Wiener Forum für Theologie und Religionswissenschaft /
Vienna Forum for Theology and the Study of Religions
Band 10, 2
Herausgegeben im Auftrag
der Evangelisch-Theologischen Fakultät der Universität Wien und
der Katholisch-Theologischen Fakultät der Universität Wien
von Karl Baier und Christian Danz
Die Bände des Wiener Forums für Theologie und Religionswissenschaft sind peer-reviewed.
Martin Rothgangel / Robert Jackson /
Martin Jäggle (eds.)
Religious Education at Schools
in Europe
Part 2: Western Europe
in cooperation with Philipp Klutz and Mûnika Solym‚r
V& R unipress
Vienna University Press
www.rel-edu.eu
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Contents
Martin Rothgangel, Robert Jackson and Martin Jäggle
Preface: Religious Education at Schools in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
Robert Jackson
Introduction: Diversity and Change regarding “Religious Education” in
Western Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
Robert Jackson
The European Dimension: Perspectives on Religious Education from
European Institutions, Professional Organisations and Research
Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
Henri Derroitte, Guido Meyer, Didier Pollefeyt and Bert Roebben
Religious Education at Schools in Belgium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
Brian Gates and Robert Jackson
Religion and Education in England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
Jean-Paul Willaime
Religious Education in French Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
Andrew G. McGrady
Teaching Religion at Schools in Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Jean-Louis Zeien and Jean-Marie Weber
Religious Education at Schools in Luxembourg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Thom Geurts, Ina ter Avest and Cok Bakker
Religious Education in the Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6
Contents
Norman Richardson
Religious Education at Schools in Northern Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
James C. Conroy
Religious Education at Schools in Scotland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Tania ap Siún and Leslie J. Francis
Religion and Education in Wales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Oddrun Marie Hovde Br”ten
New social patterns: old structures? How the countries of Western
Europe deal with religious plurality in education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Contributors
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Preface: Religious Education at Schools in Europe
At a time when educational issues are increasingly determining social and political discourse and major reforms of the education system are being discussed
and implemented, and a time when migration has become a significant phenomenon, contributing to changes in the religious landscape of the European
continent, it is highly appropriate to focus our attention on the concrete situation
regarding religious education (RE) in Europe. Of course, the subject area is
conceived and organised in different ways across the continent, including the 47
member states of the Council of Europe. With few exceptions, religious education has been established as a specific subject in publicly funded schools, while,
in a few cases, studies of religion are included as a dimension of other parts of the
curriculum. At the same time, it is a subject area that is undergoing considerable
change. (In this series, authors use the term “religious education” in a variety of
ways, partly according to the history of their own education systems). Beyond
the all-important tasks of taking stock and making international comparisons,
the aim in this series of books is to create a foundation for further action in the
field of education, especially with regard to interfaith expertise.
In stark contrast to a move in the direction of religion being a “private matter”
and towards “religion-free schools”, supranational organisations are, for the
first time in Europe, addressing issues relating to religion and education. While
9/11 may be seen as the triggering event here, there are wider reasons for such a
development. When the OSCE (Organisation for Security and Cooperation in
Europe) deals with the issue of religion and belief in education within the scope
of its programme “Tolerance and Non-Discrimination”, the topic has obviously
become an important one for the future of Europe and for security and cooperation on the continent. In their Toledo Guiding Principles (OSCE 2007), the
OSCE sees teaching about religions and beliefs as part of a high-quality education system that expands pupils’ horizons, makes the complexity of religions
and world views comprehensible for pupils in an interdisciplinary way, and
provides them with suitable information and skills to develop an impartial
8
Preface
approach, as well as encouraging freedom of religion and belief, as reflected in
the human rights codes.
The Council of Europe in turn, in several of its documents, has focused on the
religious dimension of intercultural dialogue, paying particular attention to the
issue of dealing with religious diversity in schools. It values religious diversity
highly and demands that it be given appropriate space, rejecting any restriction
of religion to people’s private lives as well as rejecting the notion of “religionfree” schools. The Council of Europe publication Religious Diversity and Intercultural Education: a Reference Book for Schools (Council of Europe 2007)
provides a checklist that makes clear the extent to which the whole school is
required to play a part, while the 2008 Recommendation from the Committee of
Ministers, the Foreign Ministers of the 47 member states, is a major step in
encouraging policy makers, schools and teacher trainers to prioritise the development of inclusive forms of education about religions and beliefs in their
countries (Council of Europe 2008). It is expected that guidance on implementing the Recommendation, for policy makers, schools and teacher
trainers in the member states, will be published in 2014 (discussed in Jackson
2014).
The phenomenon of migration is triggering contentious discussions on
suitable responses to the challenges it sometimes creates. Irrespective of the
topicality of this issue, it is becoming increasingly clear that education and
religion can play an important role in clarifying issues such as identity and
belonging, ethnicity and culture. Such clarifications are important both for the
future of migrants as well as for the attitude of the population of a country
towards migration. Since religion is, for many people, a crucial element in how
they interpret themselves and the world around them, its recognition and appropriate representation is critical for the recognition of the individual.
The complex issue of religious education in public schools also concerns the
school in its entirety as well as many of its subjects of instruction and projects.
We will focus our attention on the organisational form of religious education, i. e.
the subject of religion or its alternatives, in which the issue of religion(s) is an
integral part. We acknowledge here that we are not dealing with the topic exhaustively, even though we are making an important contribution towards an
understanding of the issues involved.
The project “Religious Education at Schools in Europe” (REL-EDU), which is
divided up into six volumes (Central Europe, Northern Europe, Western Europe,
Southern Europe, South-Eastern Europe, Eastern Europe) (cf. www.rel-edu.eu),
aims to research the situation with regard to religious education in Europe. The
chapters in each regional volume outline, first of all, the organisational form of
religious education in the particular countries covered. This is done on the basis
of thirteen key issues, which were clarified with the authors from the various
Preface
9
countries at two symposia held at the University of Vienna in 2011 and 2012, in
order to achieve as much coherence as possible for the publications. The formulation of key issues allows specific points of comparison between different
countries in Europe, thereby facilitating a comparative approach and further
research into specific aspects of the comparison.
The publication by Rothgangel and Schröder (2009) served as a kind of
predecessor project, one which was also conducted based on key issues. In
addition, earlier internationally oriented predecessor projects should be referred to. Since a comprehensive discussion of the corresponding literature is
being undertaken in the methodological contribution by Friedrich Schweitzer
(2013) in volume 1, at this point four published projects will be mentioned as
examples. The following five-volume work from the mid-1970s was a pioneering
publication on the subject of religious education:
– Schultze, H. / Kirchhoff H. (1975 – 1977) (ed.), “Christian Education in Europe” (German title: Christliche Erziehung in Europa), Stuttgart, 5 volumes
(England, the Netherlands, Sweden, France, Poland).
– The fact that research into the area of religious education has become more
international in recent years and that comparative research on the topic is
uncircumventable is shown by the following three publications:
– Jackson, R. et al. (2007) (eds.), Religion and Education in Europe. Developments, Contexts and Debates, Münster ;
– Kuyk, E. et al. (2007) (eds.), Religious Education in Europe. Situation and
current trends in schools, Oslo;
– Lähnemann, J. / Schreiner, P. (2009) (eds.), Interreligious and Values Education in Europe. Map and Handbook, Münster.
Below, the thirteen key issues mentioned above are introduced briefly. The first
three key issues examine the frameworks of society, law and politics. Here,
historical explanations should be very useful in helping us understand the status
quo.
10
1.
Preface
The socio-religious background of the country
This brief insight into the socio-religious situation deals, in particular, with
important changes, such as those that follow in the wake of migration.
2.
Legal framework for religious education and the relationship
between religious communities and the state
The relationship between churches, religious groups and the state is regulated
differently in each country, with consequences for the different legal frameworks
that exist for religious education.
3.
Developments in the country’s education policy
Across Europe, efforts at reform to the education system are being made, which
also have direct and indirect effects on religious education.
After outlining these framework conditions, in addition to the issues four to
six key aspects of religious education come to the fore:
4.
Role of religiously sponsored schools, including any changes
and developments, legal relationships
The place of religiously sponsored schools in the education landscape of each
country reveals much about state and societal recognition of the importance of
churches and religious groups in the education system, as well as about the
commitment to education of the churches and religious groups.
5.
Conceptions and tasks of religious education
The conceptions and tasks of religious education expresses how it is typically
positioned between the religious communities, the school and young people – as
well as society as a whole. It is in the interrelationship between these different
players that the challenge of religious education lies.
11
Preface
6.
Practice / reality of religious education in different schools
Depending on the type of school in question, religious education can present
different frameworks, challenges and difficulties.
In issues seven to ten, important contextual phenomena in religious education at the level of the school are addressed, and a targeted concentration on
ecumenical and interfaith cooperation and the education of religion teachers
undertaken.
7.
Observations on alternative subjects / learning areas like
ethics, philosophy etc.
Consideration of subjects / learning areas offered “parallel” to religious education is important, as their availability or non-availability as well as their relationship to religious education (e. g. as an alternative subject or as an elective
subject) has not only an indirect effect on the way in which religious education is
provided, it also affects what kind of ethical and religious education those pupils
who do not attend religion class receive.
8.
Dealing with religious diversity
The question of how to deal with diversity and which forms of cooperation the
different religious players within society can come up with has become a critical
challenge in European countries.
9.
Religion in school outside of religious education
Does religion have a role to play in school beyond that of a specific subject
offered to pupils? The answer to this question reveals to what extent the whole
climate of the school is religion-friendly.
12
10.
Preface
Training of teachers of religious education: institutes,
structures, priorities issues
This point addresses an important structural determinant which, based on the
empirically proven importance of the character of the religion teacher for the
religious education of pupils, deserves special attention.
Since the aim here is not merely to take stock of the situation but instead to
make suggestions for the next steps required in the area of religious education, it
was important to formulate concrete desiderata as well as challenges for each
country and direct the reader towards further sources of information.
11.
Empirical Research concerning religious education
For a long time empirical research concerning religious education was neglected. In the last ten years, however, there have been more and more empirical
studies. Of special interest are the relevant studies in the respective country and
the different areas addressed in empirical research.
12.
Desiderata / challenges for religious education in a European
context
Here, the results for each country from the analysis of the key issues mentioned
above are examined with a view to finding out which topics or issues would be
important for further work in the area of religious education in Europe.
13.
Further information (e. g., relevant literature on religious
education, institutions, websites)
The selection of additional sources of information should facilitate further research in the field of religious education in the respective countries.
Based on these key issues, the articles listed here lead to interesting results, the
comparative analysis of which is reserved for a later publication.
We would like to thank Ms. Claire Ulbrich, Mr. Friedrich Schumann, Dr.
Mûnika Solym‚r and Dr. Thomas Weiß for preparing the script as well as Ms.
Preface
13
Karin Sima, Ms. Katrin Gregshammer and Ms. Marietta Behnoush for taking
care of the layout.
Vienna, 12/2/2014
Martin Rothgangel / Robert Jackson / Martin Jäggle
References
Council of Europe, eds. 2007. Religious Diversity and Intercultural Education: A Reference
Book for Schools. Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing.
Council of Europe. 2008. Recommendation CM / Rec(2008)12 of the Committee of Ministers
to member states on the dimension of religions and non-religious convictions within
intercultural education. https://wcd.coe.int//ViewDoc.jsp?Ref=CM/Rec(2008)12& Language=lanEnglish& Ver=original& BackColorInternet=DBDCF2& BackColorIntranet=
FDC864& BackColorLogged=FDC864 (accessed 12 September 2013).
Jackson, R. 2014 (forthcoming). The Development and Dissemination of Council of Europe Policy on Education about Religions and Non-religious Convictions, Journal of
Beliefs and Values: Studies in Religion & Education.
OSCE. 2007. The Toledo Guiding Principles on Teaching about Religion or Belief in Public
Schools. Warsaw: Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe, Office for
Democratic Institutions and Human Rights.
Rothgangel, M. / Schröder, B., eds. 2009. Evangelischer Religionsunterricht in den
Ländern der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Empirische Daten – Kontexte – Entwicklungen. Leipzig: Evangel. Verl.-Anst.
Schweitzer, F. 2013. Religionsunterricht in europäischen Schulen im Vergleich – Herausforderungen für international-vergleichende Forschung. In Religiöse Bildung an
Schulen in Europa. Teil 1: Mitteleuropa, eds. M. Jäggle, M. Rothgangel and T. Schlag.
(Wiener Forum für Theologie und Religionswissenschaft Vol. 5.1), Göttingen: V& R
unipress.
Robert Jackson
Introduction: Diversity and Change regarding “Religious
Education” in Western Europe
This book charts the histories of and debates concerning “religious education”
in the countries of Western Europe identified, for the purposes of this series, as
Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, the Republic of Ireland,
Northern Ireland, England, Wales and Scotland. “Religious education” is put
into inverted commas since this term, and its equivalent in other languages, has
different and often shifting meanings, according to context. The very ambiguity
of the term shows that the subject of religion in Western European schools (and
indeed of schools in many democracies) is in the process of change or is the
subject of educational debate at both public and academic levels.
What are the reasons for change and for debate? These undoubtedly include
processes of secularisation and reactions to secularisation, especially post 9/11,
through an acknowledgement of the increased visibility of discussions about
religion in the public sphere. The pluralisation of the religious and cultural
landscape of many countries, mainly through the migration of peoples, is a
second key factor, bringing a range of different religious traditions to European
states, many of which previously were associated, primarily, with one or more
sub-traditions of Christianity. Globalisation is a third factor. The reactions to
such plurality at the individual level are various. These include the formation of
individualised and often eclectic religious or spiritual worldviews; re-configured
traditional religious positions (sometimes taking account of on-going adaptations to ethnicity and culture, as well as issues related to citizenship); fundamentalist positions, sometimes influenced by transnational factors; overtly
atheistic stances; and indifference.
Each country has its own very particular history of religion and state which
remains a vital influence on, and ingredient of, change, whether that be constructive adaptation to new circumstances or conservative reaction. The encounter of secularisation and supranational influences, on the one hand, and of
structures related to specific histories of religion and state, on the other, accounts
for the diversity of policy and practice in the countries covered in this volume,
and in other books in the series. Regarding religious education in state funded
16
Robert Jackson
schools, there are those who try to maintain some form of religious “nurture”,
sometimes related to the idea of national or cultural identity, while others embrace plurality, seeing the state school as a provider of education about religions
and other worldviews, with religious teaching being the prerogative of families,
religious communities and private schools. Some variations on these themes can
be read in the chapters below, with more than one variant sometimes occurring
at the same time in the same country.
Changing views of educational policy are also influential on religious education in many states, sometimes indirectly so. Increased attention to testing and
league tables, and the prioritisation of so-called “core” subjects, can have a
negative effect on fields such as religious education. The OECD’s (Organisation
for Economic Co-operation and Development) Programme for International
Student Assessment (PISA) has concentrated attention on 15-year-old school
pupils’ performance in mathematics, science, and reading and, in practice, has
reduced attention to subjects such as religious education and the arts. Such
trends have also influenced teacher training. Readers will be able to see how
these themes recur in individual countries, covered both in this volume and in
others such as that on Northern Europe.
Turning to examples, a range of justifications for the inclusion or exclusion of
particular forms of religious education can be found across different European
countries. In some, there has been an appeal to the democratic right of parents to
choose a form of religious education which is consistent with their own belief.
Thus, the Netherlands has had a history of “pillarised” education in which state
funding supports schools nurturing young people in a wide range of religious
and philosophical traditions, according to parental choice.
Religious education in the Republic of Ireland traditionally has been determined by the Roman Catholic Church, while in Northern Ireland historic
religious, cultural and political divisions have led to separate educational provision along the Catholic / Protestant divide and continuing controversy about
the role of religion and religious education in public schooling. Policy and
practice in examples such as these are the subject of, sometimes intense, debate.
Belgium is an especially complex case, in that the country has three official
languages, related to three specific geographical areas. Roman Catholicism is the
dominant religious tradition nationally, although adherence has been declining.
Schools can be organised and financed by communities, or may be organised by
cities, municipalities or provinces, with full state subsidy. The latter type may be
Catholic, Protestant, Jewish or non-confessional, although most in Flanders are
Catholic. Religious education in the former type is expected to offer teaching in
(usually) six officially recognized religions, with pupils concentrating on one
tradition according to background, while there is a specific confessional approach in the latter.
Introduction
17
The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg has borders with Belgium, France and
Germany. Three languages – Luxembourgish, French and German – are spoken
in this tiny country of just over half a million in population. In the nineteenth
century almost the entire population was Roman Catholic and all state-run
schools were Catholic. Following significant changes in the 20th century, the
inhabitants of Luxembourg recognize religious and secular plurality, a development that continues to influence religious education significantly.
The situation in France is unique and reflects the distinctive French history of
religion and state. Historically, the school system was secularised in the 1880s,
followed by a formal legal separation of Church and State in 1905. Religious
education, understood as nurture within a particular faith, is prohibited in
French state education. However, time has been allocated for children from
religious backgrounds to receive instruction privately, with responsibility for
this given to families and religious institutions. An objective study of religions is
permitted in state funded schools and can be taught through various curriculum
subjects, such as French language or art, but there is no separate subject devoted
to religion.
In some states, there has been a move towards education about the variety of
religions to be found in society, or towards examining the contribution of religions to the development and expression of culture. This has been the case, for
example, in England, Wales and Scotland, all of which include the study of
religious diversity as an important element of religious education, sometimes
combining this with the aim of assisting young people in formulating their own
viewpoints, whilst respecting the right of others to express different religious or
non-religious positions. In the case of Scotland (compare Norway discussed in
the Northern Europe volume), the subject has been broadened to include nonreligious, as well as religious, perspectives on moral issues. In these cases, the
intention is not to nurture all students in a particular religious faith, but rather to
give them an educated understanding of the religious beliefs, practices and
values of their own tradition and those of their fellow citizens. Balancing the
liberal education argument of including all aspects of human experience and
culture (including religion) within the curriculum with arguments about increasing tolerance towards others, or increasing social cohesion, or with arguments concerned with the personal or moral development of pupils, is a topic of
on-going discussion in many European countries.
In all national cases, “religious education” is in a state of change and flux.
Although there are theological conservatives who argue for a return to traditional forms of religious instruction, the general trend is one of liberalisation,
with many confessional approaches moving in an inclusive direction, influenced
by religious and secular plurality within their own countries and by associated
inter faith and inter worldview dialogue. In those countries which concentrate
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Robert Jackson
on educating “about” religions, there is on-going discussion about the aims of
the subject (for example, how can one achieve a balance between education
about religions and helping young people to formulate their personal worldviews?) and about the inclusion of non-religious worldviews as well as religions.
Discussions and projects within wider European institutions, such as the
Council of Europe and the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe
(OSCE), provide a backdrop for debates within individual states, and are a
potential reference point and resource for consideration of new developments.
These are discussed in Chapter 1.
Some points of comparison between the different national examples represented in the book are discussed by Oddrun Br”ten in Chapter 11, using Br”ten”s
methodology developed specifically for making national comparisons in this
field.
Finally, it is important to note that the views of politicians, policymakers,
teacher trainers, teachers and parents are not the only ones to take on board. It is
especially important to listen to the views of the young people who receive
“religious education”. In a cross-European research project (REDCo), involving
eight European countries from most of the regions of Europe represented in this
series (England, Estonia, France, Germany, Netherlands, Norway, the Russian
Federation and Spain), the majority of 14 to 16-year-olds surveyed desired the
opportunity for dialogue and discussion with peers, in order to increase
knowledge and understanding of one another’s religions and worldviews under
the supervision and guidance of well prepared teachers and in the safe space of
the classroom (see Chapter 1).
Robert Jackson
The European Dimension: Perspectives on Religious
Education from European Institutions, Professional
Organisations and Research Networks
Introduction
The European debate is very important to religious education (RE) in individual
states. When looked at from the point of view of European institutions such as
the Council of Europe, we find a creative tension between national and local
cultural assumptions / practices and European human rights standards which
underpin the Council’s work on “the Dimension of Religions and Non-Religious
Convictions within Intercultural Education” (Council of Europe 2008a).
Of the many developments related to religious education within public education that have taken place in Europe, three key areas are selected for discussion. The first concerns important European institutions and their role in
fostering particular rationales for studying religions in public education and in
developing standard setting policy recommendations. The second is the professionalisation of RE and related fields, through the formation of European
professional organisations and through the establishment of the European
Wergeland Centre, a European educational centre, based in Oslo, including religious diversity in its remit to cover human rights, citizenship and intercultural
education (http://www.theewc.org/). The third is European research on RE, with
particular reference to a European Commission Framework 6 project – the
REDCo Project – conducted between 2006 and 2009, and to TRES, a European
research network that has conducted a study of religion in European schools; the
growth of doctoral research in RE in Europe; and a European book series on
“Religious Diversity and Education in Europe” in which many publications on
research and theory in RE in different parts of Europe appear, including books
from the REDCo Project. The present series on religious education in Europe
published by the University of Vienna is a further landmark in European collaboration in exploring religious education issues.
As a preliminary, it is important to recognise that the term “religious education” is contested, and means different things in different national contexts
(and sometimes within them); there is a range of terms used to identify the study
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Robert Jackson
of religions within public education. Thus, there are some very diverse understandings and approaches to “religious education” across Europe, as well as
some emerging patterns of overlap and commonality (Jackson et al. 2007; Kuyk
et al. 2007).
Issues about the study of religions in public education are being discussed at a
European level and more widely internationally as never before. The discussions
include specialists in religion and religious bodies, but also politicians, civil
servants, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and other groups within civil
society as well as educators concerned with fields such as citizenship and intercultural education. This is partly due to the global attention given to religion
as a result of the events of September 11, 2001 in the USA, their causes, on-going
consequences and associated incidents that have affected people in many parts
of the world. In Europe, it also relates to the challenge of transcultural diversities
and the climate of racism in some states, much of it directed against Muslims,
exacerbated by 9/11 and subsequent related events. These negative events have
helped to push discourse about religions into the public sphere, even in countries like France where religion has been regarded strongly as a private concern.
There are also some very positive reasons for studying religions in public education articulated in European discussion. For example, the Delors Report
considers that education should include learning to know, learning to do,
learning to live together and learning to be (UNESCO 1996). It is arguable that
RE should be concerned with all of these, especially the fourth, although policy
developed within some key European institutions has particularly focused on
the third.
1.
European Institutions: The Council of Europe
The Council of Europe is an inter-governmental organisation founded in 1949
and based in Strasbourg, France. It comprises 47 member states currently and its
aims include protecting human rights, pluralist democracy and the rule of law
and seeking solutions to problems such as discrimination against minorities,
xenophobia and intolerance. The Council’s work leads to European conventions
and agreements in the light of which member states may amend their own
legislation. The key political bodies of the Council are the Parliamentary Assembly (made up of cross party members of national parliaments from the
member states), the Committee of Ministers (the Foreign Ministers of member
states, each of whom has a diplomatic representative resident in Strasbourg) and
various specialist conferences of Ministers, including one on Education. The
powers of the Parliamentary Assembly extend to investigation, recommendation
and advice.
The European Dimension
21
At the same time as promoting and encouraging the development of Europe’s
cultural identity, cultural diversity is also valued highly. The Council of Europe
recognises that each state has its own history and cultural traditions, its own
language or languages and its own religious traditions. Thus, there is a creative
tension between developing a European cultural identity based on shared human
rights values whilst preserving distinctive cultural traditions. Moreover, no state
is homogeneous culturally. Some states have long established ethnic and religious minorities with very long histories, sometimes preceding the formation of
the state. Many states have substantial ethnic and religious minorities as a result
of migration from other countries within Europe and beyond, mainly during the
20th and current centuries. Diversity within states is complex and connects with
global as well as regional, national and local issues.
The Council of Europe connects directly with member states through certain
government ministers, especially the Foreign Ministers, and through selected
members of Parliament who serve on the Parliamentary Assembly. Each member
state also has a diplomat permanently based in Strasbourg who engages in
activities in support of ministers. The statutory institutions of the Council of
Europe are the Committee of Ministers, made up of the Foreign Ministers of
every member state, the Parliamentary Assembly composed of MPs from the
parliament of each member state (that is, they are members of the state parliament not members of the European Parliament), and the Secretary-General,
who heads the secretariat of the Council of Europe. The Commissioner for
Human Rights is an independent institution within the Council of Europe,
mandated to promote awareness of and respect for human rights in the member
states.
The Secretariat of the Council of Europe includes a number of Directorates
General, including the Directorate General of Democracy (DGII), which includes
the Directorate of Democratic Citizenship and Participation whose remit includes education. The remit of the Directorate General of Democracy is very
broad, but it includes promoting social cohesion, cultural diversity, intercultural
dialogue, democratic citizenship and participation of all, including that of
children, minorities and young people. It has the task of preparing and implementing programs, policies and standard-setting mechanisms, and to cooperate with key outside partners including civil society organisations and other
international institutions.
Thus, the Council of Europe offers a structure which integrates the development of new ideas – from educational projects, for example – and political
processes. Project proposals are approved by the Council’s political institutions
and project findings and Ministerial Recommendations are considered and
eventually approved by them. They are then transmitted to the member states.
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Robert Jackson
There is an expectation that member states will consider them seriously in their
own policy development at national level.
1.1
Intercultural Education and the Challenge of Religious Diversity and
Dialogue in Europe
In 2002 the Council of Europe launched its first project on teaching about religions in schools – “The New Challenge of Intercultural Education: Religious
Diversity and Dialogue in Europe”. The rationale for this was concerned with the
relationship of religion to culture. It was argued that, regardless of the truth or
falsity of religious claims, religion is a part of life and culture and therefore
should be understood by all citizens as part of their education. This is essentially
a cultural argument for the study of religions. However, human rights remain the
bedrock of Council of Europe policy.
It was on the basis of the “cultural argument” that the Council of Europe
launched its project on the study of religions as part of intercultural education.
There were several outcomes. One was the publication of a reference book for
schools, aimed especially at those countries with little or no study of religions in
public education (Keast 2007). But, most importantly, the Committee of Ministers agreed to a policy recommendation that all member states should include
the impartial study of religions within the curricula of their schools (Council of
Europe 2008a).
A team was brought together to draft the Recommendation on behalf of the
Committee of Ministers on the management of religious and “convictional”
diversity in schools, based on the project’s approach, and incorporating ideas
from the White Paper on Intercultural Dialogue (Council of Europe 2008b).
Although the original 2002 project had been related to religion specifically, the
Recommendation was broadened to include non-religious convictions alongside
religions. The Ministerial Recommendation was adopted by the Committee of
Ministers in December 2008, and provides a set of principles that can be used by
all member states. The Recommendation can be used as a tool in discussing
policy in fields including RE and citizenship education. For reasons of space it is
possible here to do no more than indicate the general “flavour” of the document.
For example, its underlying principles include the view that intercultural dialogue and its dimension of religious and non-religious convictions are an essential precondition for the development of tolerance and a culture of “living
together” and for the recognition of different identities on the basis of human
rights.
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Its objectives include:
– developing a tolerant attitude and respect for the right to hold a particular
belief, (recognising) the inherent dignity and fundamental freedoms of each
human being;
– nurturing a sensitivity to the diversity of religions and non-religious convictions as an element contributing to the richness of Europe;
– ensuring that teaching about the diversity of religions and non-religious
convictions is consistent with the aims of education for democratic citizenship, human rights and respect for equal dignity of all individuals;
– promoting communication and dialogue between people from different cultural, religious and non-religious backgrounds.
Its educational preconditions include:
– sensitivity to the equal dignity of every individual;
– recognition of human rights as values to be applied, beyond religious and
cultural diversity ;
– communication between individuals and the capacity to put oneself in the
place of others in order to establish an environment where mutual trust and
understanding is fostered;
– co-operative learning in which peoples of all traditions can be included and
participate;
– provision of a safe learning space to encourage expression without fear of
being judged or held to ridicule.
With regard to teacher training, member states are requested to:
– provide teachers with the training and means to acquire relevant teaching
resources with the aim to develop the […] skills (for teaching about) religions
and non-religious convictions;
– provide training that is objective and open minded;
– develop training in methods of teaching and learning which ensure education
in democracy at local, regional, national and international level;
– encourage multiperspectivity in […] training courses, to take into account
[…] different points of view in teaching and learning.
Thus, both the “intercultural” and “human rights” ethos of the document is
clear.
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Robert Jackson
1.2
Why has the Council of Europe taken an interest in the place of religion in
education?
The Council of Europe has had various projects on topics such as intercultural
education, education for democratic citizenship and human rights education.
For quite a long period, the Council of Europe took the view that religion was
largely a private matter, and that each member state was responsible for its own
policies, related to its particular history. General debate about the place of religion in the public sphere began to change that view, against a shifting background of globalisation in which religion was often a factor. The events of 9/11 in
the United States of America were a symbol of the entry of religion into general
public discussion, both within and beyond individual states.
As a result of the migration of peoples, and as a consequence of other features
of globalisation, European states have become more religiously pluralistic, and
more alert to religion as a phenomenon of both local and global significance. The
issue of social cohesion – of living together in harmony within diverse democratic societies – has been complicated by these factors. However, currently,
education about religious diversity, and about non-religious worldviews, is
approached in various different ways across Europe. Some states have educational systems in which religious education is understood primarily as the
transmission of religious beliefs and values from one generation to the next.
Some states have no specific provision for teaching about religions in the curriculum of the school. Others include some teaching about religions, or teaching
about religions and non-religious worldviews as part of the curriculum for all
students.
The Council of Europe aims to encourage member states to develop appropriate teaching about religions in order to increase understanding of religious
diversity in Europe and more widely, and to encourage genuine dialogue between people having different religious and non-religious worldviews. This is
not intended to replace the teaching offered by religious organisations on behalf
of parents, but as a general feature of education for all students. The Council of
Europe particularly relates its work in this field to its long-standing contributions on intercultural education.
1.3
Teaching about non-religious convictions
Although the 2002 project was about “Religious Diversity and Dialogue in Europe”, the Committee of Ministers took the view that the remit of the Recommendation should be extended to include “non-religious convictions” as well as
religions. There was a recognition that, while many people belong to religious
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traditions that are sources of inspiration and value, there are many others within
European societies whose values are not grounded in religions. This extension
reflects international debates and also changing educational policies in some
European countries. Overall, the work on religions and non-religious convictions is complementary to the Council of Europe’s contributions on human
rights education and education for democratic citizenship (Jackson 2013).
1.4
Towards a Council of Europe Dissemination Document: “Signposts”
In 2011, the Council of Europe, in partnership with the European Wergeland
Centre, appointed a committee of experts from different parts of Europe to work
on a document facilitating the use of the 2008 Recommendation by policy
makers, schools and teacher trainers across Europe. This document, which will
have the title “Signposts”: Policy and Practice for Teaching about Religions and
Non-Religious Worldviews in Intercultural Education has been drafted by the
present author on behalf of the committee of experts from various member
states, and should be available in Autumn 2014. The committee hopes that initial
uses of “Signposts” will draw a wide range of stakeholders into the discussion,
including policy makers, schools and teacher trainers. The document addresses
various issues considered problematic by respondents to a questionnaire relating to national responses to the Recommendation, completed by members of
the Council of Europe Education Committee. These include issues of terminology, competence and didactics, creating “safe space” for dialogue in the
classroom, handling media representations of religions, teaching about nonreligious worldviews, as well as various issues associated with human rights, and
the relationship of schools to wider communities (Jackson forthcoming a and b).
It is hoped that the document will be used widely as a basis for discussion and
development across Europe.
2.
European Institutions: the Organisation for Security and
Co-operation in Europe
Independently from the Council of Europe, another major European institution
concerned with human rights also considered the place of the study of religions
and beliefs in public education. This is the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), based in Vienna. The OSCE is the largest regional
security organization in Europe. Its 56 participant states include most European
countries plus the United States and Canada. It was set up in the 1970s to create a
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Robert Jackson
forum for dialogue during the Cold War. The OSCE uses the concept of “three
dimensional security”. Security is not only considered in politico-military terms
but also through its human dimension and an environmental and economic
dimension.
Because of the human dimension to security, OSCE has an Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR), which is based in Warsaw. As
with the Council of Europe, the ODIHR conducted a project to identify principles on which participant states could develop policy and practice for teaching
about religions and non-religious beliefs in schools across its huge geographical
region. The result was the production of a standard setting document, the Toledo
Guiding Principles on Teaching about Religions and Beliefs in Public Schools
(TGPs), named after the city in which the drafting team first worked on the text,
and in recognition of Toledo’s historical role in communication between those of
different religions (OSCE 2007).
2.1
The Toledo Guiding Principles
The Toledo Guiding Principles (TGPs) were prepared in order to contribute to an
improved understanding of the world’s increasing religious (and philosophical)
diversity and the growing presence of religion in the public sphere. Their rationale is based on two core principles: first, that there is positive value in
teaching that emphasizes respect for everyone’s right to freedom of religion and
belief, and second, that teaching about religions and beliefs can reduce harmful
misunderstandings and stereotypes.
The primary purpose of the TGPs is to assist OSCE participating States
whenever they choose to promote the study and knowledge about religions and
beliefs in schools, particularly as a tool to enhance religious freedom. The TGPs
focus solely on an educational approach that seeks to provide teaching about
different religions and beliefs as distinguished from instruction in a specific
religion or belief. They also aim to offer criteria that should be considered when
and wherever teaching about religions and beliefs takes place (OSCE 2007, 11 –
12). The TGPs offer guidance on preparing curricula for teaching about religions
and beliefs, preferred procedures for assuring fairness in the development of
curricula, and standards for how they could be implemented.
The TGPs were developed by an inter-disciplinary team including members
of the ODIHR Advisory Council of Experts on Freedom of Religion or Belief. The
members were picked for their particular expertise. However, they happened to
be from a cross section of religious and philosophical backgrounds. Thus there
were Christians, Jews, Muslims and Humanists plus one member of a “new
religious movement”.
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In the TGPs, the underlying argument for the inclusion of the study of religions and beliefs in public education has a human rights emphasis. The first
premise is that freedom of religion or belief predicates plurality : if freedom of
religion or belief is a given for society, then society inevitably will be plural. The
next premise is that, if society is to be cohesive, plurality requires tolerance of
difference. The conclusion is that tolerance of difference requires at least
knowledge and understanding of the beliefs and values of others. This would be
so whatever the approach specifically taken to RE or intercultural education in
particular countries. In other words, the document supports the inclusion of a
just and fair approach to religious difference, whatever the system of RE or
education about religion in particular states.
The TGPs include a substantial chapter on the human rights framework –
including legal issues in relation to the state and the rights of parents, children,
teachers and minorities, as well as chapters on preparing curricula and teacher
education, plus conclusions and recommendations. The Toledo Guiding Principles, were approved by the Ministerial Council and launched at the 15th OSCE
Ministerial Council held in Madrid in November 2007.
In concluding this section, it should be clear that both the Council of Europe
and OSCE documents are intended as tools for those discussing the place of
religion in education within European democracies. They are not intended as
finished programmes or syllabuses, and are expected to be adapted and developed in different ways within different systems of education.
3.
The Professionalisation of Religious Education
A second feature of the European RE scene is an increasing professionalisation of
the subject and related fields, enabling international networking, and professional contact, as well as collaborative development and application of ideas.
This has happened especially through the formation of European professional
organisations – in particular through their conferences, websites and publications – and through the establishment of the European Wergeland Centre, a
European educational facility, based in Oslo, including religious diversity in its
remit to cover human rights, citizenship and intercultural education. I will
mention two European professional associations whose work has a bearing on
RE within public education and will make some remarks about the European
Wergeland Centre.
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3.1
Robert Jackson
The European Forum for Teachers of Religious Education (EFTRE)
The European Forum for Teachers of Religious Education brings together various national professional organisations in Europe. EFTRE is a non-confessional
forum which represents the interests of RE teachers in Europe, aiming to serve
and strengthen the work of national RE teachers’ associations. EFTRE aims to
contribute to the international co-operation of teachers of RE in theoretical and
practical aspects of their work in order to strengthen the position of the subject
in schools in the member countries and across Europe. Member organisations
represent teachers in schools, colleges and universities and work together to
provide a forum for the exchange of ideas and working methods. EFTRE holds
conferences, with delegates attending from across Europe, and arranges seminars and teacher exchanges. EFTRE has an elected Executive which meets twice a
year, a board which meets annually and a general assembly which meets every
three years. Each member country is entitled to one member of the board and
each institution is entitled to send a representative to the general assembly.
EFTRE publishes a journal / newsletter twice per year in April / May and November / December (http://www.eftre.net/).
3.2
The Co-ordinating Group for Religion in Education in Europe (CoGREE)
The Co-ordinating Group for Religion in Education in Europe (CoGREE) brings
together a range of European professional RE associations in the field, and
includes both non-confessional and Christian organisations (www.cogree.com/).
Member organisations share some common values (including embracing religious diversity in democratic societies, upholding the principle of freedom of
religion or belief and regarding any education taking no account of religion and
spirituality as incomplete). Its members include the European Forum for
Teachers of Religious Education in Schools (EFTRE), the Inter-European
Commission on Church and School (ICCS), the European Association for World
Religions in Education (EAWRE), the International Association for Christian
Education (IV) and the European Forum for Religious Education in Schools
(EuFRES). CoGREE holds conferences every three years, and engages in various
development and publication projects.
3.3
The European Wergeland Centre (EWC)
The European Wergeland Centre (EWC) (Henrik Wergeland was a 19th Century
Norwegian poet who stood up for religious freedom) is a European resource
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centre on education for intercultural understanding, human rights and democratic citizenship, incorporating such cross-cutting topics as religion, history,
language and gender. The idea for the Centre came from the Council of Europe,
where separate proposals for a European Centre concentrating on citizenship
and another concentrating on religion and education were merged (Jackson
2007). The Norwegian Government took up the opportunity to establish the
Centre in co-operation with the Council of Europe. The EWC, which caters for all
the member states of the Council of Europe, and uses English as its working
language, is situated in Oslo and was opened officially in May 2009. The main
target groups are teachers, teacher trainers, decision makers and multipliers
within education for intercultural understanding, human rights and democratic
citizenship.
From the point of view of RE, the EWC acts as a partner in European research
projects and, via its website and through conferences and meetings, assists in the
dissemination of research findings to users such as teachers. An important
feature of the EWC is its “Share & Connect” database through which teachers,
teacher trainers and researchers can form networks and contact one another.
Share & Connect provides various opportunities, including the facility to look
for experts in particular specialisms throughout Europe and beyond, to explore
potential co-operation and partnerships and to connect with peers from theory
and practice, for example, forming networks on particular research themes,
networks of PhD students, or partnerships between academic specialists and
teachers to produce high quality materials (go to www.theewc.org for more
information). By providing in-service training, carrying out and supporting
research, creating networks, serving as a platform and disseminating information and good practice, the EWC is establishing itself as a leading professional body.
4.
European Research in Religious Education
4.1
Research Networks
Empirical research has become increasingly important in informing the development of policy and practice in European RE (Jackson 2004a, 2004b). There
are several international and European research networks in the RE field.
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4.2
Robert Jackson
International Seminar on Religious Education and Values (ISREV)
The International Seminar on Religious Education and Values (ISREV) is an
association of over 240 religious education scholars from around 36 countries. It
includes scholars from various religious traditions, and secular specialists in
religious studies and education, and has met every two years since 1978 (mainly
alternating venues between Europe and North America). ISREV includes many
empirical researchers in RE from around the world, with many from different
European countries (http://www.isrev.org/). Recent European based ISREV
conferences have been held in York, England (2014) and Turku, Finland (2012).
Recent publications including papers from ISREV conferences include Astley et
al. (2007, 2012) and Parker et al. (2012).
4.3
European Network for Religious Education through Contextual
Approaches (ENRECA)
The European Network for Religious Education through Contextual Approaches
(ENRECA) is a specifically European research network, having a particular interest in the relevance of “context” to the development of RE (eg. Heimbrock et
al. 2001). ENRECA was set up in 1999 as a forum for mutual co-operation and
reflection on the changing role of religious education in Europe. The issues of
“contextuality”, focusing on religious life in particular cultural (and especially
local) contexts, and “religious competence”, understood as a student’s ability to
negotiate about religious meanings, have been central to the group’s concerns
(Miedema et al. 2004). ENRECA has also published Researching RE Teachers: RE
Teachers as Researchers (Bakker and Heimbrock 2007) and its latest publication
is Exploring Context in Religious Education Research: Empirical, Methodological
and Theoretical Perspectives (Skeie et al. 2013).
4.4
European Association for the Study of Religions (EASR)
The European Association for the Study of Religions (EASR) (http://easr.eu/) is a
professional association which promotes the academic study of religions
through the international collaboration of (mainly) European scholars working
in the field of the study of religions. The EASR is affiliated to the International
Association for the History of Religions (IAHR) which is active globally. EASR
includes a group of Religious Studies scholars who have a particular interest in
education, and these researchers provide an important link between the worlds
of academic religious studies and RE in Europe. For example, the link facilitates