• Political purposes (Stonewall National Monument; Harriet
Tubman National Underground Railway Nat. Mon.; Cesar
Chavez Nat. Mon.)
• Environmental (Papahanaumokuakea (Papa-ha-now-mohkoo-ah-kay-ah) Marine National Monument
Early Food & Drug Laws
• Meat Inspection Act (1906)
– Upton Sinclair, The Jungle
• Pure Food and Drug Act (1906)
– Unproved claims could not be made
– Ingredient lists
• “Modern” concerns with Health & Safety
emerged around 1900
2
10/5/2016
Clean Air
• Air pollution was recognized early, but
politicized slowly
• First clean air laws Chicago & Cincinnati, 1881
Why did Environmental Concerns
Emerge?
• Progressive Era saw growth of middle class
– Earlier generations focused on survival
– Middle class wanted good lives
– They declared industrial smoke a “public nuisance”
– 23 of 28 largest cities passed clean air laws by 1912
• Political power for themselves
– Party primaries
– Voting rights for women
– Clean government
• Los Angeles passed first practical law in WW II
•
•
•
•
– Limited oil refinery operation hours & locations
– Backyard incinerators banned
–
Also:
Health & safety
Rights of children
Environmental quality
See Layzer, chap 2
Modern Environmental Movement
Environmental Movement Triggers
• Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (1963)
• Developed in 1960s
– But it had earlier roots dating back to 1890s
• The 1960s were a period of social change
–
–
–
–
Free speech movement
Civil rights
Anti-war
Women’s equality
– Effects of DDT
– Used to kills mosquitos, lice that spread malaria,
typhus
– It kills hundreds to kinds of insects, pests
– DDT entered food chain & accumulated in animals
– DDT causes cancer & genetic damage
– Banned in 1973
– 8-year half-life, so it is now largely eliminated
–
The Mosquito Killer The New Yorker, July 2, 2001
Environmental Movement Triggers
• Santa Barbara Oil Spill (1969)
–
–
–
–
–
Union Oil Company (ARCO) Platform A
6 miles off Summerland
Dumped approx. 1-3 million gallons of oil
Oil slick covered 800 square miles
Nightly TV coverage of dead fish, oil-covered
birds, seals, ...
–
Robert Sollen, An Ocean of Oil: A Century of Political Struggle over Petroleum Off the California Coast
(1998)
Santa Barbara Oil Spill
January 29, 1969
3
10/5/2016
Union Oil Company Platform A, 1969
Why did Environmental Concerns
Emerge?
• 1950s and 1960s saw growth of middle
class
– Post WWII Middle class wanted good lives
• Political equality for Blacks, women, American
Indians
• Political reform
– Changes in presidential nominating system
– Limits on money in politics
– Openness in government
http://eces.org/articles/static/97608240078323.shtml
4
10/5/2016
Why did Environmental Concerns
Emerge?
Postmaterialism based on Maslow
• Maslow’s “Hierarchy of Needs”
• Postmaterialism
• Agenda Setting
• Maslow’s critics say it doesn’t work
–
Abraham Maslow, A Theory of Human Motivation (1954); Mahmoud Wahba & Lawrence Bridgewell . "Maslow
reconsidered: A review of research on the need hierarchy theory." Organizational Behavior and Human Performance
15(1976): 212–240.
Postmaterialism Theory
• Scarcity hypothesis:
• Basic material needs must be satisfied first—food,
housing, security, etc.
• Only when material needs are secured do people
turn their attention to postmaterial values such as
esteem within a community, spiritual needs, etc.
• Postmaterialism theory was developed by Ronald Inglehart
•
Inglehart, Ronald. 1971. “The Silent Revolution in Europe: Intergenerational Change in Post-Industrial Societies.” American
Political Science Review, 65:991-1017; Inglehart, Ronald. 1977. The Silent Revolution: Changing Values and Political Styles
among Western Publics. Princeton: Princeton University Press; Inglehart, Ronald. 1979. “Value Priorities and Social Change,”
in Political Action: Mass Participation in Five Western Democracies. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, 305-42; Inglehart,
Ronald. 1987. “Value Change in Industrial Societies,” American Political Science Review 81: 1289-1303; Inglehart, Ronald.
1990. Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society. Princeton: Princeton University Press; R. Inglehart, 1992. “Democratization
in Advanced Industrial Societies.” Presented at the annual meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association, Chicago;
Abramson, Paul R., and Ronald Inglehart. 1995. Value Change in Global Perspective. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
Result: Generation Gap
• People who grew up in early 1900s were
socialized during times of poverty and war.
– Result: they focus on material values
– Things that were in relatively short supply
(scarcity hypothesis)
• People who grew up after World War II,
times of relative prosperity & peace, focus on
postmaterial values.
Postmaterialism Theory
• Socialization hypothesis
• People develop values and assign priorities to their
values during their formative years—from
childhood into early adulthood
• Because of the changing nature of society’s
socioeconomic conditions across the 20th century,
people from different generations emphasize
different values.
•
Criticism of the theory: Darren Davis, “Individual Level Examination of Postmaterialism in the U. S.: Political
Tolerance, Racial Attitudes, Environmentalism, and Participatory Norms.” Political Research Quarterly, 53 (Sep.,
2000): 455-475; Juliet Carlisle and Eric Smith, “Postmaterialism vs. Egalitarianism as Predictors of Energy-related
Attitudes.” Environmental Politics, 14: 527-40, 2005.
Why did Environmental Concerns
Emerge?
• Surging economies during:
– Progressive Era (1890-1920)
• Beginnings of industrialization
– 1960-1975
• Post-war boom
– They emphasize freedom, self-expression,
environmental & aesthetic values
5
10/5/2016
Environmental v. Material Concerns
Agenda Setting
• Public Agenda: The issues about which the
public thinks. What is important
• Media Agenda: What the news media write
about
• Political Agenda: The issues that dominate
the attention of Congress & political elites
– Usually 3-5 big issues at one time
Source: http://www.gallup.com/poll/1615/Environment.aspx
Rogers, E; Dearing, J (1988). "Agenda-setting research: Where has it been, where is it going?". Communication Yearbook 11: 555–594
Kingdon’s Three Streams
1. Problem stream: Focusing events and
indicators draw attention
2. Policy stream: the accumulation of
knowledge among specialists in a given
policy area, and the generation of policy
proposals
3. Political stream: the political context at
any time
John W. Kingdon, Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies, 2nd edition, (New York: HarperCollins, 1995); Thomas A. Birkland, After Disaster:
Agenda Setting, Public Policy, and Focusing Events, (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1997); Juliet Carlisle et al., The Politics of
Energy Crises (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016)
.
Problems
1. Problems
The Problem Stream
1. Problem stream: Focusing events and
indicators draw attention
– Focusing events:
• Hurricanes, police shootings, terrorist attacks,
sexual assaults in Stanford, burning rivers
– Indicators:
• Unemployment, inflation, wars, air pollution
John W. Kingdon, Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies, 2nd edition, (New York: HarperCollins, 1995); Thomas A. Birkland, After Disaster:
Agenda Setting, Public Policy, and Focusing Events, (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1997); Juliet Carlisle et al., The Politics of
Energy Crises (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016)
.
Agenda Setting & Media
• Naïve idea: People know what matters to
them. The news media report on issues of
intrinsic importance. Politicians respond.
• "The mass media may not be successful in
telling us what to think, but they are stunningly
successful in telling us what to think about.”
– Bernard Cohen
Smog; Superstorm Sandy (2012); Fires
on the Cuyahoga (1969 +12 more)
Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw, “The Agenda-setting Function of Mass Media.” Public Opinion Quarterly, 36 (1972): 176-187; Maxwell
McCombs, Setting the Agenda : the Mass Media and Public Opinion (2012).
6
10/5/2016
Agenda Setting & Media
• When the news media cover an issue, people begin
to think about it and think it is important
Why Did the Cuyahoga Become a
Problem?
• Time ran a story on it in 1969
• Politicians respond to news media coverage &
public opinion
– Congressional hearings; bills introduced; bills going to
the floor; executive orders from the President
• News media coverage of issues drives public
opinion & politicians’ efforts to change policy
Frank R. Baumgartner and Bryan D. Jones in, Agendas and Instability in American Politics
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993); B. Jones & F. Baumgartner, The Politics of
Attention; Robert Repetto, Setting the Agenda : the Mass Media and Public Opinion
The Cuyahoga Back Story
• Time ran a story on it in 1969
– Sparks from a train started the fire
– Story said the river “oozes rather than flows”
• But …
– The river regularly burned so local papers gave the fire
little attention
• However …
– National environmental groups picked up the story
– It helped pass the Clean Water Act
http://time.com/3921976/cuyahoga-fire/;
https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/volokhconspiracy/wp/2014/06/22/the-fable-of-the-burning-river-45-yearslater/?utm_term=.5571abff6a0a
President’s Agenda Setting Influence
• The president has a major role in agenda-setting
– When he focuses on a problem, the news media
covers it
– When the President & news media cover a problem,
Congress responds
• Congress does not always do what the president
wants
– But they address the issues he raises because the
public starts asking about those issues
Why address
global warming
in 2010?
Why address income
inequality now?
John Kingdon, Agendas, Alternatives,
and Pulbic Policy; Frank Baumgartner
& Bryan Jones, Agendas & Instability in
American Politics; G. Edwards et al.,
“Who Influences Whom.” American
Political Science Rev. 93 (1999): 32744; A. Taylor, “Domestic Agenda
Setting.” Legislative Studies Quarterly
23 (1998); J. Peake et al., “The Agenda
Setting Effect of Major Presidential TV
Addresses.” Political Communication
25 (2008): 113-37.
history.howstuffworks.com/.../barack-obama5.htm
www.stolaf.edu/people/forrest/The%20future%20...
7
10/5/2016
Agenda Setting
• When the news media cover an issue, people begin
to think about it and think it is important
Even the Right
responds
Mark Trumbull,
“Is income inequality as bad as Obama says? In many
ways, yes. CSMonitor.com
http://www.gallup.com/poll/184193/racism-edges-again-important-problem.aspx;
http://www.washingtonpost.com/sf/investigative/2015/12/26/a-year-of-reckoning-policefatally-shoot-nearly-1000/; http://mappingpoliceviolence.org/
Kingdon’s Three Streams
1. Problem stream: Focusing events and
indicators draw attention
2. Policy stream: the accumulation of
knowledge among specialists in a given
policy area, and the generation of policy
proposals
3. Political stream: the political context at
any time
The Policy Stream
2. Policy stream: the accumulation of
knowledge among specialists in a given policy
area, and the generation of policy proposals
– Policies are potential solutions to problems
•
•
•
– There may be no solutions
•
John W. Kingdon, Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies, 2nd edition, (New York: HarperCollins, 1995); Thomas A. Birkland, After Disaster:
Agenda Setting, Public Policy, and Focusing Events, (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1997); Juliet Carlisle et al., The Politics of
Energy Crises (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016)
.
Learning about Policies
2. Policy options:
Congressional hearings on
chemical leaks in
Charleston, WV; foreign aid
to eastern Congo; and Flint,
MI water
What can be done about air pollution, terrorism, etc.?
Think tanks, universities, advocacy groups design
policies
Politicians turn to them for solutions
e.g., Air pollution in the 1890s
John W. Kingdon, Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies, 2nd edition, (New York: HarperCollins, 1995).
Policy Effectiveness
2. Policy options:
Solutions: Ozone hole
(easy); drought (middling);
climate change (difficult)
8
10/5/2016
Policy Effectiveness
Air Pollution
1980-2012
Decline
of Emissions,
Air Pollution
35
200
180
30
3. Policy Options: Wishful thinking?
25
140
120
20
100
15
80
60
10
40
5
20
0
0
1980
1985
1990
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
PM2.5
Kingdon’s Three Streams
1. Problem stream: Focusing events and
indicators draw attention
2. Policy stream: the accumulation of
knowledge among specialists in a given
policy area, and the generation of policy
proposals
3. Political stream: the political context at
any time
Millions of tons per year, Carbon Monoxide
160
Million tons per year, all types but CO
– When Congress passed the Clean Air Act (1970),
the technology to make auto emissions clean did
not exist
1995
2000
Volatile Organic
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
2005
2010
PM10
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Source:
http://www.epa.gov
/airtrends/aqtrends.
html
Kingdon’s Three Streams
3. Political stream: the political context at any
time
–
–
–
–
Public mood
Interest group activity
News media attention
Electoral majorities
• White House; House; Senate; State governments
– Is Washington ready to address an issue?
John W. Kingdon, Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies, 2nd edition, (New York: HarperCollins, 1995); Thomas A. Birkland, After Disaster:
Agenda Setting, Public Policy, and Focusing Events, (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1997); Juliet Carlisle et al., The Politics of
Energy Crises (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016)
.
Kingdon’s Three Streams
3. Political stream: Is Washington ready?
John W. Kingdon, Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies, 2nd edition, (New York: HarperCollins, 1995).
Kingdon’s Three Streams
3. Political stream: Is Washington ready?
9
10/5/2016
Kingdon’s Three Streams
3. Political will to solve:
Solutions: Ozone hole
(easy); drought (middling);
climate change (difficult)
10