Eurasian Prehistory, 7 (1): 99–112.
NATUFIAN PLANT USES AT EL-WAD TERRACE
(MOUNT CARMEL, ISRAEL): THE PHYTOLITH EVIDENCE
Marta Portillo1, Arlene M. Rosen1 and Mina Weinstein-Evron2
1
Institute of Archaeology, University College London; 31-34 Gordon Square, London WC1H 0PY,
United Kingdom; [email protected]; [email protected]
2
Zinman Institute of Archaeology, University of Haifa; Haifa 31905, Israel; [email protected]
Abstract
El-Wad is one of the major Natufian base camps of the Mediterranean core-area. Quantitative, morphologic and
morphometric analyses of phytoliths from the site were conducted in order to identify the plants used in specific archaeological context. The results show that pooid grasses dominated the phytolith record. High concentrations of phytoliths
from grass leaves and stems suggest dwelling remains, an important element of Natufian plant exploitation. Phytoliths also
indicate that wood and bark were the second most abundant form of vegetation preserved in the site. This study provides
new data about Natufian modes of environmental exploitation (or subsistence) on the threshold of early food producing
communities in the southern Levant.
Key words: el-Wad Terrace, Natufian, plant exploitation, phytoliths.
INTRODUCTION
The site of el-Wad Cave and Terrace has long
been considered one of the major Natufian base
camps of the Mediterranean core-area, west of the
Jordan River (Garrod, 1957; Bar-Yosef, 1983;
Weinstein-Evron et al., 2007; Weinstein-Evron,
2009). The site is located on the western slope of
Mount Carmel at the opening of Nahal Me‘arot
(Valley of the Caves), together with three other
caves–Tabun, Jamal and Skhul, facing the narrow
Carmel coastal plain (northern Israel) (Fig. 1).
el-Wad cave and its adjacent terrace, covers a
larger area than any of the other three caves.
The site has been repeatedly excavated since
the late 1920s (Garrod and Bate, 1937; Valla et
al., 1986; Weinstein-Evron, 1998; WeinsteinEvron et al., 2007). Significantly, el-Wad has
been found to contain one of the most complete
Natufian sequences in the Levant, spanning from
the Early Natufian to its final stage (WeinsteinEvron, 1998). The radiocarbon chronology for
el-Wad spans the period of ca. 12,950 ± 200 years
BP (15,700–15,000 cal. BP) to ca. 10,680 ± 190
BP (12,820–12,370 cal. BP), covering practically
the entire duration of this culture. Thus, the
el-Wad sequence altogether represents some
3,500–4,000 years of Natufian occupation of the
site.
Various lines of evidence suggest a sedentary
site at least for the main Early Natufian habitation
(Weinstein-Evron, 1998). Wide varieties of characteristic flint tools and ground stone implements,
as well as elaborate artistic and decorative items
of stone, bone and shell were manufactured. Faunal remains, including microfauna, fish and molluscs, were abundant and well preserved in the
site (Bate, 1937; Valla et al., 1986; Rabinovich,
1998; Bar-Oz et al., 2004; Weissbrod et al., 2005;
Weinstein-Evron et al., 2007). Mountain gazelle
(Gazella gazella) was the most heavily exploited
species (Bar-Oz et al., 2004). In addition, a rich
and prolific Natufian cemetery was unearthed at
the site.
Direct paleobotanical evidence from pollen
and charcoal remains from the Early Natufian layers of el-Wad cave indicates that typical eastern
Mediterranean woody species were utilized by the
100
M. Portillo et al.
flowering branches and of myrtle pollen grains indicates a spring/early summer habitation of the
cave. These archaeobotanical studies indicated
that the Natufians exploited various local woody
plants in their economy during the closing stages
of the Pleistocene.
Phytoliths (silica bodies formed in plants)
were analyzed in this pilot study in order to identify the plants used in specific areas at el-Wad
Terrace. Samples were taken during the 2006–
2007 excavation seasons of the site. Various living surfaces and distinct structures were sampled.
Most of these belong to the later part of the Early
Natufian (LEN)–the most significant construction
phase at the site. Only two samples may belong to
the lower part of the Late Natufian phase at the
site (Table 1).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Fig. 1. Map showing the location of el-Wad and
other sites mentioned in the text
Natufian inhabitants of the site (Lev-Yadun and
Weinstein-Evron, 1993, 1994, 2005; WeinsteinEvron, 1994). The charcoal remains indicated the
use of woody plants from the forest/maquis (evergreen and oaks), riverbank and wet lowlands
(tamarisk and willow), including Quercus calliprinos (kermes oak), Quercus ithaburensis
(Mount Tabor oak), Cupressus sempervirens (Italian cypress), and Myrtus cummunis (myrtle)
(Lev-Yadun and Weinstein-Evron, 1994). Most
of these common dicotyledonous trees and shrubs
are found in the region today. This was supported
by the palynological data (Weinstein-Evron,
1994) where the use of Tamarix (as fuel or bedding material?) and the abundance of ruderal
plants derived from the vicinity of the site were
further highlighted. It was also suggested (Weinstein-Evron, 1998) that the occurrence of clumps
of olive pollen that probably had dropped from
Forty-one samples were collected in total for
phytolith analyses. Table 1 lists the samples analyzed as well as the main results obtained. The locations of the samples relative to the excavation
grid squares and the various features are shown in
Figs 2 and 3.
The laboratory methods used were similar to
those described in the study of the Natufian site of
Mallaha (Eynan, northern Israel) (Rosen, 2004,
2007). The samples were analyzed in the Phytolith Laboratory at the Institute of Archaeology–
University College London. A weighed aliquot of
ca. 1 g of .250 mm air-dried sediment was treated
with about 10 ml of 10% HCL to eliminate the
carbonates. The sample was washed with distilled
water and then centrifuged at 2000 rpm for 5 minutes. The pellet was dried and the remaining sediment was weighed. Organic matter was eliminated by burning in a muffle furnace at 500°C for
2 hours. The remaining sediment was weighed.
This is referred to as the inorganic acid insoluble
fraction (AIF). The clays were removed with 20
ml of Sodium hexametaphosphate (calgon) by a
settling and decantation process through a column
of distilled water.
The remaining mineral components of the
AIF were then separated according to their densities in order to concentrate the phytoliths. The
AIF was transferred to a 15 ml polypropylene
centrifuge tube containing 3 ml of Sodium
Natufian plant uses at el-Wad terrace
101
Table 1
Description of samples and main phytolith results obtained from el-Wad Terrace
Sample
Square
number
Elevation
(cm
below
datum)
% AIF
N. phytoliths % WM
N. phytoliths
1 g of sedi- phyto1 g of AIF
ment
liths
EW06-1
N8
424
79.8
9.900.000
7.900.000
7.7
EW06-2
N8
424
81.1
17.800.000
14.500.000
9.6
EW06-3
N8
424
82.4
9.000.000
7.400.000
10.8
EW06-4
EW06-5
EW06-6
EW06-7
EW06-8
EW06-9
EW06-10
EW07-1
EW07-2
EW07-3
N8
N8
N8
N8
Q8
Q8
Q8
L8b
L8b
L8c
428
428
428
428
348
341
351
461
459
457
82
82.3
81.5
81.6
81.7
79
79.7
74.7
73.9
75
8.100.000
11.400.000
12.000.000
5.900.000
15.900.000
14.500.000
10.200.000
3.300.000
1.900.000
1.000.000
6.600.000
9.300.000
9.800.000
4.800.000
13.000.000
11.500.000
8.100.000
2.400.000
1.400.000
780.000
2.8
11.6
7.7
9.8
12.1
10.3
8.9
14.5
11.9
8.9
EW07-4
L10d
472
74.3
1.800.000
1.300.000
14.4
EW07-5
K9a
477
75.8
3.600.000
2.700.000
14.2
EW07-6
L10c
474
74
13.800.000
10.200.000
15.5
EW07-7
EW07-8
EW07-9
EW07-10
EW07-11
EW07-12
EW07-13
M10d
L10c
M9d
N10d
M8a
M8b
M8b
474
474
450
453
448
447
449
73.5
73.9
76.5
72.7
63.4
74.7
71.4
6.400.000
11.500.000
940.000
4.300.000
600.000
0
150.000
4.700.000
8.500.000
720.000
3.100.000
380.000
0
110.000
12.5
12.5
29.9
12.4
26.8
EW07-14 N7b
425
72.9
1.100.000
830.000
17.9
EW07-15 N7a
EW07-16 N7d
EW07-17 N7c
425
424
420
70
71.6
68.4
2.100.000
1.500.000
1.900.000
1.500.000
1.100.000
1.300.000
15.5
8.5
11.9
EW07-18 N6b
418
70.5
690.000
500.000
17.8
EW07-19 M7c
EW07-20 N6d
434
401
75
70.7
0
1.100.000
0
810.000
13.8
EW07-21 Q8d
358
72
2.400.000
1.700.000
15.9
EW07-22 Q8a
359
66.6
2.300.000
1.600.000
13.1
EW07-23 Q8a
EW07-24 P8c
365
366
68.8
68.1
1.100.000
550.000
740.000
370.000
17.4
23.8
26.7
Description
Locus 31. Concentration of artifacts and
small stones
Locus 31. Concentration of artifacts and
small stones
Locus 31. Concentration of artifacts and
small stones
East of locus 31
East of locus 31
Stony layer
Under locus 31
Locus 24d. Round stone installation
West of locus 24d
Associated with locus 24d
Locus 37. Stone circle, loose brown sediment
Locus 37. Stone circle, loose brown sediment
Outside Locus 37, stony layer
Locus 38. Concentration of stones, between
stones
Outside Locus 38, stony layer
Locus 38. Concentration of stones, between
stones
Locus 27. Built feature, compact sediment
Locus 27. Built feature, compact sediment
Stony layer, loose brown sediment
Stony layer, loose brown sediment
Locus 35. Cemented orange sediment
Locus 35. Loose orange-brown sediment
Locus 35. Cemented orange sediment
Outside of stony Layer III, compact brown
sediment
Stony layer III, between stones
Stony layer III, between stones
Stony layer III, between stones
Stony layer III, between stones, adhering to
wall II
Stony layer III, between stones
Loose brown sediment, between walls I-II
Compact sediment adhering to a large flat
stone
Locus 39. Collapsed stone installation, between stones
Outside of locus 39, compact sediment
Compact sediment adhering to the large stone
M. Portillo et al.
102
Table 1 continued
Sample
Square
number
EW07-25 Q8b
EW07-26 Q5b
EW07-27 Q5a
Elevation
(cm
below
datum)
369
319
285
% AIF
69
72
57.6
N. phytoliths % WM
N. phytoliths
1 g of sedi- phyto1 g of AIF
ment
liths
2.500.000
840.000
54.000
1.700.000
605.000
31.000
Description
Compact brown sediment
Locus 25. Stony feature, between stones
Locus 25. Stony feature, between stones
Locus 40. Concentration of stones and artiEW07-28 P6d
347
68.3
2.700.000
1.800.000
13.1
facts
EW07-29 P6a
349
69.6
140.000
96.000
33.3 Compact sediment
EW07-30 Q9a
376
69.8
1.900.000
1.300.000
9.6 Compact sediment
EW07-31 P10d
390
73.7
610.000
450.000
5.6 Compact sediment
All belong to the late Early Natufian (LEN) phase of the site, except for the samples from loci 24d, 25 and 27, which may belong
to the Late Natufian.
polytungstate solution [Na6(H2W12O40).H2O] of
2.35 sp. gravity. The suspension was thoroughly
dispersed by vortexing and then was centrifuged
at 800 rpm for 10 minutes. The supernatant was
transferred to another centrifuge tube, distilled
water was added to reduce the density, the tube
was vortexed and again centrifuged at 2000 rpm
for 5 minutes. The sediment pellet deposited at
the bottom of the tube was washed and centrifuged two more times. The pellet was dried and
weighed.
For examination under the optical microscope, samples were mixed with Entellan New
(Merck), and a cover slip was placed over the suspension. The aerial coverage of the sample on the
slide was estimated by counting the total number
of fields containing sample grains. Slides were
examined using an Olympus BH-2 optical microscope. Digital images were obtained using an
Olympus Color View IIu camera and Olympus
Cell D* software at the Department of Prehistory,
Ancient History and Archaeology of the University of Barcelona.
Phytoliths in a known number of randomly
chosen fields were counted at 400× magnification. Quantitative analyses followed the methods
described in the study of Tabun cave (Albert et
al., 1999). For morphological analysis, a minimum of 200 phytoliths with diagnostic morphologies were counted in order to obtain an error of
around ± 20% (Albert and Weiner, 2001). Morphological identification of phytoliths was based
on standard literature (Twiss et al., 1969; Brown,
11.3
14
60
1984; Rosen, 1992; Mulholland and Rapp, 1992;
Piperno, 2006). When possible, the terms describing phytolith morphologies follow anatomical terminology, and otherwise they describe geometrical characteristics. The International Code for
Phytolith Nomenclature (ICPN) was also followed where possible (Madella et al., 2005).
Morphometric analysis is an effective tool for
differentiating between phytoliths produced by
closely related taxa (Pearsall et al., 1995; Zhao et
al., 1998; Ball et al., 1999; Albert et al., 2008;
Portillo et al., 2009). Seventeen parameters of
size and shape were measured for diagnostic inflorescence grass phytolith morphotype, namely
dendritic epidermal long cell phytoliths, using
Cell D* image analysis software (Table 2). A
minimum of 45 phytoliths were measured from
each archaeological sample. Statistical analyses
used SPSS software for Windows, with calibration data from the same species, following the
methodology of Ball et al. (1999). The phytoliths
identified in the archaeological samples were
compared to phytoliths produced by modern
plants from a reference collection at the Institute
of Archaeology–University College London,
which includes several wild species of wheat, barley and oat, as well as other wild grasses from the
Levant.
RESULTS
Table 1 lists the samples analyzed, together
with their location in the site and description, percentage of acid insoluble fraction (AIF), numbers
Natufian plant uses at el-Wad terrace
103
Fig. 2. General plan of the renewed excavation at el-Wad Terrace. Stone-built features where phytoliths were
sampled are depicted
of phytoliths per 1 g of AIF, and percentage of
phytolith weathered morphotypes (WM). The
acid insoluble fraction (AIF) indicates the percentage presence of siliceous material, including
quartz, clay, heavy minerals and phytoliths. In
general, samples showed a high percentage of
AIF. This is especially true for samples from Lo-
cus 31 and 24d (squares N8 and Q8, respectively)
where the AIF average is 80.5% (Table 1). Samples from other locations showed a lower AIF
percentage (between 57.6–76.5%), which indicates a different distribution of the mineralogical
components with a higher presence of carbonates
and other non-siliceous minerals.
M. Portillo et al.
104
Fig. 3. Schematic section A–A’ along the M–N line (for location see figure 2) showing the relations between features at the East Area
Another important issue in phytolith analysis
is their states of preservation. Indications of partial dissolution of phytoliths were noted in all
samples by the presence of surface pitting and
etching at different degrees. This however is not
extensive enough to prevent their identification.
Those phytoliths which were not unidentifiable
because of their bad state of preservation are expressed as weathered morphotypes (WM, table 1).
In general, the extent of weathering correlates
Table 2
Descriptions of the morphometric parameters measured
Morphometric
Area
Convex area
Perimeter
Convex perimeter
Type
Size
Size
Size
Size
Diameter inner max
Size
Diameter inner min
Size
Diameter outer max
Size
Diameter outer min
Size
Diameter max
Size
Diameter min
Size
Equivalent diameter
Radius max
Size
Size
Shape factor
Shape
Sphericity
Shape
Convexity
Shape
Aspect ratio
Elongation
Shape
Shape
Description
Simple area of the feature.
Area within a taut-string around the feature.
Length of the feature boundary.
Length of a taut-string around the feature.
The maximum diameter through the measured object center without leaving the measured
object.
The minimum diameter through the measured object center without leaving the measured
object.
The maximum diameter through the measured object center from outer border to outer
border.
The minimum diameter through the measured object center from outer border to outer
border.
The maximum diameter of a measured object (for angles in the range 0° through 179° with
step width 1°).
The minimum diameter of a measured object (for angles in the range 0° through 179° with
step width 1°).
Diameter of a circle with the same area as the feature.
Radius of largest circle that can be drawn in the feature.
Equals 4 × Area × ? / Perimeter (it is 1.0 for a perfect circle and diminishes for irregular
shapes).
Equals 4 × Area / ? × Length2 (it is 1.0 for a perfect circle and diminishes with elongation
of the feature).
Ratio of convex perimeter to perimeter (it is 1.0 for a perfectly convex shape and diminishes if there are surface indentations).
Equals length / width.
Equals fiber length / width.
Natufian plant uses at el-Wad terrace
105
Fig. 4. Histogram showing the relative abundances (%) of phytoliths from grasses, dicotyledonous leaves, dicotyledonous wood/bark and weathered morphotypes
with the number of phytoliths per unit gram of
AIF. This is especially true for the samples that
contain the lowest amounts of phytoliths (over
30–60% of dissolution). It should be noted that
other micro-remains such as starch grains and diatoms were not observed in the samples.
The phytolith distributions are shown in Table 1. Phytoliths were noted in different proportions in the samples, with a greater abundance in
some contexts but only small amounts in others.
The only exceptions were samples EW07-12 (Locus 35, square M8b; a cemented orange sediment
adjacent to a floor of a structure) and EW07-19
(Stony Layer III, square M7c; probably the floor
of a structure), where phytoliths were not observed. Locus 31, a small concentration of stones
and artifacts embedded in a floor of a structure,
showed the largest amounts (sample EW06-2,
square N8, 17,800,000 phytoliths/g of AIF).
Other groups of sediment samples containing relatively large proportions of phytoliths were: samples from Locus 24d–a stone-lined pit (EW06-8
and EW06-9, square Q8), sample from Locus
38–a concentration of stones not associated with a
structure (EW07-6, square L10c), and sample
from Locus 27 (EW07-8, square L10c), ranging
from 11,500,000 to 15,900,000 phytoliths/g of
AIF.
Phytoliths were divided morphologically into
three major groups according to the type of plant
in which they originated and the plant part:
grasses, leaves and wood of dicotyledons (woody
and herbaceous plants) (Fig. 4). The morphological study was based on a modern reference collection of plants of the Mount Carmel area (Albert,
2000; Albert and Weiner, 2001). As it can be observed, the morphological results obtained were
similar for all the samples. Note that not all the
analyzed samples were included in the histograms, due to the fact that in some cases there
were insufficient phytoliths counted with consistent morphology to obtain a reliable interpretation
in these samples.
Grasses dominated the phytolith record (with
an average close to 65% of the total of counted
morphotypes), followed by dicotyledonous
106
M. Portillo et al.
Fig. 5. Histogram showing the percentage presence of phytoliths from grasses according to where they were
formed (leaves/stems and inflorescences)
plants. Sedges (Cyperaceae) and reeds (included
inside the grass group) and characteristic of wet
environments, were noted in all the samples.
There are no significant differences between the
percentages of monocotyledons among the samples. Grass phytoliths were then morphologically
divided into the different plant parts in which they
were formed, in this case leaves/stems and inflorescences. Figure 5 showed different relative
abundances of phytoliths from the inflorescence
and from leaves/stems in the samples, the latter
dominating in all the studied samples. Grasses belonged mostly to the C3 pooid subfamily (Fig. 6a).
It should be noted that inflorescences were
relatively more abundant in two features located
in the eastern area of the site. These were Locus
37 (a stone enclosure containing an in-situ complete portable mortar, represented by samples
EW07-1 and EW07-2) and Locus 38 (both inside
the feature and around it, represented by samples
EW07-4, EW07-5, and EW07-6), with an average
reaching around 24.7% of the total of grasses.
This may suggest localities of grass seed processing or consumption.
For the morphometric study two samples
from Locus 27 were selected, EW07-7 and
EW07-8 (squares M10d and L10c), both came
from compact sediments collected inside the built
feature, where diagnostic dendritic epidermal
long cell inflorescence phytoliths were abundant
(Fig. 6b). The dating of these two samples is not
yet clear. They are either late Early Natufian, or
beginning of the Late Natufian. However, we
used these samples for morphometic analysis due
to the statistically significant numbers of the dendritic phytoliths which was unique. The statistical
results obtained from these two samples were
compared to a modern plant reference collection
of the Institute of Archaeology–University College London, which includes selected wild
grasses from the Levantine area. We conducted
descriptive statistical analyses using calibration
data from a minimum of 100 phytoliths produced
by Triticum dicoccoides, Hordeum spontaneum,
Bromus sterilis and Avena sterilis (Table 3). The
first results showed that both archaeological samples were similar and, as it can be observed in the
correspondence analyses (Fig. 7), were more
closely related to measured morphologies of wild
oat, more specifically to Avena sterilis. Although,
the similarity matrix indicated that the differences
in measurements were too minimal to clearly differentiate among these grass genera. In order to be
able to discriminate wild grasses, it is strictly necessary to continue with morphometric analyses
from this and other contexts that can provide more
information on the nature of plants exploited at
the site.
The study also indicated that woody and herbaceous dicotyledons were the second most abundant plant group observed in the site (Fig. 4). Interestingly, honeycombed and spheroid phytoliths
(Bozarth, 1992), derived from the internal tissue
in the epidermis of the leaves of dicotyledonous
trees and bushes, were observed in the samples
(Fig. 6c). The modern reference collection of
Natufian plant uses at el-Wad terrace
107
Fig. 6. Photomicrographs of phytoliths identified in el-Wad Terrace samples. The photographs have been taken
at 400 x. a) short cell rondel, b) long cell with dendritic margin, c) Honeycombed assemblage spheroid from
dicotyledonous leaves, d) bulliform cell from common reed (Phragmites sp.)
plants from the Mount Carmel area showed these
phytolith morphotypes in the leaves of Kermes
oak (Quercus calliprinos), Mount Tabor oak
(Quercus ithaburensis), almond (Amygdalus
communis), willow (salix acmophylla) and
Laurus nobilis (Albert, 2000). At present, the two
oaks are the most common tree species in the area.
DISCUSSION
Because of their poor preservation, macrobotanical remains have not provided much evidence
for Natufian plant use, and other important aspects of plant exploitation, including cereal food
consumption and procurement. However, phytolith analyses have demonstrated a great potential
to increase our knowledge of the Natufian patterns of plant exploitation (Rosen, 1993, 1999,
2004; Albert et al., 2003; Rosen, this volume).
The results of this pilot phytolith study at
el-Wad Terrace have provided new direct data for
tracing Natufian patterns of plant exploitation in
the Mount Carmel region. Understanding subsistence patterns in the site is important for discerning how the Natufians exploited their environment on the threshold of food production. The
study has also shed important light on the understanding of site layout and uses of specific areas
within this Natufian hamlet. One of the main
characteristics of the samples analyzed is the relatively large component of silicate minerals. However, samples from different locations at the site
showed different distributions of the mineralogical components with a greater proportion of carbonates and other non-siliceous minerals. Further
research involving mineralogical analyses (Fou-
M. Portillo et al.
108
Table 3
Descriptive statistics for morphometries of the dendrictic phytoliths from modern species and archaeological samples. Measurements in microns (µm or µm 2)
Morphometric
Avena sterilis
Mean
Area
Convex area
Perimeter
Convex
perimeter
Diameter inner
max
Diameter inner
min
Diameter outer
max
Diameter outer
min
Diameter max
Diameter min
Equivalent
diameter
Radius max
Shape factor
Sphericity
Convexity
Aspect ratio
Elongation
STD
1048.04 602.16
1562.56 866.41
300.53 116.56
Bromus sterilis
Hordeum
spontaneum
Mean
STD
Triticum
dicoccoides
Mean
STD
Sample EW07_7 Sample EW07_8
Mean
STD
Mean
STD
Mean
STD
188.81
393.58
166.70
72.73
168.14
58.96
211.45
405.07
156.35
135.88
256.77
69.16
311.53
708.62
220.18
122.03
325.61
76.57
528.04
749.18
160.96
430.16
547.01
67.85
349.41
558.54
151.86
197.93
298.97
48.18
190.96
72.82
89.97
25.30
93.13
39.06
123.66
37.81
118.77
49.98
107.21
34.59
76.53
33.45
31.52
11.28
34.87
17.73
45.36
16.39
45.44
21.4
40.47
15.57
11.45
2.99
3.80
1.38
4.19
1.59
5.16
1.62
10.02
7.57
2.88
77.2
33.37
34.90
11.61
36.57
17.48
48.03
17.25
46.05
41.37
15.56
11.62
3.1
4.03
1.48
4.36
1.64
5.29
1.54
10.14
4.83
7.64
2.88
79.21
30.38
33.92
14.07
35.80
14.95
11.55
3.59
37.83
14.81
17.55
6.08
49.64
20.16
17.37
5.62
47.19
19.76
21.14
7.26
42.74
19.29
15.49
8.47
35.14
10.04
15.20
3.07
15.67
4.88
19.53
3.91
24.17
9.49
20.29
5.82
39.61
0.15
0.08
0.67
3.53
4.78
16.96
0.05
0.07
0.07
1.48
2.25
17.90
0.1
0.1
0.5
2.7
4.25
5.77
0.05
0.14
0.08
0.86
1.6
18.91
0.12
0.09
0.53
3.05
4.7
8.77
0.04
0.09
0.07
1.3
2.34
24.82
0.09
0.08
0.45
2.93
4.83
8.68
0.04
0.10
0.06
1.05
2.06
23.59
0.24
0.12
0.68
2.62
3.43
10.57
0.07
0.11
0.09
0.82
1.19
21.37
0.19
0.13
0.62
2.87
4.06
7.75
0.07
0.13
0.1
1.21
2.19
rier Transform Infrared Spectrometry – FTIR) can
provide more information and determine the identities of the major sedimentary minerals. Quantitative analyses of phytoliths together with mineralogical analyses can provide much information
about the manner in which vegetation was used,
as demonstrated in the same region in the studies
of Middle Paleolithic layers of Tabun and Kebara
caves (Mount Carmel) and Natufian and Mousterian levels of Hayonim Cave (Galilee, northern
Israel) (Albert et al., 1999; Albert, 2000; Albert et
al., 2000, 2003).
Phytoliths distributions indicated plant concentrations in specific contexts at the site (e.g. Locus 31 and 24d) belonging to the Early Natufian
phase. Grasses dominated the phytolith record, as
would be expected in an economy that exploited
grass-seeds. The abundance of ground-stone implements and sickle blades, with the occurrence of
4.78
21.3
several sickle hafts (Garrod and Bate, 1937; Valla
et al., 1986; Weinstein-Evron, 1998; WeinsteinEvron et al., 2007), including one specimen with
embedded blades (Garrod and Bate, 1937, plate
XIII, fig. 1, no. 2) provide ample indirect evidence for such plant exploitation. Grass phytoliths identified at the site derived mostly from the
C3 pooid (festucoid) subfamily (Fig. 6a). This
group is common in the native grasses of the
Mediterranean basin, and contains some of the
major Near Eastern crops, including the “founder
crops” that started food production in this part of
the world, such as wheat and barley (Zohary and
Hopf, 2001).
Interestingly, at el-Wad, grass multicellular
structures with diagnostic morphologies were rare
in the samples, and phytoliths could not be confidently identified to genus. Due to the absence as
well of other type of micro-remains such as star-
Natufian plant uses at el-Wad terrace
109
Fig. 7. Comparison of phytolith morphometries between archaeological and modern plant reference collection
samples showing nearest neighbor analysis using Pearson’s correlation index
ches or macro-remains of seeds, the pilot morphometric study focused on inflorescence dendritic
long cells common in the sediments from Locus
27 (Fig. 6b). The presence of these morphotypes
also implies occupation during the season that
these plants flowered and matured (March–
April). While a spring occupation is supported by
the palynological data from the cave (WeinsteinEvron, 1994), obviously this does not necessarily
mean that people were not present during other
seasons as well. The size of the Early Natufian
hamlet, the intensity of occupation, the prolific
cemetery, the architectural remains, the occurrence of commensals – all attest to a multi-seasonal, sedentary habitation. Preliminary results
suggested the presence of wild oat, likely Avena
sterilis. However, it is necessary to continue with
morphometric analyses in order to be more confident about this determination. Portillo et al.
(2006) have demonstrated that morphometric
analysis of dendritic phytoliths is an effective tool
for discriminating between species in the Avena
genus. The ability to consistently distinguish specific cereal species through morphometric analyses is a promising approach to delineating plant
use in the site.
In the Levantine region, wild oats frequently
grow together with wild wheats and barleys. Wild
emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccoides), barley
(Hordeum spontaneum) and oat (Avena sterilis)
form “fields of wild cereals” (Zohary and Hopf,
2001). That hunter-gatherers populations had
long been exploiting wild cereals, and other grass
genera, is established from macrobotanical finds
at Ohalo II (19,500 BP, ca. 23,000 BP, cali-
brated), a submerged early Epipaleolithic site on
the south shore of the Sea of Galilee (northern Israel). Here, researchers identified abundant quantities of wild emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccoides)
and barley (Hordeum spontaneum), together with
several other large and small-seeded grasses, including wild oat (Avena sterilis), goat-faced grass
(Aegilops sp.) and Bromus sp., as well as other
fruits and acorns (Kislev et al., 1992; Weiss et al.,
2004). Phytolith studies have also provided direct
evidence that cereals and other grass seeds were
consumed by Natufian populations (Rosen, 1993,
1999, 2004, this volume).
Significantly, large amounts of phytoliths
from the leaves and stems of sedges (Cyperaceae)
and common reeds (Phragmites sp.) (Fig. 6d),
suggest dwelling remains at the site and accord
well with their provenience from living floors and
stone-constructed foundations of dwellings
(Yeshurun et al., n.d.). This pattern was previously observed at the Final Natufian levels of
Mallaha (Eynan, northern Israel), where phytoliths indicated a widespread use of leaves and
stems of sedges and reed grasses–such as Phragmites, constituting some of the first direct evidence for construction materials for dwellings
(Rosen, 2004, 2007). The new data from el-Wad
indicate that this was an earlier practice, already
evidenced during the Early Natufian habitation of
the site.
Another significant point to emerge from this
pilot phytolith study is the use of woody and herbaceous dicotyledonous at the site. The Natufian
people might have exploited these plants as building materials for constructing their dwellings.
110
M. Portillo et al.
Again, direct evidence from the site of Ohalo II
showed that hut constructions were made of thick
branches of local trees such as tamarisk (Tamarix), willow (Salix), and oak (Quercus), forming
the skeleton of the structures, and smaller leafbearing branches and grasses were placed on top
(Nadel, 2003). While at el-Wad Early Natufian
structures were probably constructed above several stone–courses, the use of similar tree species
also has been indicated by the charcoal and pollen
analyses from the cave (Lev-Yadun and Weinstein-Evron, 1994; Weinstein-Evron, 1994).
Additionally, dicotyledonous plants in the
site also could be related to other purposes, such
as fuel procurement. A study of the mineralogy
and phytolith assemblages of hearths in Hayonim
Cave (Galilee, northern Israel), indicated that the
main source of fuel used by the Natufians was
small branches derived probably from trees or
brushes and other herbaceous dicotyledons (Albert et al., 2003). Phytoliths derived from the epidermis of the leaves of dicotyledonous plants –
probably oaks, were also identified in the samples
(Fig. 6c). These data are consistent with other direct paleobotanical evidence from pollen and
charcoal remains from the Early Natufian layers
of el-Wad Cave (Lev-Yadun and WeinsteinEvron, 1993, 1994, 2005; Weinstein-Evron,
1994). These studies indicated that typical Eastern Mediterranean species were utilized by the inhabitants of the site, including oak species (Quercus calliprinos and Q. ithaburensis) as well as
other woody dicotyledons, such as Italian cypress
(Cupressus sempervirens) and myrtle (Myrtus
cummunis). Altogether, the archeobotanical record from el-Wad thus confirms that there was a
widespread use of local dicotyledonous plants in
the Early Natufian economy.
CONCLUSIONS
Our phytolith study has provided direct evidence for plant exploitation at el-Wad Terrace.
Further research at the site can provide more reliable information and a better understanding of
how the Natufians exploited their environment on
the threshold of early food producing communities in the southern Levant.
The research showed that detailed quantitative, morphologic and morphometric studies of
phytoliths, together with the reference collection
of modern plants in the area, can provide new insights into the manner in which Natufian hamlets
were arranged, how the various site-installations
functioned, and the way the surrounding vegetation was exploited by Natufian populations.
Moreover, the ability to distinguish wild grass
species through morphometric analyses provides
a promising approach for determining plant use,
and cereal exploitation at this and other sites. This
type of information would otherwise be unavailable at this and other Natufian sites using other
sources of archaeobotanical data.
Acknowledgements
The morphometric study was made possible by
support from the Project Origins and development of
agricultural practices in the Levant, funded by the
Spanish Ministry of Science and Education–MEC
(HUM2006-26456-E/HIST). The el-Wad excavations
are supported by the Wenner-Gren Foundation.
We would like to thank Dr. Dorian Q. Fuller for
providing the modern plants from the reference collection of the Institute of Archaeology–University College
London, used in the morphometric study. Thanks are
due to Reuven Yeshurun for providing the detailed description of the samples analyzed in this study and for
his useful remarks. The first author was a post-doctoral
fellow at the Institute of Archaeology–University College London (MEC/ FECYT–Spanish Science and
Technology Foundation).
REFERENCES
ALBERT R.M. 2000. Study of ash layers through
phytolith analyses from the Middle Peleolithic levels of Kebara and Tabun cave (Israel). Ph.D. Thesis. University of Barcelona.
ALBERT R.M., WEINER S. 2001. Study of phytoliths
in prehistoric ash layers using a quantitative approach. In: J.D. Meunier, F. Colin (eds.) Phytoliths:
Applications in earth sciences and human history.
A.A. Balkema Publishers, Lisse, 251–266.
ALBERT R.M., BAR-YOSEF O., MEIGNEN L.,
WEINER S. 2000. Phytoliths in the Middle
Paleolithic deposits of Kebara cave, Mt. Carmel, Israel: Study of the plant materials used for fuel and
other purposes. Journal of Archaeological Science
27, 931–947.
ALBERT R.M., BAR-YOSEF O., MEIGNEN L.,
WEINER S., 2003. Quantitative phytolith study of
hearths from the Natufian and Middle Paleolithic
levels of Hayonim Cave (Galilee, Israel). Journal of
Natufian plant uses at el-Wad terrace
Archaeological Science 30, 461–480.
ALBERT R.M., LAVI O., ESTROFF L., WEINER S.,
TSATSKIN A., RONEN A., LEV-YADUN S.
1999. Mode of occupation of Tabun Cave, Mt Carmel, Israel during the Mousterian period: a study of
the sediments and phytoliths. Journal of Archaeological Science 26, 1249–1260.
ALBERT R.M., SHAHACK-GROSS R., CABANES
D., GILBOA A., LEV-YADUN S., PORTILLO M.,
SHARON I., BOARETTO E., WEINER S. 2008.
Phytolith-rich Layers from the Late Bronze and Iron
Ages at Tel Dor (Israel): Mode of Formation and
Archaeological Significance. Journal of Archaeological Science 35, 57–75.
BALL T.B., GARDNER J.S., ANDERSON N. 1999.
Identifying inflorescence phytoliths from selected
species of wheat (Triticum monoccum, T. dicoccon,
T. dicoccoides, and T. aestivum) and barley
(Hordeum
vulgare
and
H.
spontaneum)
(Gramineae). American Journal of Botany 86,
1615–1623.
BAR-OZ G., DAYAN T., KAUFMAN D.,
WEINSTEIN-EVRON M. 2004. The Natufian
economy of el-Wad Terrace with special reference
to gazelle exploitation patterns. Journal of Archaeological Science 31, 217–231.
BAR-YOSEF O. 1983. The Natufian in the southern
Levant. In: T.C Young, P.E.L. Smith, P.Mortensen
(eds.) The hilly flanks and beyond: essays on the
Prehistory of Southwestern Asia. R.J. Braidwood,
Oriental Institute, University of Chicago press, Chicago, 11–42.
BATE D.M.A. 1937. Palaeotology: the fossil fauna of
the Wady el-Mughara caves. In: D.A.E. Garrod,
D.M.A. Bate (eds.) The Stone Age of Mount Carmel,
vol. I. Excavations at the Wadi Mughara, Part II.
Clarendon Press, Oxford, 138–233.
BOZARTH S.R. 1992. Classification of opal phytoliths
formed in selected dicotyledons native to the Great
Plains. In: Jr. G. Rapp, S.C. Mulholland (eds.)
Phytolith Systematics, Emerging Issues, Advances
in Archaeological and Museum Science. Plenum
Press, New York, 193–214.
BROWN D.A. 1984. Prospects and limits of a phytolith
key for grasses in the central United States. Journal
of Archaeological Science 11, 345–368.
GARROD D.A.E. 1957. The Natufian culture: the life
and economy of a Mesolithic people in the Near
East. Proceedings of the British Academy 43,
211–227.
GARROD D.A.E., BATE D.M.A. 1937. The Stone Age
of Mount Carmel, vol. I. Excavations at the Wadi
Mughara. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
KISLEV M.E., NADEL D., CARMI I., 1992.
Epipalaeolithic (19,000 bp) cereal and fruit diet at
111
Ohalo II, Sea of Galiee. Israel. Review of
Palaeobotany and Palynology 73, 161–166.
LEV-YADUN S., WEINSTEIN-EVRON M. 1993.
Prehistoric
wood
remains
of
Cupressus
sempervirens L. from the Natufian layers of el-Wad
Cave, Mount Carmel, Israel. Tel Aviv 20, 125–131.
LEV-YADUN S., WEINSTEIN-EVRON M. 1994.
Late Epipalaeolithic wood remains from el-Wad
Cave, Mount Carmel, Israel. New Phytologist 127,
391–396.
LEV-YADUN S., WEINSTEIN-EVRON M. 2005.
Modeling the influence of wood use by the
Natufians of El-Wad in the forest of Mount Carmel.
Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 35,
285–298.
MADELLA M., ALEXANDRE A., BALL T.B., ICPN
WORKING GROUP 2005. International Code for
Phytolith Nomenclature 1.0. Annals of Botany 96,
253–260.
MULHOLLAND S.C., RAPP JR. G. 1992. A morphological clasification of grass silica-bodies. In: Jr. G.
Rapp, S.C. Mulholland (eds.) Phytolith Systematics,
Emerging Issues, Advances in Archaeological and
Museum Science. Plenum Press, New York, 65–89.
NADEL D. 2003. The Ohalo II brush huts and the
dwellig structures of the Natufian and PPNA sites in
the Jordan valley. Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia 1 (13), 34–48.
PEARSALL D.M., PIPERNO D.R., DINAN E.H.,
UMLAUF M., ZHAO Z., BENEFER JR. R.A.
1995. Distinguishing rice (Oryza sativa Poaceae)
from wild Oryza species through phytolith analysis:
results of preliminary research. Economic Botany
49, 183–196.
PIPERNO D.R., 2006. Phytoliths: A comprehensive
guide for archaeologists and paleoecologists.
AltaMira Press, Lanham.
PORTILLO M., BALL T.B., MANWARING J. 2006.
Morphometric analysis of inflorescence phytoliths
produced by Avena sativa L. and Avena strigosa
Schreb. Economic Botany 60, 121–129.
PORTILLO M., ALBERT R.M., HENRY, D.O. 2009.
Domestic activities and spatial distribution in Ain
Abu Nukhayla (Wadi Rum, Southern Jordan): The
use of phytoliths and spherulites studies. Quaternary International 193, 174–183.
RABINOVICH R. 1998. Taphonomical aspects of the
recent excavations at el-Wad. In: M.
Weinstein-Evron (ed.) Early Natufian el-Wad Revisited. Études et Recherches Archéologiques de
l’Université de Liège (ERAUL) 77 – Appendix III,
Liège, 199–224.
ROSEN A.M. 1992. Preliminary identification of silica
skeletons from Near Eastern archaeological sites: an
anatomical approach. In: Jr. G. Rapp, S.C.
112
M. Portillo et al.
Mulholland (eds.) Phytolith Systematics, Emerging
Issues, Advances in Archaeological and Museum
Science. Plenum Press, New York, 129–147.
ROSEN A.M. 1993. Phytolith evidence for early cereal
exploitation in the Levant. In: D.M. Pearsall, D.R.
Piperno (eds.) Current research in phytolith analysis: applications in archaeology and paleoecology.
Masca Research Papers in Science and Archaeology, vol. 10. The University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. University of Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia, 160–171.
ROSEN A.M., 1999. Phytolith analysis in Near Eastern
archaeology. In: S. Pike, S. Gitin (eds.) The practical impact of science on Near Eastern and Aegean
archaeology. Archetype Press, London, 86–92.
ROSEN A.M. 2004. Phytolith evidence for plant use at
Mallaha/Eynan. Les fouilles a Mallaha en 200 et
2001 : 3ème rapport préliminaire. Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 34, 189–201.
ROSEN A.M. 2007. Phytolith Remains from Final
Natufian Contexts at Mallaha/Eynan. Journal of the
Israel Prehistoric Society 37, 340–355.
TWISS P.C., SUESS E., SMITH R.M. 1969. Morphological classification of grass phytoliths. Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 33, 109–115.
VALLA F.R., BAR-YOSEF O., SMITH P.,
TCHERNOV E., DESSE J. 1986. Un nouveau
sondage sur la terrasse d’El Ouad, Israel. Paléorient
12, 21–38.
WEINSTEIN-EVRON M. 1994. Biases in archaeological pollen assemblages: case studies from Israel.
AASP Contributions series 29, 193–205.
WEINSTEIN-EVRON M. 1998. Early Natufian
el-Wad revisited. ERAUL 77, University of Liège
Press, Liège.
WEINSTEIN-EVRON M. 2009. Archaeology in the
Archives: Unveiling the Natufian Culture of Mount
Carmel. Brill Academic Publishers, Boston.
WEINSTEIN-EVRON
M.,
KAUFMAN
D.,
BACHRACH N., BAR-OZ G., MAYER B.Y.,
CHAIM
S.,
DRUCK
D.,
GROMAN-YAROSLAVSKI I., HERSHKOVITZ
I., LIBER N., ROSENBERG D., TSATSKIN A,
WEISSBROD L. 2007. After 70 Years: New Excavations at the el-Wad Terrace, Mount Carmel, Israel. Journal of The Israel Prehistoric Society 37,
37–134.
WEISS E., WETTERSTROM W., NADEL D.,
BAR-YOSEF O. 2004. The broad spectrum revisited: evidence from plant remains. Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 101,
9551–9555.
WEISSBROD L., DAYAN T., KAUFMAN D.,
WEINSTEIN-EVRON M. 2005. Micromammal
taphonomy of el-Wad Terrace, Mount Carmel, Israel: Distinguishing cultural from natural
depositional agents in the Late Natufian. Journal of
Archaeological Science 32, 1–17.
YESHURUN R., BAR-OZ G., WEINSTEIN-EVRON
M. n.d. Domestic Refuse Maintenance in the
Natufian: Some Evidence from Contextual
Taphonomic Analysis of Faunal Remains at el-Wad
Terrace. In: O. Bar-Yosef, F.R. Valla (eds.) The
Natufian Culture in the Levant II. International
Monographs in Prehistory, Ann Arbor.
ZHAO Z., PEARSALL D.M., BENEFER A.B.,
PIPERNO D.R. 1998. Distinguishing rice (Oryza
sativa Poaceae) from wild Oryza species through
phytolith analysis, II: Finalized method. Economic
Botany 52, 134–135.
ZOHARY D., HOPF M. 2001. Domestication of Plants
in the Old World. Oxford University Press, Oxford.