tin Amer ica: Revolution
and Reaction into the 2lst Cen
Latin America After World War ll
THINKING HISTORICALLY: Human Rights in
RadicalOptions in the 1950s
Societies in Search of Change
VISUALIZING THE PASÍ: Murals and Postersi Ari añO hevolution
GLOBAT CONNECTIONS: Strugg
in a Global Economy
The Search
for Reform and the,Military
DOCUMENT: The
People.Speak
Option ,. ' i
,
I
ng Toward
,
the late sumrner of,,19,7ïeVeryone in Chile,.knew.fhat a cQUp
against
the government was being hatched¡ but. .tttp one was
I
I quite sure whether it would come from the right-wing military
oi from the radical left. Pêople'turnêd on the,rãdio each morning
to learn whether the coup had taken place during the niqhÏ. The
country was almost,at a ÉtandstilI;:the,currencr¡ had'no international value, public transportation.,dld, notifuhctionpand .soldiers
armç$ with m,achlne gL¡n¡,gr.tg[Oçd ba.r¡ks, and gas,slatiohs. The
atmosphere was tense; a political storm was coming. Since 1964
the military forces in various Latin American countries (Brazil,
1964; Argentina, 1966; Peru, 1968) had decided to take over their
governments. Latin America, like much of the world, seemed divided between the backers of radical revolutionary change and
those who wished to keep the status quo or to,move very slowly
toward any change.
The president of Chile at the time was Salvador Allende, a socialist'politician who had been elected by a plurality in 1,970 and
who had begun'to push through a series of reforms, including
land redistribution and alloWi'ng workers to take contrÒl of their
factories. He was pledged to peaceful thange and respect for the
Chilean constitution, but his political supporters in the "Populâr
Unity" movement w.ere awash with enthuslasm. For them it
seemed like a new era and their motto "A Peoplè únited will never
be defeated" bççame a ratlyinq cry for the Left all over Latin
Americà. Such a program would have generated enthusiasms and
fears.at any time, but this was the era of the cold war and the natio¡s of Latin America were pulled into the strugg[e between the
capitalist West aligned with the United States and the'communist
countries aligned with the Soviet, Union. The United States did its
best to destabilize and undercut the Allende regime. Allende's programs and the encouragement he received from Fidel Castro pro-
l,n
voked conservative and middle-class elements
782
li
in
Chile.
His
on remaining with in the limiti ol'
bothered impatient radicals w h.o wanted a g
insistence
cialist revolution (Figure 32.1).
0n the morning of September 11, 1973, it
backed by conservative and anticommunist
nd
the, pr.eside,ntia,l' pa'lace; Allende
tion
:a
His
wiff went into
Seize d
exile. The military cr:ushedìã
imposed a rçgime of authoritarian con'trol:undei
Pinochet. What followed next was alrnost two
sion. About 3000 people were killed or "disap
litical reaso
80,000 people were arreste
200,000 Chileans went into
of "dirty war" that could be seen elsewhere in
nation!s'þSychê' werêr sti ll'fiesh
ln 1998 General Augusto Pinochet, the'êlb
rand'
mandêi'ih, ðhief éf thÊ''Chilean'aim\i
country from 1974 to 1990, was arrested in
ri:mes against humanity during his years in
p,owen
brutäl oppression. The arrest became an
and even thougii Pinochet was eventually re
sons of health" was not forced tb stand tria
lieved that at least a message had been sent to
crimes of oppression would not be tolerated
many Chileans-and Latin Americans in general
over what to do about the political struggles of the
ç,8L
'ssclo-rd prrlrTod êLll ur elor
r:
luld o¡ rreSocl oslu
¡^cnr?rr¡pâ.
cluls Srrrpu?clxâ puu ',{.r1snpur 'âl.rorulrrol o} paìurl sspp elppltu utcl.ru Butr,to.r8 y 'sarrlcì ,tu,,u,}]
r¡l,l.or8 urqlr a,rrsoldxa '(q pur uotlrrStttrc e Luor^ /q pottttclutolu splv\ LloìJrlzrlulllr^nplll 'or.,c¡ lur¡¡
-ocI r: se ã8.rÐrua o¡ uu8aq suor¡uzntuSro,sJâ{ro.44.'r1ì8ttar-}s pa.raqte8 JttctuJ^oLtt slrll sV'sàJrlrl ¡utos
nr ,uc¡3 os¡r .roJfas Iur.rlsnpul rrp 'riollfnpo-rd 1t:autut puu lu.Inllnll-r3t: uo srseqdr.trc f_.tnlur-.-rp6,
slt pênuiluof ullJêruv urlu1 r18noqliy'c8r1s prr¡r1ocT arl:l rro ¡¿adclc o1 rrr:8eq scluo:3,n¡N
'utJ{V puu r?IsV ur st 'Ðln1)uàA..,pur
prru uorle:edJs l?rrlrlocl 1o ssa:o-rcÌ ìl uuqÌ rcr{Ju,r sârlr¡ra-r rrull-reurv rrr]rr'l o} r1r:r.rclo.rrldr: .,urn1 ¡rr¡1
âuO
rr0iOl
rV tI
ãp fq
,
i
j
os
î:î
I
.
'jor
.s0f,(rãrìuuI
u8ra-ro; uo.{:uepnadap Ip.rn}llll uo^â ptrt ¡:llrlod t uI pa:}rrlJÐ,r oslu ara-u uor;a¡
ârll âpts]llo apuur suorr^llcp )rûrorrofe erlJ'suullelLlv Lrlle'I,{r-tuut -to¿ 'rualsL.^ ItIrutuII Pl.ro^\ ârll
trr se8nuqr ol ãlqpJÐuln^ .(13urspal:nr âruplaq rrrl.rcruv urlp'l 'llnscr D 5^V 'suodxã uo ãJu.rluâJ
-lrof oJ pênrrrlrrof sãrrlrorlole uufrrerûV urlu'I puu '{so¡u:ls pJlrufì ¡rll puu ado.rn'g ruoJ; âruùl
üol+o o^rlurlnrr puu sJrrãrulse^ul'slrorJuu.rrãqì üIlIìr,M slrJrlr ruorj suorlro[qo Sttrsealrur ¡o¡o,(uo
-rrora lsr1u1tdu) IlruorluuJe¡trr 8nr.u.o.r8 ctll tllr-4/r sârl râsop olul suolluu.uolll poi sellla uplr.raury
rrrlt-I rrll'p.rrmlro s0¿6I rLIl uror¡ lpr:¡nrr1,ruc{ prtt'ÇÞ6t .rr:UV f,ro8o1ur }rui}slp u ur lr pa:rr¡d
saln1ln-rls 1mr1r1oc1 prru lelros rr.ralsJ J.lorLr LrâJ-lo r-Jr puù arttapuadcpur ltrrlrlocl JrIlJr3ê r-]r(r'rflB
8urclop,r.op.rrr{ìo rsolil qlrru s^urol(lo-rrì
^ fur:ur pê,rtLl)^ ùlr.lcruV ur¡r:'1 r13nor1}lv'url"r;V puLr rrsy
rrlrit[.]V
Ll:].roN ctll _Jr) r^uolJr]tì êtll uâêrvrìcq tiotltsod c.ìl?Ipâur.lalur
sJrr.Ìur1ol
3rrrdo1e.,r.ap
cql
puu
Jo
rrlr plorl oì p¡lrLullro:) rf r-r¡LuV rtt¡r:1 'l.trltt;rr ls tZ rLll olttl pur? qlgZ ¡tll .lo.Jltrrl l)uo:rJ)- ¡rll u.rort
prtt slepour
Áupol ucuaLuy
luJlLr0S
';l-tnlc¡st6t¡
pue
t¿6t'¡¡
rlqLualrla5 uo
àJulL?d
lurlr¡àprsJrd LreJlrq:l Jrll pLrnornsl)qJoLrd olsnf)ny uJÐ:10 prrpLuLuoJ JqìrÐpun srrrp¡o5
¡'¿g
Ltel¡trrtl
;.ttt6t1
-iæ4t
#
F
,\*¡
+
u
Ìt
l.
\2;
ir
t
r
tl
it
ttI l
T ^T r ï
lÌ f Í t
¡¡.
,:
j
¡
ì
,
784
Part
Vi '
Thc Newcst'sttrgc of World I{istory: 1914-Prcsent
1961 U.S.-t¡acked invasiorl
of Cuba is defeated
1964 l\4ilitary coup topples
1982 Argentina and Great
Britain clash over Falkland
econorrty with new
2000 PRI loses presidency
of Mexico; Vice nte Fox
lslands (lslas lValvinas)
cLrnency: the reol
e
Brazilìan governnrent
1983 United States invades
1994 Zapat¡sta uprisìng in
Arbenz reforms in
1970-1973 5alvador
Grenada
Chiapas, Mexico
Guatema la
Allende's socialist
1
1947 Juan Perón elected
president of Argentina
1952-1964 Bolivian
governrïent in Chile;
election in Nicaragua
Al{ende overthrowlr and
1989 United States invades
assassinated by the
Panama, deposes General
revolution
nrilitary in 1973
Noriega
1954 Arbenz overthrown
with help from United
1979 Sandinìsta revolution
kidnappìngs and drug
in Nicaragua
trade contitrr.¡e
1942 Brazil joins Allìes in
World War ll, sends troops
to
Europe
1944-1954 Arevalo
arrd
989 Sandinistas
lose
1
994 Brazil stabilizes
1996 Return to civilian
government in Guatemala
'1998 Colornbian government initiates negotiations
FARC guerrillas but
with
I
ected
2001 Econonlic collapse
of Argentina
2002 "Lula" and Workers,
party win Brazilialr elections
2003 Néstor Kirchner
elected president of
Argentina;one wing of
the Peronist party retur¡5
to power
2005 Lula's govenrnrent
1959 Câstro leads
1998 Colonel Hugo Chávez
elected president in
revolution in Cuba
Venezuela and new
scandal
constitr¡tion approved
2005 Hugo
in 1999
nationalist rhetoric,
Statès
f.aces major corruption
Chávez, using
opposes U.5.-sponsored
free trade polìcies
z.,a=-
i.$jiJr,WortO War li, the cold war helped
stimulate new revolutionary agitation in
Latin America, partly under Marxist
Latin America After World War
trI
Although Latin America had been
independent of foreign rule for more than
a century, the third world decolonization
With variations from coLrntry to countr¡ in Latin America <¡verall the ecouomy and the political
process were subject to a series of broaci shifts. There was a pattern to these shifts, with economic
expansion (accompanied by conser:vative regimcs that, although sometimes willing to make gradual
rcforms, hoped to naintain a politicai status quo) alternating with l.reriocls of economic crisis dur'['hus, thc ptrlitiirig which attcrllpts wcrc m¿rdc to provicle social justicc ttr to Lrleak old patlctl-rs.
movement encouraged restiveness about
cal pcncir"rlunì swung broadly ¿rcross the region ancl often atlcctccl
inspiration and with some Soviet backing.
continued economic dependency.
veraI crtttrttrics al- roughly the
sar.ne time, inclicating the relatiouship between international treucls ¿rnd the internal events in
Lhese natiotts.
l,atin Anericans h¿rve long clebated the nature of theil societics ancl the necrl tbr
change. Although much of tìre rhetoric of Latin America stresscd raciical reform aucl tevoiutionary change in the 20th century, the region has rernained remarkably unchanged,
Revolutionaries have not been lacking since 1945, but the task of defeating the existing pose
litical and social order and creating a new one on which the majority of the population
clifficult, especiaily when this must be done within an international as well as a
national context. 1'hus, the few revolntionary political changes that have had long-tern effects stancl in contrast to the general trends of the region's political history. At the sametime, however, significant improvements in eclpcation, social services, the position ot
womell, ancl thc role of industry have taken place over the past sevcral decaclçs and h¿r'e
begun to transform many areas of Latin American life.
In 1945 several key Latin American countries were still dominatecl by authorítarian re forrners who had responded to the irnpact of the Great Depressiou. Getulio Vargas
will
Figure 32.2 Ihe
populist politics of Juan Perón and
his wife Evita brought new forces, especially urban
workers, into Argentine politics. Their personal charisma
attractcd support l'rom groups fortnerly excluded 1'rom
politics but evcntually led to opposition 1'rom the
Argentine miliLary and Pcrrin's ovcrthrow in 1955.
agre e is
returnecl to power in Brazil in 1950 with a program of populist nationaiism; the st¿lte
took over the petroleum inclustry. Juan Perón (Figure 32.2) ruled in Argentina' again
with a populist ¡rlatform cornbined with severe political repression. A military grottp
clrove Perón frotn power in 1955, but the popularity of Pelonisrn, particularly among
*orkerr, continued for two clecacles. This encouraged severe political measttres by tÌre
rnilitary dictators, including torture and. execution of opponents in wl.rat was called the
"clilty war." The military government involved Argentina in a w¿rr with Britain itt l9B2'
ovcr the Islas M¿rlvinas, or Falklancl Islancls, which Blitain conl-rollccl ancl Algerltin'r
clair.necl. 'l'l-re rulcrs ho¡recl
regin-rc was cliscre clite cl.
to gain nationalist suppolt, but they lost the war ancl
the
Chapter 32
rters
of
.
Latin America: Revolution and Reaction into the 21st
Mexicah president, Vicente Fox,
their victory in electing an
Century 785
candidate for the first time
PRI
.PRlls.
control of politics was undercut þy corruption' and, a, Iack of social
Calling.themsçlves Zapatistasrinrhonor of.Emiliano Zapata, the peasant leaderin the 19.10
rrìoveme,nt ghowed howkey social issues reräained unresòlyed. Tþe Mexican governresponded with a combination of repression and negotiation (Figure 32.4).
2000.a
the P$l pgliticaf monopoly. Vicente
Party of the Institutional-izçdRevglgçio.55. ¡.r,.
party in M*ico; developed duing the 1920s and 1930s; initilþorated laboç peæmt, militùy, and middle-class sectors; cont¡olled
other political organiætíons in Mexico.
doninmt political
Zapatistas Guerrilla movement nmed in honor
of Emiliano Zapata; originated in 1994 in Mexicols
southern state of ChiaPæ; Sovernment responded
with a combination of repression and negotiation.
786
Part
VI '
The Newesf Stage of World Flistory: 19l4-Present
Chiapas, lVexico, seized control of
1, 1994, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFIA) went into effect. On that clay, zapatista rebels in
great,
the people of Chiapas are
jail.
are
Although its natural resources
several towns, announcing their opposìtion to NAFIA, seizing weapons, and freeing prisone rs from
land,
no work, poor health, nÓ'
no
heads,
over
our
decent
roof
no
nothìng,
among the poorest in Mexico. Their declaration reâd, in part: "We have nothing to lose, absolutely
justice
our children
or
ourselves
for
and
no
interests,
from
foreign
independence
no
our
leaders,
food, no education, no right to freely and democratically choose
a
we
call
upon
and
of
dispossessed,
mììlions
we'a
nation,
built
this
the descendants of those who truly
Figure 32.4 0n January
dying of starvatìon !"
Radical Options in the 1950s
/r/i\
t¡AffdWorta War ll,
a surge of radical
unrest in several smaller countries
quickly brought cold war tensions into
play. ln Bolivia, Guatemala, and Cuba,
revolutionaries tried to change the
nature of government and society, but
they had to accommodate the realities
of the cold war and the interests of the
United States.
The'Argentine and Brazilian changes begun by Perón and Vargas were symptomatic of
ing problems of Latih America, but their populist authoritarian solutions were only one
sponse. By the 1940s, pressure for change had built up through much of Latin America'
political spectrum there was a dedire to improve the social and economic conciitionS
to
region and a general agieement that development ând economic stiength weie the keYs
future: How to achieve those goals remained in question. In Mexico; as we
'conservative ànd interested in
and the "revolutiou" became increadingly
growth rather than social justice. ln a few coudtries, such as Venezuêla and CoSta Rica"
rninded democratic parties were able to win elections in an open political system. In
such a solution was less likelY or less attractive to those who wanted reform. Unlike
revolutionaries of 19 10-1920, tl.iLose seeking change in the post-World War II period
a
Posters:
Art and:Rev<ílution
:
,
ãnd took'a'long,time to.complete. The
e 1960S'and the {icaragl¡an revolutionthe poste,r as a way to convey their poli-
for political purposes' has been i¡sed sincelahcient E!1pt"i
of lithography (a. colcir pr'intingprocess) ; :' ìcles.and'goals to a.broad public.
emerged as a majoi for,m'of'communigation, First,dbvel'
in the latê 'l9th century as a,òheap fõrrllof ,advertisiùg uslng "
and' text to dèlL lso ap; wine, or,'chocolurte or to advértise' dairoet'
and' theaters;, by thè'1 880s postqs were' adapted.
ahd,in WorldWaf I
to ,albrôad public. In;,Latin ¡Americâ,
Revolution madè use of public art in great rnurals;
(Dav¡d AIfaro
Siqleì16. Detall from the
Safety of All l\4exicans at
developed political philosophy of Marxian socialism ás a guide. How.ever,,such ¡nodels were
,wi,th dangers becauselof 'the context:of theicöld war and,the,ideol'ogical str,riggle.between
r,{lhroughout LatinAmeiica;.the,fâilures of politicdl dernobratízationiieconoÌriicdeivelopment;
,
:I
n pre
rto,considerationiof,radieâl a,nðîevohitiorlaqd,sotrutionsto national pnotlèlínsl
the ,rev.otruticinsi.at'first,were'ßuciessfidl;but' ultinqateþ weré 'unable'.to'isustain, thè
do mif,r
antþ:rÏndiàri
oliiriay iwhere ; as late,aé ril95.0 90 percerit of ttrer'land rwas,owired
rev,olution' erripted,in :1 95 2 in úvhich 'minerst 'peasdnts' ar.rd 'urban
r
B
A{though, rnines,;wenejnatlcjndized and;bome;'land ¡edistribu'ted;
into pbwer in L964;'ard súbs'ekiuent'lovr
toa ,far itci, the lleft,brought fhti. aÞrny back
owned companies such as United Fruit ComPany.
787
788
Part
VI .
The Newest Stage of World History: 1914-Present
a
Frûitcompany Most ir4portæt foreign
econo¡nic concern i¡ Guatçmala duìng the 20th
centurf attempt€d lánd reform aimed at Únited
Fruit cauòed U.S: intérvèntion irGi¡atemalan poli-.
tics leading to ouster of reform government in
1954.
United
operating in Guatemala, especially lhe United.Fry,rt
Ce+fenl'
thp la¡gest a¡d
eign concern there.
In
1954,
with
Intelligence Agenc¡ a
fell,, and
The Cuban Revolution: Socialism in the Caribbean
The differences between Cuba and Guatemala underline the diversity of Latin
dangers of partial' revolutions. The island nation. had a population of about 6
whorn,were. the descendânts,of Spaniards andthe"\frican slaves who had been
the sugar, tobacco, aqd hides that were the colony's qrainstays' Cuba had a la¡ge
literacy ápd.health,care:leyels were:better,tharl,in ¡nost of'the rest of the region.
behindriq thesei ,matters; 'laowever, andr thbre th'e,wor.king and living conditions
for the,workeis on'the large srigarestatesi,Always,infhe shadow;of'the, [Jnited :Statés,
rùerêi
'and,1950s ¡ ;Althotrgh .the iisland' experie¡qsd, periods of ,prosþerit¡'.
w.orldrma¡kef :f.q¡,Quþ¿?5'mairn product; sugâr5,revealed'the tenuouslbâsisiof the
the.
tl're,dísparity'between the countryside and the gíowing middletolass in'Havana
tionfs continuing problems.
Fulgencio Dictator of Cuba ftom 1934 to
1944; rcturned to presidency in 1952; ousted from
governinent by revolution led by Fidel Castro.
Batista,
Casttor
Chapter 32
'
from,prison, Castro fled to exile iri,Mexico
the aitl of Ernesto "Che'rGuevala:(gay-VAHR-
abuses of ,powsr and use: of vjolençerrefused to
anyJonger), fled into exile, and the rebels took,
scenês ôf jofand relief (Figure 32:5). ."
arnid'wild
sweepinrg change, Foreign,pröperfies iwere ex.
was put in:place: MÒst of 'thesê changes'were.' Batista
Cuba
hostile reaction of the Unitecl States. That reaction included a disastrous U.S.-sponsored
by Cuban exiles in 1961 and a U.S. embargo on trade with Cuba. Increasing Cuban ecoand political dependence on the Soviet Union led to a crisis in 1962, when Soviet nuclear
were discovered and â confrontation between the superpowers ensued. Despite
large extent the Cuban revolution survived because of the global context.
'prowd.çd'Guba"w,ith a.p¡qfectof gl¡d.a:b.enefacIor.¡'the.Sovíef U. nioq.
the revplutioni hay. 9. ibeçn rq,rxed., f,be, s9çia.l, prçgr,aq,t,
çxtensive,, Educa,.
.
,
r*
.þave inrp,roved greatly,.and,rank:CqltEìadngr-iig the,wOrld's,'leadprs..r-qu¡le
is es.pçcially trþq,ip the llgr¡gineglected lulal¡aleitq¡,A
Fidel Castro
Defends the
Revolution
Guevarf [t¡, esto f Oìçl] ; [gay-:VAfl R-uh.] {r$entine ¡wolutionary; aided Fidel Castro in overth¡ow
of Fr:.lgenclo Batistà regime ih iùba; die¿ wtriiè üil
r
oflsscial,a$d.educgfþoal*tJo.€;{anm;have mobilizcd:41,s€eto.rs rOf .:the populatisnfrThe:
have been,accompanied by severe restrictions of basic freedorns.
Brices led t9'd,is,4sþr. Onh by;.qubsidizrpg,Çuþ_alr çugar, and 9¡rp7
pricç cotild, the Soyiet Union rtraintai¡'rrthç: Çuh,gn, êap¡,rSqjry. Afte¡
in the :l 9.9,0ç,fhe,Oub,an situationidetçrioratqdrqs,Ça¡tro adhçred:to
socialist economic policy. Inc,reasingly isolated-along with,,Gþi4a a-nd Nqr,th Korea,
ong,of.{he-,last'thre.q'çornmuniqt governmçnts in.the world.-Çuba no,fo¡g€r,received
E
,falUrcç. But the Cuban mgdel and:.lherisla¡.dls
a4d, Nicar-agu4¡ ,1hat also,exetcised the. revolutioRarnoptiqnr Ur$. ,re4ctioq to ,such
has been containment or intervention.
The Cold War
and Cuba
:preparc salteñaC lsmall .meat rpastries.] because I make
huRdied,salteñas ev,ery day and I sell them on tlie street.
order to make up for what my husbandis wage doesn't
of,our necessities. The tnight
thq salteñas wìile I feed
The People'Speak
in
I
the
The kids that go to School ih
tci'wâit,thereìirntil eleven in order to stbck up,
up for.meat; forVegetables, for oilt So it's.just one.,line afterr
Since eyerything:is ih a different,Place,,thatl.s how it has to'be.
F¡om ryh4t,w,g, çarn'bçtlr€er g-ry hu¡bq¡{ and.
an{ dress. Food iE yery,ercpensive: 28 pesos for 3,kil9 of
.that,my
haVe
month
referréd i<¡ ásthè
ish paying tÌø,'ibirndlell oor,ihoeò arç.1Íorn
store;,and:l also,
struggle
My day begins a! four in the,morning, especially when my compañero is on the first shift. I prepare his breakfast. Then I have to
The Search for Reform and the Military Option
@or.r,.ans
continued to seek
solutions to their prqblems using
Catholic,,Marxist; and capitalist , '..
doctrines. ln the 1960s and 1970s
nationalistic, pro-capitalist military
governments created new "bureaucratlc
'
,
authoritarian" regimes. By the 1980s, a
new wave of democratic regimes was
emerging.
For others, the'chrirch, {ong arpower inlatin,Ainerica, provided â'gtride;: Öhristian
tic parties fotmed'in Chile and Verrezuela in,,thei X950s; höping',tó'bring refoirris
Thêrchüich'dften *¿s divided
based
âh
T
irl'
wondering: Could it be that not all ladinos are Achi
lives closest to us? And I know some Mam tn_
all told me: "The rich a¡e bad." . . . There were
Poor
riclr ladinos, and they were exploited as well. That's
exploitation. I kept on going to the finca
now I
wanted to find out, to prove if that was
details. Thére were poor ladinos on the finca. They
and their children's bellies were swollen like my little
just beginning to speak a little Spanish in those
to talk to them. I said to one poor ladinÒ: "you a¡e a
you?" And he nearþ hit me. He said: ..What do you
that when I say poor ladithen that the same system
us Indians also puts barriers between Indians and
afterwards; I was with the nuns and we went to a yilwhere moStly ladinos live. The nun asked a little boy
and he said: "Yes, we're poor but we're not Indiansj'
said: "Yeg we're poor but we're not Indians." It was
me to acce.p! that an Indian was inferior to a ladino. I
about it, Itl a big barrier they've sown between us,
and'ladino. I didn't understand it.
Liberation
Theology
Challenged
p¡ç of the p1,¡,rffk'iUþtaiegs{¿
fihd
success' of,
the
Crrr.b
an
;
reyolution irhpressed ahd
within'a commuirist political system. The militar¡'
791
792'
PartVI
'
The Newest Stage of World History:
1914-Prêsen!
';
a
the popùlation:
In the 1960s, the Latin American military establishments, made nervous by the Cuban
and the swing to leftist or populist regimes, began to intervene directly in the political
simply to clean out a disliked president or party, as they had done in the past, but to take
ernment itsêIf. In, 1964 theBraøiiian milita.ry (vti,th the Suppór.t of tlle Unitêd Stâtes anitr thê
Allende,
Salvador
President of Chile; national-
ized industies and banls; spomored peasant and
workér *propriations of lmds md forçign-owned
r,rìbst,.pâilt"
õùir66iptllitiø'; odettihtew the soaiiúist gövernr.nent.of Fiésidentl
Sêii.bëd,ththeOhaptet,openin$;,rli i\;;;r,rr;ii':'r'-,rrri;ll'r' :,íii¡'i.1r
";:'l;':
i
:r
f¿eto¡ies; overthrown in 1973.by réúolt ofChilem
military with the support ofthe United Statçs.
tional interest a,bove selfish intere.sts by irriþ'o'sing
dency, dontrolled by tho militar.¡ in which. policiesiwere forrriulated and. applied
organized üke a'military'rohain of commahd.
critiôs, dad stringènt.rneäsrr¡es were irhposed, to.
econornies¡ ùùirlrgentina;cioleirt oppósition,tormilitàr)¡ rule:led to arcounteroffêñsiüe and'the
warl',iiwhioh,thbiiSahds of þéople'lldisappeârèdfir ''':'I "ì" ''r rl" j:' - : ' "ii:r ' , '
:,Govgrdi*trxrûeeonoîlicpcilicfeb'fellùeâïiest bn:thé workiiig class:
Brazil and A¡g€htinâlwàs develop¡ilen{. Tò,sorñe extent,
,,
w€iêiäChievedalthbrlgt*",inec¡ledistributioni
tioirrf rwasrbéd;r¡ced;ì
baÈic ìstf
rihdùst(ialisatibn, incrêásed; iànd' ÍJ¿ih'd¡w,elê nìa'do
u¡itrithl,probleiäs'sùth,
, There were variations within these:¡nilitary. regirnè.C;,but,allt't¡ver.ejnation'aliÈtici
mi-litary tried to create a popular base for its programs and to mobilize support among the
Chapter 32
.
LaTinAmerica: Revolution and Reaction into the 21st Century
'
7y:3
It had a.real social program, including.extensive land reform, and was not simply a surrogate
the conservativès,in Peruvian:society. In,Chile and Urugua¡ the military was fiercely anticomIn Argentina, nationalism and a desire [o gairr popular support,in the face of ,a worsening
led to: a,confiontation with Great Britain over the Falkland Islands,(Islas Malvinas), which
riations claimed. The war stimulated pride in Argentina and its soldiers and sailors, but defeat
a Loss of the military's credibil-ity,
1l
NewDemqcratic Trends
Argentiná,arid elSéwhere in'South Americâ, by the mid-1980s the military
bctVernmeht to ôivilian politicians. Continuing economic problems and the pressures of containing
bppönents ûore heavily on the military leáders, who began to realize that their solutions were no
more destined to success than those of civilian governmènts. Moreover, the populist parties, such âs
the Peroni'st's and ApristaS, seemed less óf a threat, and thê fear of Cuban-style communism had dimihishêd. Also, the end of the cold wâr meant that'the United States was less interested in sponsoring'regirries'thaq'though "safe," were also rêpressive. In Argentina; elections,were held in 1983.
Bþâzilì,began'to'reitôrer¡democrâtic governfnent after 1985 and in 1989 chose its first popularly
'leCtetllpreSittent since the military takeover. The South American military'bureaucrats and rnodernizers were îetufning to their barracks.
{ ì:, ,j The procéss'öfiredêinocratization wâs not ea6)¡ noriwaS it unive¡sal; [n Peru,tsendero',Lumit
tbid(Shining Path); à lohgi¡¡rr31rü dleftist guerrillâ moíement;:conmolled'areaðrof the couftryside and tried to di3rupt national elections in 1990, In Central America, the military cast a long
'
,
Sândini.btarparty ftõrn controL in Niòaragua, In.subseqúênt elections the parfy ô'f the Sandinistas sandiústàiJäítyr
cöúld still mustei nruch'supp'ort, but it did'not win backthe presidencf until 2006. The trerid toì,i^áid a rêtuin tiJ electbral demo'craèy''còuld be seen'in Guatemála aS'well: Bl 1996 civilian gov- ::
éTni¡ènt had.returned to Guatemala'as the country struggled to'Òveiðomeithe histörylof'
repre3iiorr andirêbellion and the animosities they had created: The United States clemonstrated
its continuing power in the region in its invasion of Panama and the arrest of its strongman
leader, Manuel Noriega.
. ' Latin American governments in the last decades of the 20th century:f¿çsd tremertdous problems. Iarge foreign loans taken in the 1970s for the purpose of development had created a tremen.
dous level of debti that threatened the economic stability of cóuntries such'aq'Brazil;.Peru, and
ing'ódmmuiiity tó curb inflation'by:cutting government spending and,reduCing wages often ignored the social and political consequences of'such actions. An international commer.ce in drugs;
which produced tremendous profits, stimulated criminal actíviLy and created powerful internareignty. In Colombia a leftist guerrilla moved itself froni the drug:tràdèl lt'deétabiliàedthe
rieò;âs'diverse as Cuba, Panâ'ina, and Bolivia, the
'
; t'
'
narcotics trade peietrated the highest government circles. I
Btrt despite the problems, the 1990s séemed to dèmonstrate that the democratic trends were
well,estáblished,.'In Central Arnerica thêrê was a ¡etu¡n'to. çivilian'goverprnent. trn Venezugla and
by joining forces with other opponents of U.S. policies. By 2009 he had removed restrictions on his
Nicâräguan socialisr moverhent
*ïi.'*:'r'üYyä"r'äÍ
'
'l
HumanRishtsinthe
2lthcentury
ln Latin America, the question of human rights beèame'a burning
issue in the 1960s and continued thereafter. The use of torturè¡iby
repressive governments, the mobilization of
Jeath squads and other vigilante groups with
Sovernment acquiescence, and the use of terrorism against political opponents by the state
md by groups opposed to the state became all
äå.;i;.ll:î',iîåiiîì¡j::ii#$iï;;[:î;:î
have a consistently; gocid iecorð on htiman,
-.Ai major,problem for the
enfôrcing the Universal
Nations commission did not
pow€rs of eqforcqment, and
loo common in the regior.'u'tàtin Arnerica's
record on the violation of hirmanlrights was no
worse than that of some other areas of the
world. However, the demonstrations by the Ar-
:ury toward a defense of human rights. To some extent, the interna:ional movement to abolish the slave trade was an early human
:ights movement. In modern times, howeveS the concept of human
:ights has been strongly attached to the .fg,und4tion pf the United
Nations. In 1948 that bod¡ with the experience of'World War II i¡rnind, issued a Universal Declaration of H..umanrRights 'and cre¿ted
r commission to oversee the human rightq ,9i.tgatioq,,The ,l,I¡iversal .
Declaration, which guaranteed basic libçrties an4,frççdprqs. rçga{d. ,
e¡s of color, sex, or religion, proclaimed,$at it shoUa be.thqilcqrn-
, enfo¡ce these,ngrrns.
unhealthy and exploitive, ,conditions. They ryqrkgd
nomic necessity in many cases, but in some societies such
considered moral and proper. Such cultural d.ifferences ha)re
posltio¡r. of relalivisrn, which recogrlizes that there are
tural variations in w.hat is considefed moral and just.
original Univçrsal Declal4tion:çqntçqrd that its adypc?cy
IFhe
Asa
.9,
794
to deflect criticism and to excuse the
allies. During the 1960s, this policy continued, but increasing and sys-
violation of'human rights.
definition of human rights is also political. The West emthe civil and political rights of the individual. The socialist
placed social and economic justice above individual rights,
tematic abuses by military regimes in Brazil,, Urugua¡ Chile,
Nicaragua, and elsewhere in Latin America began to elicit some
changes. In 1977 President Carter initiated a new poliry in which
has also been used as a shield
ceùtral concept. As Léopold Senghor of Senegal put it, "Human
human rights considerations would be given high priority in U.S. foreign poliry. The U.S. refusal to support or aid governments thát violated human rights contributed to the weakening of some regimes
and stimulated resistanc
America, but by the 1980s a m
to U.S.
poliry. Criticism of hum
ade selectivel¡ and abuses in "friendly" goygrnments were dismissed. The
extent to which human rights concerns must be balänced against issues such as securit¡ the maintenance of peacê, and nonintervention
continues to preoccupy poìicymakers. The issue beèame particularþ
in
terrorist attack of
Septembe
usBended normal
legal prot
the treatment of
miLitary prisoners ftom the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan and in dealing with potential terrofists:át home. President Obamai administrat
with,,the Jgqality of those rneasures and whether
thorny
foreigñ pólicies, but
t
sponsible. '
Problems of definition still remain, and there is no universal
agreemeRt on the exact qlture of human rights. Controversy on the
weight of politicál and.',ciVil rights and social, cultural, and eco,nornic ri.ghts continues to divide richer and poorer nations. Still,
the.I9nited Nations Declaration of Human Rights, to which 160 nations aiè signatories, provides a basic guide and an outline for thê
future.
ì
: Cúba ând'Puerto'Rico experienced dirëct U.S. involvement and almost a protectorate status.
ìbut i¡ the'Caiibbèañ'and Centtal Amërica, the f¿Íce'of U.S. power, économic'lntårest, ahd disîegard
tfor the sovereignty of weaker neighbors was most apparent. Military interventions to protect U.S.investinentS;b€cârle:so.coÍunon.thàt there'lv'eie,more rthan 30. before 1933
the Domi,riicân,Republic; Meiico; and Cúba all"experienced diredt iin;
Sud.ino,Augusto LJá a guerrilla resistance
movement against U.S. occupation forces in
Nica4e.gua; assassinate{ by Niøaguan National
Guard i¡ 1934; bècame national hero and symbol
of resistmce to U.S. i¡fluence in Central America.
795
796
PartVI . TheNeweststageofWorlclHistory: 1914-Present
'
. .
,,U,S.occupation
Ve¡a Cruz, Mexico l914;
Peßhing's expeditions
i¡to Mexico l916-17,
U S occupaúon
r9'15-t934
sends
Cúal Zo¡e leæeq
1903
Cm¿l Zone returned to
Pdmanian control 1979
Canal comcs unde¡
Pûûmanian control by 2000
C
EAN
Map 32.1 U.S. Military lnterventions, 1B9B-2000 Moved by strategic, economic, and political considerations, the United
repeatedly intervened militarily in the Çaribbea¡ and also,usçd its political inflUence to lu.ppqrt regimes that assured.'istabil
U.S. interests. After 1945 and çspecially afte,r Castr:o's alli,qnce with the Soviet Union, "Cold War" qqn5iderations also.affected
banma republics Tèrm given to governments
supported or created by the United States in Central America; believed to be either corrupt or subservient toÙ.S. inte¡ests.
often dictatotships that would be friendly to the United States:,These became knowrÌ
publics,.a referènce not only to their dependencç,on the expclrt of tropical,protluGtb.
their often subservient and corrupt governments
,Foreign interventions contributed to a growing nationalist reactión. Central
continuing political problems becanie a symbol of Latin America's weakness, in the
influènae,and interference,.especiaþ by the United States. The N
munist poet:Pablo Neruda, in his poem "The United Fruit,Co.,'l (1950)'spoke,oF
Central Americâ as "ciîèus flies; ûise, flies,, l'earned, ih ,tyranny" who¡buzzed
people. He wrote the following eight lines withpassion:
When the trumpet sounded, all wp þ¡epqrqd in the,land,
and Jehovah divided the world between Coca Cola Inc.,
Anaconda, Ford Motors, and othe¡ companres:
Chapter 32
. Latin'America:
Revolution and Reaction into the 2lst
Century
797
United Fruit Co. reserved for itself the juiciest part,
the central coast of my land,
the sweet waist of America
'and baptized agairi its lands
as
Bánana Republics.
'.tl
r
Good Neighbor Poliry Established by Frarklin
D. Roosevelt fo¡ dealing with Latin Anerica in
1933; intended to halt direct inte¡vention in Latin
American politia.
in Latin Amelica. They included participatiqn in,regio{rêl grganizations, thg support of
that at least expressed democratic or anticommunist,principles, the¡çovçrt under-
as
the,Allia¡ce for Progress, begun in
,,,Puring the l!7ps and
120Qq,
1961, aimed
!o develop the region
as an,alternative
Âlliance for Progress Begun in l96l by the
United States to develop Iatin America as an alternative to radical political solutions; enjoyed only
limited success; failure of development progrms
led to renewal ofdirect intervention.
U.S.'policy qfte1r¡wpspr¡gmatic,,acçepli{rg L+tin Ar'nerica ar,it
Most signific4ntl¡ a t{eat}¡ Was signed with P,angma.that cede{,to that na.
control of the Panama Canal. In l979,he also received the S anda¡istq: r,çb els
the. dictator of Niçar¿gua a¡d offqre.d .1þpp,f,gancial aid.. B-ut increasing
,
:
!80s aud the mqre co¡,sery4five presidencies of Rgnald Reagan
led the United States back to policies based on strategic, economic, and defense considera-
ln
ln
rt
States.
,.^
@à'
relations changed slowly in Latin
America. Population growth,
urbanization, and the migration of
Workers continued to challenge the
ethnic and
reg ion.
798
PartVI . The Neweòt Stage of World History: l9l4-Present
a
Slow Change in Women'q Roles
The role of women has changed slowly. After World War I, women in T.atin
live under inequalities in the workplace and in politics. Women were denied the
where in Latin America until Ecuador enfranchised women in 1929 and Brazil and
same in 1932. Throughout most of the region, those examples were not followed
à¡d'tgSOs. In somè'nátions, the traditional assbciations'of women with religion
Churchin Éispanic lifd mâde reformèrs and reiolutionaries fear that women would
servative force in' riatioiial;poliiics. This'âttituile,'combined with traditional male
women dhould 'be concernêd''önly with home and family,led tó a continued'
from póliticàl lifer in resþönse, \lromen, fòrmed various âssociatiohs and clubs and
of political
those'in power: In tlie Döminican Republic and somê othel countries, the
womenwas â
tha't thbrability'to'Vöte did not in:ítself
tor have
de Kiichner in zboz).
process has been noted throughout the region.
Chapter 32
. Latin America: Revolution
and Reaction into the,21st
Under these conditions, women, like other"workers, joined the anarchist, socialist, ând
labor unions and organizations.
Labor organizations are.only ¿ 5¡¡1¿lllpart:of the story of,women in the labqr force. In coun-
also become an important part of the labor forcè. Shifts in attitudes'about Women's roles have
more slowly than political.and economic changes. Even in revolutionary Cuba, whère a Law
rights and responsibilities within the home, enfo'rcement has been
,:
: , .,'li 1. .
' 'r.
the mid-1990s, the position of women in Latin America was closer to that ln western
and North Arnerica than to the other areas of the world., Women madij up 9 percent of
in Latin Arnerica,;iarpercentage,higher than¡in'any other region of the world. In
rof,demogràphic patterns, hèalth,,education, and place in,the workfqrce, llhg,co4parative
to Latin
within the hemisphere. By the
1980s, this movement had reached significant levels, fed by
of workers seeking jobs, the dernands of :capital for cheap lpþqr, an{ the,flight of political
seeking basic freedoms. During World War II, government programs to sirpply laborers
up between the United States and Mexico, but these were.always accompanied by,extralegal
f,ór migrant,laborers often'were;de.
w,hich fluctuated withrthe economy;
'Conìlitions
extensior,r of social' welfare; to thern in.the,1 960s'begari to, addrêss; some of, the
By the ,1970s, rnore,,than ,750;00.0: illegal Mexican migrants, a,yeai:,yle.rp crossing.the bor;
rnore tha¡r onceJ:. as the tJnited States"continued tq attlactrradgrants. .,' ' .:. , ':
.Rranþ wáys withl,the move: This intèrnationalization of'the'labor.maÍket vi'as comparablè
'in
, of workers frorii poorer countries such as Turkey, Moroccó, ,Portugàl,,aqd $pãir.r to ,the
of West¡Getrhany.aniòFrancer:InrLatin Arnerica,it. also,tefleatedìthe fâct,that inr
thê:20th ,century 'depended .ori highly m-echanized indtrstiy 't}íat didrnot ;cfeate
new jobs to meet the needs of the growing population. Much of thermigration.has beenrto
United'States,,but.there has a,lsò beèn movement'àcross Latin .American:ftontiers;,ú{aitians mito, worl( in,the,Dominican Rþpublic,. and Colombians illegally migrate to ;VeneduelairBy the
rìri.llion peoplè per,year.wereinigrating iñ Latin America and the Caribbean., , . , '
Folitics,has'also been'â major impulseformigration, Hai'tians'fleeing'politiCal fepression and
,conditio'ns havè riskÞdgteat'dan$ers:inlsmall oþen:boals to reâch the LlnitediStateb. Thé
revolution.caused one of,the greát political'rnigrationb of.the'century. Befinning in 1959¡
the,Cubañ,rrniddle class:fled socialism, and.dontintring into :ther,1Q80ó',with,the:,fl,ight of
I'rnillion 'Cuþans left'.the.islaf,rd: The:nevolutiönary, upheaval in Nicard$ua,
ir!,Central:¡Amerida, 4nd,,fovérty,in:Halti have'contributed to, tlle iflightiof
,dlmost,
Often,;it*is:di,fficùlt,to, sepa,rate:political.and,econor,nii.faators ¡in the tnovelnênt:oßpeopfe
Internationallrnigration is onþ part,of,the story. During the 20th century; the.re was'a:marked
in Latin America from rural to urban areas (Table 32.1). Whereas in the 19th century
..
Century 7gg
800
'lAtìLE
PartVI . The Newest Stage of World History: 1914-Present
.tatin America was an agrarian region;rby the 1980s
of the population lived in cities:of morethan 20,000,
32.1
Poprrlation of (ìtrpital Citics as a Pelcentage
of Total Poprrlation in l0 Latin Arnerican Nations
Nation
Capital
1880
l2
Argentina
Buenos Aires
Brazil
Rio de |aneiro
3
7
Chile
Santiago
6
22
Colombia
Bogotá
I
8
Cuba
Havana
t3
Mexico
Mexico
Panama
Peru
Cþ
Panama City
Lima
Montevideo
Caracas
t
3x
29
25 ofthese cities had populations of msre than I
these cities had reached,eñorrious size. In,2009r
more than lS million inhabitants, São,Paulò had
and Buenos'Aires had over l3 million:,Latin
most urbanized area of the developing worll and onlyj
that
of
3
7
3
shantytowns, which have become characteristic
ing cities of Latin America. These favçIas, to.use,the
Venezuela
3
havê,created, awful living conditions,i but over time
come:poorer neighb-orhoods'within the, cities;
*No longer the capital city.
and action within thern have
Sources: From J. P, CoIe, Latin America: An Economìc'aind Socìal
ices;'$4ore recently,
( 1965), 417; and http://www.world-gazetteeióoÍi.
cial þroblems in the cities remain a ma]or
Although Latin Americân urbanization increased rapidly after L940,
Uruguay
12
28 3L 40
39
ability of the working class to operate effectively in politics.
Cultural Reflections of Despâir and Hope
Latinr American',p.oets, and
chapter 32
'
Latin America: Revolution and Reaction into the,2lst
The inabilìty to bring about social justice or to influence politics has also sometimes led tatin
artists and intellectuals to follow other paths. In the 1960s a wave of literature took place
novels that mixed'the political, the historical, the eristic, and the fantastic were produced
of authors who used "magical. lealism" because they found the reality of Latin
too absurd to be described by the traditional forms or logic. Writers such as the Argentine
Borges (1899-1980) and the Colombian Gabriel Garcla Marquez (b. 1928) won acclaim
the worldr, Garcia Marquez's One,HundredYears of Solitude (1967) used the
in a mythical town öallqd Macondo as an'allegory of,Latin America and traced the evi-ls that
the family and the community as they moved'from naive'isblation to a maturity that included
exploitation; war, revolution, and natural disaster but never subdued,,the,spirit of,its
. This literary !'boom" of the 1960s has been followed by a subsequent generation,of novels
emphasized emotions and,personal fulfillrnent and by "testimonial" books that have :sqmeautobiographywith fiction as a way to bring the reality of Latin dmerican,life and polto a personal level.
century 80r
i
,
,Connections
the Futu¡e in a Global Economy
.power politics. However, the struggle for change
some important results. The Mexican and Cuban
brought profound changes in those coun
impact on the rest of the hemisphere, either
or as dangers to be avoided. Other nations, such as Bolivia,
president Chíwez
received worldwide recognition for
part of
in most of Asia and
this growth has made the problems of the
wealth in Latin America even more acute.
also result from economic changes. The northern part of
near the border with the United States has benefited from
trade opp.ortunities while southern Meúco has gotten
Then too, integration into the world econotny often
traditional cultuies. Since the
19 80s,
various jndigenous
political mov.ements have sought to protect traditional
fundamentalist Protestantismu signaled an attempt to provide al-
ternatives to global culturê, particularþ among urban slumdwellers. About 10 percent of Latin Ameiicans are now members
of Protestant denominations. At the same time, Latin American
filmmakers, artists, and popular musicians have contributed directly to global culture, often incorporating traditional elements