University of Montana
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Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers
Graduate School
1969
The relationship of physical fitness to academic
achievement of University of Montana freshmen
Vidvuds Celtnieks
The University of Montana
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THE R E L A T I O N S H I P OF P H Y SI CA L FITNESS TO A C A D E M I C
A C H I E V E M E N T OF UN I V E R S I T Y OF M O N T A N A F R E S H M E N
By
Vidvuds Ce ltnieks
BoAe,
A m e r i c a n U n i v e r s i t y , 1965
Presented in partial i u l f i ll me n t of the
r eq u i r e m e n t s for the degr e e of
M a s t e r of Science
U N I V E R S I T Y OF M O N T A N A
1969
Approved by :
^^^^airman, Board of Ex am i ne rs
, G ra du a t e Scho(pl
Date
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TABLE OF C O N T E N T S
CHAPTER
lo
PAGE
I N T R O D U C T I O N .................
TL.G
O TD1 6ITl
S
D e f i n i t i o n of Terms
Ile
1
.
. , . » ,. .
« , , . . .
R E V I E W OF R E L A T E D L I T E R A T U R E .....................
Phy si q ue S t u d i es
. . .
. ,
Junior H ig h S ch o o l Studies
« . »
H i g h Scho ol Studies
,
7
» = , » » .
7
,. .
. = . . . «
9
. .
. . » . . .
12
. . . . , »
14
. . . » .» .
E l e m e n t a r y Scho ol Studies
. . . . . .. .
College S t u d i e s ................... ..
Studies of Athletes
S u m m a r y of R e v i e w
III.
. « . « .. »
» . . , »
15
. . , . . »
19
. . . . , . 21
P R O C E DU RE S F O R M E A S U R I N G P H Y SI CA L FITNESS AND
ACADEMIC A C H I E V E M E N T
^3xxhJ e C S
IV.
,
. . . . . .. .
. .
5
0
0
.
0
0
0
. . . . . . . . .
.
0
0
0
0
0
0
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0
0
0
0
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23
23
0
R o ge r s * Phys ic al Fitness In dex Test
. . . . . . 23
Academic A c h i ev em en t
. . . o . .. .
. . o . . . 29
Tre at me nt of Data
. . . o . .o .
. . . . . . 30
.
A N A L Y S I S OF D A T A
R e l a t i o n s h i p of Total PFl to G PA
.
. .
. 31
. . . . . . 31
R e l a t i o n s h i p of I n d i vi du al PFl Items to
GPA
. .
32
R e l a t i o n s h i p of Number of Hours Attempted to
G P A and P F l ...........
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33
LIS T OF TABLES
TABLE
I.
P AG E
R A NG E AND M E A N OF PFl I T E M S ........................32
II.CO R RE LA TI ON OF
III.
PFl ITEMS TO G P A ....................33
CO M P A R I S O N S B E T W E E N PFl M E A N S OF G R O UP S W IT H
AND W I T H O U T M A J O R S
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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35
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The a u t ho r w i s h e s to express his sincere
a p p r e c i a t i o n to Dr.
John L, D a y ri e s for
g u i d an ce and as si s ta nc e duri ng the co m p l e t i o n
of this study.
Additionally, the author w o u l d like
to express his thanks for m e m b er s of the
student b ody and staff w h o m ad e this study
possible *
VoC.
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
F o r centuries scientists have studied the r e l a t i o n ­
ship b e t w e e n physical and m e n t a l f a c t o r s .
Socrates once
said :
Why, even in the process of t hi nk i n g in w h i c h
the use of the body seems to be redu ce d to a minimum,
it is a m a t t e r of common k n o w l e dg e that grave m i s t a k e s
can ofte n be trac ed to. bad health.
Plato tal ke d about h e a l t h y bodies for h e a l th y
minds
(12).
A r istotle held that b o d y and soul are clos el y
i n t e r re l at ed and that m e n t a l f ac ulties are affected by
b o di ly m o v e m e n t and con d it io n of body health.
B o h e m i a n e d u c a t io na l reformer,
noted :
Comenius, a
" I n t e l le ct ua l
p rogress is conditioned at every step by bodi ly vigor.
a t t a i n the best results,
To
physical exercise m u s t a c c o m p a n y
and c o n d i t i o n m e n t a l training"
(12).
R o u s s e a u in Emile
r e m a rk ed :
To learn to t h i n k we must th e r e f o r e exercise our
limbs, our senses, and our b o d i l y organs, w h i c h are
the tools of the intellect; and to get the best use
out of these tools, the b od y w h i c h supplies us w i t h
t h e m must be str o ng and healthy.
Not only is it quite
a m i s t a k e that true r e a s o n is d e v e lo pe d apart f r o m the
body, but it is a good b o d i l y c o n s t i t u t i o n w h i c h m a k e s
the w o r k i n g s of the mind easy and correct (7).
Locke
(10) w r o t e that :
A sound m in d in a sound b ody is a short but full
d e s c r i p t i o n of a h a ppy state in this world.
He th a t
has these two has little else to w i s h f o r . He w h o
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w a n t s either of t h e m w i l l be little b e tt er for a n y ­
t h in g else»
M or e recently,
S h e r ri ng to n
(10), the Brit is h p h y s i o ­
logist,
stated that "the mu sc l e is the cradle of r e c o g n i z a b l e
mind,"
That the m i n d and body are i nt e r d e p e n d e n t w a s s u c ­
c i n c t l y expressed b y M e n n i n g e r
(5) in the f o l l o wi ng passage :
M i n d dep en d s u p o n the sen so r y nerve endings in the
skin and the m o t o r ne rve endings in the m u s c l e s ; it
d e pe nd s u p o n the m u s c le s t h e m s el ve s and to some extent
u p o n all phy si ca l st ru ctures of the body.
Not everyone agrees w i t h this concept,
(18) said that:
Cattell
"The a s s o c i a t i o n of a heal th y mind w i t h a
h e a l t h y b o d y is still not a pro ve n fact.
R e s e a r c h must s h ow
w h e t h e r organic and p s y c h ol og ic a l c on dition are a s s o c i at ed ,"
A l t h o u g h this r e s e a r c h is i n d i v i du al l y inconclusive,
Cat­
t ell bel ie ve d that p hysical and m e n t a l traits w er e c o m p l e t e l y
i n d e p e n d e n t of e ac h other,
Aldous Huxley,
cr it ic iz in g the science of p s y c h o l ­
ogy, w r o t e these w o r ds :
W h a t is, I suppose, the m o s t serious, as it is
c e r t a i n l y the m os t c on sp i cu ou s s ho r tc om in g of all
. , , the abs en ce of a n y m e n t i o n of the body as a
condit i on in g facto r in the f o r m a t i o n of the mind,
or as a d et e r m i n a n t of thoughts, feeling, and b e h a v ­
ior (2),
T h ou gh this c r i t i c i s m was f a ir ly a ccurate at the
time of its writing,
it is no longer valid.
In the past
d ec ad e a g r o w i n g interest in the r e l a t i o n s h i p bet we en the
m in d and bo d y has b e e n evident.
as Johnson,
M o d e r n psychologists
K e p h a r t , and O l s o n bel i ev e that the first
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such
3
l e a r n i n g experi en ce s of a child o c cu r t h r o u g h the senses of
taste,
smell, touch,
sight,
and hearing.
L ater the child
beg in s ex p l o r i n g the w o r l d by id e nt if yi ng and r e l a t i n g the
b o d y and its parts to objects in space.
m a k i n g these explorations,
The child,
in
lear ns to communi ca t e in a r u d i ­
m e n t a r y f a s h i o n and lear ns to st i m u l a t e h i m s e l f physically.
Both J a c ob s
(34) and J o h n s o n
(37) agre e that a dynamic
" b o d y image" or basic s e lf -c on ce pt e volves in this w a y and
w i t h it a f o u n d a t i o n is laid for f u r th er l earning t h r o u g h
movement.
M o v e m e n t t h r o u g h the phys ic al becomes the
e arliest m e d i u m for s o c ia l interaction,
for d e v e lo pi ng a
d e f i n i t e p e r s o n a l i t y s t r u c t u r e , and for abstract r e a s o n i n g
w h i c h m a y be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d ir ec t e d cr ea t iv e play.
On the basis of the pr ec ed in g statements and the
fact that it has b e e n c o m m o n l y o b s er ve d that people w ho are
p h y s i c a l l y fit can and do d e m o n s t r a t e a g r e a t e r
p ersistence
in a v a r i e t y of m e n t a l and p h y s i c a l tasks, the f o l l o w i n g
study was undertaken.
I,
THE P R O B L E M
S t a t em en t of the P r o b l e m
The p r o b l e m of this i n v e s t i g a t i o n w a s to d e t e r m i n e
the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p h y s i c a l fitness and academic
a c h i e v e m e n t of the U n i v e r s i t y of M o n t a n a freshmen.
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4
S i g n i f i c a n c e of the S t u d y
If a r e l a t i o n s h i p between physical f i t ne ss and a c a ­
demic a ch i e v e m e n t
exists, t h e n perhaps ph ys ic a l fitness
could be used to p r e d i c t a student ^s success in college.
It is possible t h a t this s t u dy m i g h t add insight into the
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p h y s ic al f i t n es s and academic a c h i e v e ­
ment.
More va lue m i g ht be a s s i g n e d to physical e d u c a t i o n
in the total e d u c a t i o n of the student.
s t u d e n t ’s success
A dd itionally, a
in college m i g h t be en hanced if the p h y s i ­
cal v a r i a b l e s that co n t r i b u t e to academic
success are i d e n t i ­
f ied and developed.
L i m i t a t i o n s of the S t u d v
1.
This study was limited to 10S v ol unteer f r e s h ­
m a n m a l e s enrolled in ph ys i c a l ed u c a t i o n a c t i v i t y classes
during
the 1969 spring
q u a r t e r at the U n i v e r s i t y of Montana.
2.
w a s lim it ed to f r e s hm e n w i t h a m i n i ­
This s t u d y
m u m of t w e n t y a c c u m u l a t e d q u a r t e r hours for the 1 96S fall
and 1969 w i n t e r q u a r t e r s w i t h no re f e r e n c e to their m a j o r
fie ld of study,
3.
fit ne s s
No a t t em p t w a s m a d e to improve the physical
level of the subjects.
4.
No a t t e m p t w a s m ad e to d e t e r m i n e h ow the sub­
jects a r r iv ed at t h e i r ph ysical fitness level.
5.
This s tudy
w a s lim it ed to the c um ul a ti ve grade
point a v e r a g e in d e t e r m i n i n g academic
achievement.
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5
6,
F i t n es s
This s t ud y w a s
limited to the Rogers* P hy si c a l
I n d e x to m e a s u r e ph ysical fitnesso
7.
This s t u d y w a s lim it ed to one test a d m i n i s t r a ­
tio n of t he Rogers*
P h y s i c a l F i t n e s s Index»
IIo
D E F I N I T I O N OF TERMS
For p u r po se s o f c l a r i f i c a t i o n and u n d e r st an di ng ,
the f o l l o w i n g terms and d e f i n i t i o n s w e r e u s e d in the study.
Grade point a v e r ag e :
demic
refers to the cum ul at iv e a c a ­
i n d ex as d e t e r m i n e d by the U n i v e r s i t y of M o n t a n a
r e g i s t r a r *s offi ce »
The i n d e x of a student is the ratio
of q u a l i t y points to his total n u m b e r of hours »
b ased u p o n a four-point- system:
D.
4-«0 = A ; 3 »
G r a d i n g is
; 2 »0=0 ; 1.0=
In t his study, g r a d e point a v e r ag e wi l l be r e f e r r e d to
as GPA.
Phvsical fitness :
ref er s to the fu n c t i o n a l c a p a c i t y
of an i n d i vi du al for a s p e c if i ed t as k or job in w h i c h f i t ­
ness is judged.
One who is fit can p e r f or m a t a sk r e p e a t e d l y
w i t h o u t u n d u e f a t i gu e,
and p o s s e s s e s e n o u g h rese rv e ca pa ci ty
to be a bl e to m e e t and s u s t a i n a n y u n e x p e c t e d stresses w h i c h
m ight arise.
R o g e r s * P h y s i c a l F i t ne ss
of s t r e n g t h r e l a t i v e to t h e
ageups,
In dex :
refers to a m e a s u r e
i n d i v i d u a l * s sex, weight,
It is d e r i v e d f r o m the f o l l o w i n g m a x i m a l tests :
p us h-ups, ri ght and left hand grips,
and
pull-
b ac k and leg lifts.
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6
and lung capacity»
In this s t u d y Rog er s * P h y s ic al Fit ne ss
I n d e x w i l l be r e f e r r e d to as P F l »
Endomorphy:
refers to a physique w i t h an o v e r ­
a b u n d a n c e of fa tty ti s s u e and w ei g h t
in r e l at io n to height»
The f o l l o w i n g d e s c r i p t i o n c ha ra ct e ri ze s the endomorphic
physique:
a large r o u n d head w i t h a t h i c k short neck,
t h i c k chest w i t h f a t t y breasts,
full a b o v e the navel,
broad
short arms, a large a b d o m e n
h e a vy fat buttocks, g e n e r a l l y short
h e a v y legs, n a r r o w shoulders, and broad hips w i t h f l e s h y
a re a a b o v e the iliac crest.
Mesomorphv:
r e f e rs to a physique w i t h a heavy,
hard,
r e c t a n g u l a r out li ne w i t h large pr ominent bones, long strong
neck, f a i r l y low thor ac ic t r u n k , broad shoulders, m u s c u l a r
u p p e r arms,
strong f or earms,
heav il y m u s c le d abdomen,
slender
l ow w a i s t , narr ow h i p s , h e av y b u t t o c k s , and strong p owerful
legs.
Ectomorphv:
f r a g i l i t y prevail.
r e f e r s to a p hysique w h e r e l i n e a r i t y and
This physique is c h a ra ct er iz ed by a s l e n ­
der, frai l b o d y s t r u c t u r e w i t h small bones and thin segments,
large head w i t h b u l b o u s forehead,
nose,
p o i n te d chin,
s mall fac i al bones,
long sle nd er neck,
tendency toward winged
sharp
long narr ow chest, a
scapula and round s h o u l d e r s , long
a r m s , and a v er y f la t a b d o m e n h o l l o w ab ove the navel.
b u t t o c k s are i nc on spicuous,
The
the legs are long and t h i n w i t h
p i p e s t e m bones, and g e n e r a l m u s c u l a t u r e is not m a r k e d
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(1 3 )-
C H A P T E R II
R E V I E W OF R E L A T E D L I T E R A T U R E
The f o l l o w i n g r e v i e w of l i t e r a t u r e has be e n o r g a n ­
ized into
six categories.
The first c a t e g o r y dis cu ss es
those studies that have r e l a t e d b o d y type to intelli ge nc e
a n d / o r a c a de mi c achievement.
The f o l l o wi ng four categories
dis cu s s those studies that have rela te d similar v a r i a bl e s
but have us e d subjects that v a r y p r i m a r i l y in c h r o n o lo gi ca l
age and p h y s i c a l m at urity.
high, h i g h school,
Therefore,
elementary,
junior
and college c at egories w e r e used.
Fin­
ally, t hose studies that have compared the academic a c h i e v e ­
ment of a t h l e t e s to n o n - a t h l e t e s are di s c u s s e d u nder a
s ep ar a t e
category,
I.
P H Y S I Q U E STUDIES
M a n y of the e a r l ie r studies c o m p ar ed body type to
intelligence.
For example,
in 1921, N a c c ar at i
(47) m e a s u r e d
s e v e n t y - f i v e u n i v e r s i t y students and d i f f e r e n t i a t e d body
types a c c o rd in g to a r a tio of limb l e n g t h to trunk size.
Based u p o n this p ro cedure, the f o l l o w i n g cl as s i f i c a t i o n s
were devised :
(1) m a c r o s p l a n c h n i c s , d e s c r i b e d as having
r e l a t i v e l y large tr un k s compared to limb length;
s p l a nc hn ic s,
those
(2) m i c r o -
i n d i v i du al s w i t h r e l a t i v e l y small t ru n k s
in c o m p a r i s o n to limb length;
and
(3) n o r m o s p l a n c h n i c s ,
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ê
those individuals with medium trunks relative to limb
length*
On the basis of comparing intelligence to an index
of body type, Naccarati found a correlation of *36 between
microsplanchnics and intelligence as measured by the Thorn­
dike Entrance Examination,
In 1924 Sheldon ($6) replicated Naccarati*s investi­
gation utilizing 450 students entering the University of
Chicago.
He found a correlation of ,136 between micro­
splanchnics and an intelligence rating and a correlation of
,114 between microsplanchnics and grades.
Later, Sheldon
developed a system of somatyping human physiques based on a
patterning of the morphological components of an individual.
He used the terms endomorph, mesomorph, and ectomorph as
general classifications of the various body types.
In a recent longitudinal study, Moutis
(4 6 ) analyzed
the relationship of academic achievement to selected maturational, structural, strength, and motor characteristics of
boys ten through twelve years of age.
He found that boys
who were superior in standing and sitting, height and
maturity, as measured by skeletal age, received signifi­
cantly higher grades.
In addition, he reported that boys
with higher grades demonstrated ectomorphic features to a
greater degree than boys with lower grades.
In a similar study Jarmon (35) compared the academic
achievement of nine, twelve, and fifteen-year-old boys to
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9
s e l e c t e d maturity,
physique,
strength,
and m o t o r measures.
He found t hat boys w i t h e c t o mo rp h ic f e a t u r e s had higher
g ra d e s th a n did m e s o m o r p h i c and e nd om or ph i c boys,
II,
Num er ou s
E L E M E N T A R Y S C H O O L STUD IE S
stu di es have been done w i t h e l e m e n t a r y
school c h i l d r e n c o m p a r i n g a v a r i e t y of m o t o r skills to school
success,
Kephart
(3) feels that some kind of m o t or a c t i v i t y
u n d e r l i e s all beh av i or ,
including h i g h e r thought processes.
He also states that m o t o r skills are v a l u a b l e in d e v e l o p i n g
all a r o un d
school p re p a r e d n e s s and that in order to f u l l y
jprepare c h i l d r e n for the types of a c t i v i t i e s that t h ey w i l l
encounter
in the school p r o g r a m , cert ai n d e v e l o p m e n t a l
e x p e r i e n c e s are nec es s ar y.
Therefore,
ch il d re n need to
d e v e l o p rhythm, a sense of l a t e r a l i t y and d ir ec tionality,
b i l a t e r a l a r m and leg m o v e me nt s,
and o t he r
girls, F o x
s tudying s e v e n t y - f i v e second grade boys and
(2 7 ) c o n c l u d e d that there was a p ositive r e l a ­
(49) b e t w e e n r e a d i n g skills and dynamic, s t a t i c , and
r o t a t i o n a l balance.
bases,
f or m perception,
s e n s o r y - m o t o r activities.
After
tionship
balance,
P l a ck
A d d i n g more
st re ng th to K e p h a r t m o t o r
(49) f o u n d h i g h l y s i gn if ic an t correla ti on s
b e t w e e n r e a d i n g a c h i e v e m e n t and the thr ow and catch t est a nd
zig -z a g r u n test in e l e m e n t a r y school c h i l d r e n ,
M c C o r m i c k et al
Similarly,
(44) m a t c h e d f o r t y - t w o first grade r e a d i n g
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10
u n d e r a c h i e v e r s on the basis of age,
sex, i nt el l ig en ce ,
and
r e a d i n g level, a c c o r d i n g to the Lee C l a r k r e a d in g level
test o
T h e y w e r e r a n d o m l y assigned to a pe rc e pt ua l m o t o r
t r a i n i n g group,
a r e g u l a r p h y s i c a l e d u c at i on group, a n d a
c o n t ro l group.
A f t e r seven w e e ks the pe r c e p t u a l m o t o r
training group made
signifi ca n t grade level g a i n s
in r e a d ­
ing w h e n compared to the o t he r two groups.
Ismail et al
(33) found pos it iv e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e ­
t w e e n m o t o r aptitude test items, most n o t a b l y c o o r d i n a t i o n
and balance, and w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d m e a s u r e s of intelligence
and sc h ol as ti c ab ility.
M o ut is
(46), in agreement,
fo und
that t h o s e sco ri ng hi g h in the sixty-yard shuttle r u n and
s t a n d i n g broad
jump w e r e r a t e d high scholastically.
U t i l i z i n g n i n e - y e a r - o l d boys as subjects.
Day
(23)
f o un d a low but positive c o r r e l a t i o n of .143 b e t w ee n the
s t a n d i n g broad jump and intelligence.
Conversely,
Page
(4Ô)
found a s ig n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n academic a c h i e v e ­
m e n t and the standing broad
jump in fa vor of the low a c a ­
demic group.
R a r i c k and M c K e e
(50) c a t e g o r i z e d tw en t y t h i r d grade
c h i l d r e n into h igh and low m o to r a b i l i t y groups on the basis
of v a r i o u s m o t o r e f f i c i e n c y tests.
h i g h m o t o r a b i l i t y groups,
above
T he y f o und that in the
seven out of ten had IQ scores
110, w h e r e a s o nl y two out of ten had IQ scores g r e a t e r
t h a n 1 10 in the low m o t o r a b i l i t y group.
T hey also found
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11
t h at c h i l d r e n in t h e h i g h g r o u p w e r e more popular, active,
r e s o u r c e f u l , a t t e nt iv e,
cooperative,
and had a w i d e r range
of interests*
Trussell
(6 4 ) t e s t e d the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n r e a d ­
ing r e a d i n e s s and the F r o s t i g tests of m o t o r a b i l i t y of
s e v e n t y - f i v e e l e m e n t a r y sc ho o l c h i l d r e n .
She found that
c h r o n o l o g i c a l a g e w a s a m o r e significant d e t e r mi na n t of
r e a d i n g r e a d i n e s s t h a n w e r e the F r o s t i g tests *
a negative correlation
Ex c e p t for
(-.2?) b e t w e e n the hu rd l e jump and
the S t a n fo rd A c h i e v e m e n t Test batteries,
T h o mp so n
(6 3 )
found littl e evidence of a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw ee n m o to r skills
and m e n t a l a c h i e v e m e n t of si xth graders *
P h y s i c a l m a t u r i t y seems to play an imp o rt an t role
in aca de mi c a c h i e v e m e n t ,
level.
In Britain,
e s p e c ia l ly at the e l e m e n t a r y school
Brace
(15) found that only 2 .36 per cent
of abo ve a verage students in s c h o l a r s h i p we r e bel ow average
in physique, w h e r e a s 3 9.7 per cent w i t h poor s c h o l a r s h i p w e r e
b e l o w a v e r a g e physique.
Phys iq ue w as de te rm i ne d by body
m e a s u r e m e n t s of w e i g h t and height.
In the same report,
Bra ce
school c hildren who w ere
(15) c o n c lu de d that St. Louis
b e l o w a v e r a g e s c h o l a s t i c a l l y w e r e lighter, w h e r e a s t h o s e w h o
w e r e above a v e r a g e s c h o l a s t i c a l l y w e r e heavier.
Mout i s
(4 6 )
in a simi la r study of boys t e n to twelve years of a g e , c o n ­
c u rr ed w i t h those results.
In a study of 1 ,000 i n t e l l e c t u a l l y s u p e ri o r children,
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12
Terman
(62) co nc lu d ed that i n t e l l e c t u a l l y s uperior c h i l d r e n
w e re not
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a d e f i c i e n c y of p lay and t hat :
" T h e r e is no sh red of evidence to support the w i d e s p r e a d
o p i n i o n that, t yp ically,
is weak, u n d e r s i z e d ,
III.
the i n t e l l e c t u a l l y precocious child
or n e r v o u s l y u n s t a b l e ."
J U N I OR HI G H S C H O O L STUDIES
A v a r i e t y of r e s e a r c h has b een c on ducted at the
juni or high school level in c o m p a r i n g selected p hy si c a l
variables
to a c a d e m i c achiev em en t.
Miller
(45) f o un d a positive
significant c o r r e l a ­
tio n b e t w e e n power, as m e a s u r e d by the v e r t i c a l jump test,
and scholastic class rank.
Thomas
cal fitness,
(63) studied the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p h y s i ­
IQ, and the GPA of sev en semesters of seventh
and e i g h t h g r a de girls.
c o r r e l a t i o n s of
She found si gn i fi ca nt positive
.49 b e t w e e n p h y si ca l fitness and seven
s e m e st er G P A and
s e v e n t h graders.
.45 b e t w e e n p h y s i c a l fitness and IQ of the
At> the eighth grade level she found a
p o sitive c o r r e l a t i o n of
.37 b e t w e e n seven semester GPA and
p h y s i c a l fitn es s and a po s it i v e c o r r e l a ti on of
.34 betw ee n
IQ and physical fitness.
Buckellew
(1?)
studied fifth,
sixth,
seventh,
and
e i g h t h g r a d e boys u s i n g the A A H PE R Fit ne s s Test and c o m ­
p ared the results to intelligence,
as d e t e r m in ed by the
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13
C a l i f o r n i a M e n t a l M a t u r i t y Test,
and academic achievement,
as m e a s u r e d by the Iowa Test of Basic S k i l l s .
p o s i t i v e c or re la t io ns , u p to
l a n g ua ge and sit-ups,
Sig ni fi ca nt
«294» w e r e found b e t w e e n
sta nd i ng broad j u m p , and the 600-yard
w a l k and run.
Phy si c al f i t ne ss and i n t e l li ge nc e of high and low
a c h i e v e r s have been compared.
Sundholm
(60) tested a h i g h
and l o w i n t e l l i g e n c e g r o u p of junior h i g h school g i r ls w i t h
a g e n e r a l m o t o r c a p a c i t y test and found a si gn i fi ca nt d i f ­
f e r e n c e in m e a n scores
in favor of the high in te ll ig en ce
group.
C l a r k e and Jarmon
(20) ca t eg orized nine, twelve,
and
f i f t e e n - y e a r - o l d boys into h ig h and low PFl g ro u p s and found
that the h i gh PFl g r o u p s had s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r a cademic
m e a s u r e s as d e m o n s t r a t e d by G PA and scores of the Standard
A c h i e v e m e n t Test t h a n did the low PFl groups.
H ig h fitness gro up s do not always have a higher GPA
t h an l ow fitness groups.
boyd,
Jarmon
In a s tudy of 105 f i f t e e n - y e a r - o l d
(35) f o u n d a significant n e g a ti ve r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e t w e e n a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t and stre ng th and e n d u r a n c e .
A c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t was de t e r m i n e d by the Iowa tests of
E d u c a t i o n a l Develo p me nt ,
A b i l i t y Test, and
PFl Test.
Page
GPA, and Otis Q u i c k Scoring M e n t a l
s t r e n g t h and endurance det er mi ne d by the
(4Ô) con cl ud e d that the low PFl g r o u p had a
h i g h e r GPA than did the h i g h PFl g r o u p at age t h i r t e e n and
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14
sixteen.
IV.
HIGH SCHOOL STUDIES
The comparison of physical fitness and academic
achievement has not only varied in measures used but also
in results gained.
A number of studies have compared phy­
sically active to physically inactive students.
By studying the class average of 432 high school
boys in physical fitness and academic achievement, Ray (51)
found that boys not enrolled in physical education during
part of their high school career showed general inferiority
to the class average in the two areas.
Additionally, stu­
dents not enrolled in physical education failed twice as
many academic subjects as those who did enroll.
Physical
education grades were not used in determining overall cumula­
tive gradepoint,
Hines
(32) found that high school students with low
physical fitness indices often failed one or more subjects,
even though their IQs were high.
He elaborated on case
studies of students with low PFl scores who improved their
school grades as they improved their PFl.
Low PFl scores
also have indicated some health defencts, which might other­
wise have gone undetected.
Some students who scored 140 and
above on the PFl were likely to be too nervous, poor sleepers,
undernourished, disciplinary problems, and even poor scholars.
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15
Hines suggested that the students with PFl scores above 140
redirect their energies into more academic and cultural
activities »
He concluded that by improving the PFl a per­
son *s GPA could also be improved,
McCollum (43)» using the AAHPER Fitness Test,
selected twenty-eight fit and twenty-eight unfit boys from
172 high school male students and found that the fit group
had an average GPA of 2,68, whereas the unfit group had an
average of 1.91.
Walker (66) categorized twelfth grade boys into
gifted, average, and special groups according to IQ scores.
He found that the lower the group was in IQ the lower they
were in physical fitness and the higher they were in IQ
the higher they were in physical fitness,
V,
COLLEGE STUDIES
So far, little mention has been made of the women.
Studies of college women (30, 53» 14) have shown a signifi­
cant positive relationship between GPA, physical fitness,
and skill measures.
In comparing the PFl of sixty freshman women to
their cumulative academic index, Hart and Shay (30) found
a positive correlation of ,63 significant at the ,01 level,
Arnett (14) found a significant correlation of ,556
when she compared a physical fitness score derived from the
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16
variables of height, weight, broad jump, arm hang, cur1-up,
and step test to the GPA of Ô27 college women.
Not all studies have shown as positive a relation­
ship,
In a study of women physical education majors at
Brigham Young University from 1957 to 1964» Hawkes (31)
found a negative correlation of -,444 between a motor
ability test and GPA in the 1961-1962 school year.
In a study of male college students. Gutin (29)
administered the Employee Aptitude Survey, which consisted
of verbal comprehension, visual pursuit, verbal reasoning,
and symbolic reasoning, and the Indiana Motor Fitness
Index II, which was a sum total of push-ups, standing broad
jump, and pull-ups.
Afterwards he administered a stress
test which included a one-minute step-up test, twenty-five
long addition and subtraction problems, and concluded with
a one-minute step-up test.
After a twelve-week physical
training program for one group, both groups were adminis­
tered the stress test,
Gutin found no significant differ­
ences between the groups..
However, he did find a positive
correlation of .355 between physical fitness improvement
and degree of mental task improvement in the training
group.
At Ohio University, Coates (21) administered skill
tests in the softball throw, soccer kick, tennis ball
stroke, and jumping events to a student group of juniors,
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17
seniors, and graduates and compared them to a drop-out
group.
The student group of juniors, seniors, and gradu­
ates were significantly superior (.34) to the drop-out
group on all the skill tests.
Doornick (25) reported on
1,33Ô men during their four years
Oregon.
the academic
successof
at the University of
He found a positive correlation of ,29 between
PFl and GPA.
All freshmen had a forty per cent chance of
graduating and a twenty per cent chance of winning a schol­
arship.
Seven per cent of students with the lowest PFl
had a twenty per cent chance of graduating and a one and
one-half per cent chance of winning a scholarship.
The
upper seven per cent in PFl had eight times as many chances
of winning a scholarship.
with
Chances for graduation decreased
the lower levels of physical fitness.
Since this study concerns
male college
freshmen,
the author will now relate a number of studies that have
used college students as subjects.
Weber (6?) investigated the relationship between
PFl and GPA of 264 male freshmen at the University of
Iowa,
He found a positive correlation of .41 between
physical fitness scores and GPA, and a multiple correlation
of ,666 when physical fitness scores and composite entrance
examination scores were related to the GPA during the fresh­
man year.
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1Ô
At Springfield College (30) the PFl of 269 freshmen
was compared to their GPA,
Students with PFl scores of
115 and above had a mean GPA of 2.01, those ranging from
100 to 114; a mean GPA of 1,94.
In addition, students with
PFl scores from Ô5 to 93 had a mean GPA of 1,03, and those
students scoring below
Page
had a mean GPA of 1,31,
(7 1 ) studied the freshman students who were
dismissed at Syracuse University during the 1939-40 school
year.
He found that eighty-three per cent of those dis­
missed had physical fitness indices lower than 100, whereas
only thirty-nine per cent of freshmen dismissed had PFl
scores above 100.
At the University of Oregon, Coefleld and McCollum
(22) found that the seventy-eight freshmen with the lowest
PFl scores had a GPA of 1,04 compared to all other freshmen
with a 2.45 GPA,
In another study, Wilson (6Ô) compared the GPAs
of a high PFl group to the GPA of the low PFl group and
found that even though the predicted fall GPA of the low
PFl group was greater than the high PFl group, the high
PFl group achieved a higher fall GPA.
Johnson (36), however, found no relationship be­
tween the physical skill and intelligence of 310 Denver
College freshman students,
Jones (3Ô) evaluated 101 Indiana University freshmen
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19
with the Fleishman Basic Fitness Tests,
When the men were
separated into high, average, and low groups on physical
fitness, a negative significant correlation was found in the
high group between physical fitness and academic aptitude,
VI,
STUDIES OF ATHLETES
For many years athletes have been stereotyped as
academically inferior to other students.
According to
recent research on this topic this belief has not been sub­
stantiated,
Stafford (59), in a longitudinal study of ele­
mentary and junior high school students, compared athletes
to non-athletes and found that the athletes were superior
to non-athletes on GPA, mathematics grades, English grades,
and social studies grades.
Eidsmoe (26) studied twelve members on each basket­
ball team in the 1961-62 Iowa boys regional and state tour­
naments,
He compared their first semester grades to those
of the other students in the classes.
The 16Ô players had
a 2,56 average compared to 2,106 for all other members,
Jones (4 0 ) conducted a study from 1964 to 1966 com­
paring high school athletes to non-athletes on academic
achievement, which was measured by the Iowa Test of Educa­
tional Development and GPA,
Athletes participating in foot­
ball, track, golf, baseball, tennis, and cross country were
significantly superior in academic achievement to non-
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?0
athleteso
No significant difference was found between the
academic achievement of wrestlers and non-athletes.
Shafer and Armer (55) studied the GPA of 5^5 high
school boys, of whom I64 were athletes.
The athletes*
average GPA was 2.55, compared to I.83 for the non-athletes.
Jones (4 0 ) compared high school athletes to non­
athletes on IQ and found that athletes were represented on
a proportional basis in the average and above average in­
telligence groups, but were fewer in the low group.
This
might be due to the eligibility requirements for athletic
participation.
Smith (5^) found that athletes participating in
intercollegiate sports had lower grades than non-athletes
during the season.
However, these differences were compen­
sated for by increased academic achievement during the off
season.
It is interesting to note that participants in
individual sports, except wrestling
(39, 40, 55), generally
have a superior GPA than those participating in team sports.
Studies by Shafer and Armer (55) and Jones (39) concur with
this finding.
Jones
(39) concluded that high academic
achievers tended to select those individual non-contact
sports that can be carried over into adult life, such as
tennis, golf, and cross-country.
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21
VII.
SUMMARY OF REVIEW
In summarizing the literature, the majority of
studies indicate a rather low positive significant relation­
ship between physical fitness and academic achievement.
Some studies show no relationship, while others indicate
a negative relationship.
It appears as if a disagreement
exists as to the actual relationship.
To complicate the
topic, a variety of tests to measure physical fitness and
academic achievement have been used to determine whether a
relationship exists.
The physical measurements were deter­
mined by body type, general motor ability, motor skill, and
fitness, and have been compared to the academic variables
measured by mental aptitude, mental maturity, intelligence,
scholastic rank, and grade point average.
At elementary,
junior high, senior high, and college levels, ectomorphic
features of boys correlated with academic success, while
endomorphic and mesomorphic features did not.
Motor skill items of balance, coordination, and
jumping ability were important in the academic success of
elementary school children.
Physical maturity, height,
and weight were also contributing factors to the academic
success.
Some junior high studies produced a positive corre­
lation between high PFl and academic achievement.
In most
junior high as well as in senior high studies the standing
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22
broad jump correlated with academic achievement.
Physical fitness determined by the PFI and the AAHPER
Physical Fitness test was positively correlated to academic
achievement at the high school level.
Generally, studies of college students indicate a
positive correlation between physical fitness measures and
academic achievement.
Most studies of college women show a
positive correlation between height, weight, broad jump, arm
curl, step test, curl up, motor ability, and academic achieve­
ment,
Softball, soccer, tennis, jump and reach skills and
PFI correlated significantly to academic success of college
men.
College freshmen with high PFI were academically
superior and had a better chance of graduating than students
with low PFI.
Motor skills compared to academic success
showed no correlation.
Studies involving athletes indicate a higher GPA in
comparison to non-athletes.
The reader must be critical of
such studies since eligibility requirements must be main­
tained in order to participate in athletics.
Therefore,
athletes with low GPA were eliminated, resulting in an
invalid sample.
Since the majority of the information available on
this subject exhibited differing results, it appeared worth­
while to conduct an additional study in hopes to contributing
more information in this area.
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CHAPTER III
PROCEDURES FOR MEASURING PHYSICAL FITNESS
AND ACADEraC ACHIEVEMENT
Io
SUBJECTS
The subjects were 108 male freshman students en­
rolled in physical education activity classes during the
spring quarter of 1969.
Of these freshmen, sixty were majors
in the College of Arts and Sciences, thirty-three were in
the professional schools, and fifteen were undecided as to
their major.
At the time of the test, forty-nine were
eighteen, fifty-one were nineteen, and the rest were
twenty, twenty-one, and twenty-two years of age.
All of
the group were enrolled at the University of Montana in the
fall of 1960 without any previous college experience.
Data
gathered for this study included the cumulative academic
indices for fall and winter quarter 1968-6 9 , and the Rogers*
Physical Fitness Indices as of May 7, 1969.
Additional
information collected was for the total number of credit
hours and major field of study,
II.
ROGERS* PHYSICAL FITNESS INDEX TEST
The Rogers* Physical Fitness Index Test was used
in this study to measure the physical fitness of freshman
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?4
students»
In order to discuss the topic of physical fit­
ness, we must first define it.
Physical fitness is the
capacity of an individual to perform specific tasks requir­
ing muscular activity without undue fatigue.
Therefore,
the PFI measures the capacity of an individual to engage
in strenuous physical activity without undue fatigue.
The PFI not only has tests to measure the strength
of the back, legs, and grip, but also measures capacity
for sustained physical activity with the pull-up and push­
up tests.
The vital capacity test is also included in the
battery.
Test results may vary from day to day as does blood
pressure, pulse, temperature, and other body measures.
Nevertheless, physical fitness as measured by the PFI re­
mained so constant that reliability coefficients of correla­
tion from ,06 to .97 were yielded in tests taken six months
apart
(9).
When individuals were tested from 9:00 a.m. to
12:00 a.m. and 1 ;30 p.m. to 5:00 p.m., fluctuation for PFI
was about five per cent, which is within the reliability
limits
(54).
Every bodily and mental change is reflected some­
how, and to some degree in effective voluntary muscle power.
Hundreds of cases on record exist in which low or declining
PFIs have indicated the presence of disturbances to health
which escaped recognition by competent physicians.
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The PFI
25
can provide an additional check on the physical condition
of students since it may often reveal muscular strengths
or weaknesses before subjective changes can be noted.
The PFI test was used because it is not only a
rapid and interesting test, but also because it is a valid
and reliable measure of physical fitness.
Testing Procedure
The following procedure was utilized in adminis­
tering the Rogers’ Physical Fitness Index,
Upon arriving at the testing center in the m e n ’s
gymnasium the subject was given a PFI score sheet.
his weight and height were measured.
Next
From here he proceeded
with the PFI battery as prescribed by Larson and Yociim (4)®
The order of test items was as follows :
lung capacity,
right and left hand grip, back strength, leg strength, pullups, and push-ups after a five-minute rest.
The score
sheet was turned in and checked so that everything was
completed.
Total time for the administration of the PFI
for each subject ranged from six to ten minutes.
Lung capacity.
When arriving at the wet spirometer
(standard Narragansett model), the subject inserted a
sterile wooden mouthpiece into the spirometer hose.
He
was then instructed to inhale deeply and exhale all the
air under his control slowly and steadily into a hose while
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26
while bending forward.
By cupping the hands around the
mouthpiece and pinching his nostrils, the air was prevented
from escaping.
If the first test was inadequate the sub­
ject was given another trial.
in cubic inches.
efficient
Lung capacity was recorded
This test item has a ,97 reliability co­
(9).
Grip strength.
A hand dynamometer (Nissan Medart)
was placed face down into the subject’s palm so that the
convex edge was rounded against the base of the hand, with
the thumb touching or overlapping the first finger.
The
subject fixed his elbow so that his hand was near his ear.
Then he was instructed to squeeze the dynamometer as he made
a sweeping downward motion with his hand.
allowed to touch the body.
The hand was not
Each hand was measured and re­
corded to the nearest pound.
The left grip has a .90 relia­
bility coefficient compared to .92 for the right hand (9).
Back lift.
The subject was instructed to stand with
his hands in front of his thighs, fingers extended downward
with the feet parallel and six inches apart on a thirteeninch bench to which a dynamometer (Medart No. 57021) was
attached.
fingertips.
The tester hooked a bar just below the subject’s
The subject grasped the bar firmly at its ends
with the thumb clenching the fingers and with one palm for­
ward and the other backward.
His back was slightly bent
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27
at the beginning so it could not be completely straightened
out on the lift.
The subject *s knees were not allowed to
bend during the lift.
pound.
The lift was recorded to the nearest
The test item has a
coefficient of reliability
(9).
Leg lift.
A lifting belt (3 inches wide, 60 inches
long, one-fifth inch thick) was placed around the subject
as low as possible over the hips and gluteal muscles.
A
permanent loop at one end of the belt was slipped over the
end of the twenty-inch lifting bar and the free end was
looped around the opposite end of the bar and tucked under
and against the body.
The subject was instructed to hold
the lifting bar with both hands near the center against the
junction of the thighs and trunk.
In the starting position
the knees were slightly bent, arms kept straight, head
erect, and chest out.
The maximum lift as measured by the
dynamometer occurred when the subject’s legs were nearly
straightened.
The lift was recorded to the nearest pound.
The test item has a .06 coefficient of reliability (9).
Pull-ups.
Still rings
(Nissen) were adjusted so
that the tallest subject was able to hang without touching
the floor with his feet.
The subject grasped the rings with
his palms forward and chinned as many times as possible.
If the subject kicked, jerked, kipped, or did not complete
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28
the pull-up he was awarded half a point.
After four half
points the subject was not allowed to continue.
The number
of repetitions was recorded as the total score.
This test
has a .91 reliability coefficient (9).
A five-minute rest
period was allowed between pull-ups and push-ups.
Push-ups.
Regulation Nissen gymnasium parallel
bars were adjusted to the subject*s shoulder height.
The
subject grasped the bars and jumped to a straight arm sup­
port.
This counted as one point.
Each time the body was
lowered until the upper arm and forearm were at less than
a right angle and extended so the subject was again in a
straight arm position a point was awarded.
was incomplete, half a point was awarded.
If a push-up
A maximum of
four half points could be awarded after which the subject
was not allowed to continue.
tions was the subject^s score.
bility coefficient
The total number of repeti­
The test has a ,90 relia­
(9).
Testers
The PFI test was administered by physical education
majors, minors, and graduate students.
Before they tested
the freshman students, they were thoroughly instructed by
the author in the proper procedures first by taking the test
themselves, and then by trying it on other testers.
when these students demonstrated competence were they
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Only
29
allowed to administer a particular test item.
Scoring the PFI
The following scoring procedures were used as
prescribed by Larson and Yocum (4).
1.
Score representing arm strength was computed
according to the following formula:
(Number of pull-ups + push-ups) (Weight + Height- 6 0 )
10
Fractions were rounded off to the nearest whole
number.
2.
Scores from each test item, lung capacity,
right grip, left grip, back lift, leg lift, and arm strength
score were added together.
The total score is called the
Strength Index.
3.
The subject ^s norm strength index was obtained
from the norm charts based on sex, weight, and age.
4.
The PFI is computed from the formula:
T^TTi-r_ Achieved Strength Index v ^
Normal Strength Index ^
III.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
Academic achievement for the purpose of this study
was determined by the cumulative academic index for the
1968-69 fall and winter quarters.
This information was
provided by the University of Montana registrants office.
The index of a student is the ratio of quality points to
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
30
his total number of hours attempted*
determined by the following :
Quality points are
grade A is credited with 4
points; grade B, with 3; grade C, with 2; and grade D, with
1 point; and grade F, with zero,
IV.
TREATMENT OF DATA
The PFI scores of each student were calculated at
the University Computer Science Center on an IBM 1620
computer.
Total PFI scores were then related to grade
point averages with the Pearson product-moment correlation
technique, as described by Willgoose (13)»
In addition, the following physical variables were
compared to GPA:
height, weight, lung capacity, right
grip, left grip, back lift, leg lift, pull-ups, push-ups,
and strength index.
Moreover, the Pearson product-moment
method was used to compare PFI scores and GPA to the number
of credits completed.
To determine if differences existed between the
means of the freshman students in the College of Arts and
Sciences and those in the professional schools, and students
without a major, a one-way analysis of variance was used as
described by Edwards (1),
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS OF DATA
I.
RELATIONSHIP OF TOTAL PFI TO GPA
The 10Ô male freshmen used in this study had
Physical Fitness Indices ranging from 49.5 to 125.3 with an
80.4 mean score.
Rogers
(9) suggested that the score of
100 should be the average. -The low scores could be due to
a lack of physical fitness activities in the physical educa­
tion program at the University of Montana,
Perhaps it was
because of the lack of participation in physical activities
or the type of high school physical education program the
freshmen had prior to entering the university.
When the
PFI norms were developed in 1925 the average height and
weight was less than that of students today.
Therefore, the
variables that could influence the PFI scores were numerous
and it was not the purpose of this investigation to deter­
mine the cause of the low scores.
In this sample the cumulative academic indices
ranged from 1.08 to 3-90 with a 2.3^ mean.
To determine if a correlation existed between the
Physical Fitness Index and grade point average, the two
scores were compared with the Pearson r method of correla­
tion.
An r of ,01106 was found which indicates no relation­
ship between PFI and GPA,
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32
IIo
RELATIONSHIP OF INDIVIDUAL PFI ITEMS TO GPA
In order to determine if any of the individual items
of the PFI test correlated to GPA, the Pearson r method was
used.
Each PFI item was also analyzed for range and mean.
Table I lists the ranges and means of PFI items.
Refer to
Table II for correlation of PFI items to GPA,
TABLE I
RANGE AND MEAN OF PFI ITEMS
PFI Item
Mean
Range
Height
61 inches to 77 inches
Back Lift
190 lbs, to 499 lbs.
We ight
130 lbs, to 237 lbs.
164.3
Leg Lift
320 lbs, to 1690 lbs.
847,1
Lung Capacity
1Ô
70,25
.If
5 cubic inches to 365 cubic
:27iS, c)
inches
Pull-ups
1 to 20 repetitions
Right Grip
78 lbs. to 195 lbs.
124.9
Push-ups
0 to 35 repetitions
14.1
Left Grip
72 lbs. to 160 lbs.
115.8
TOTAL STRENGTH
INDEX
1403 to 3741 points
2289.2
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9).5 S)
33
TABLE II
CORRELATION OF PFI ITEMS TO GPA
PFI Item
Pearson r Correlation to GPA
Height
-.0761
Weight
-.0206
Lung Capacity
-.0013
Right Grip
-.0082
Left Grip
-.0601
Back Lift
-.0940
Leg Lift
-.0165
Pull-ups
,0785
Push-ups
.0881
Strength Index
-.017
No correlation was significant at the oO$ level between
PFI and GPA.
III.
RELATIONSHIP OF NUMBER OF HOURS ATTEMPTED
TO GPA AND PFI
The attempted credit hours ranging from twenty-one
to thirty-seven were compared to GPA and PFI scores.
A
.5204 correlation between the number of quarter credits
attempted and GPA significant at the .05 and the .01 level
was found.
This indicates that students with a high GPA
attempted more quarter credits at the University of Montana
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34
than those with a low GPA,
fifteen quarter hours.
Freshmen generally enroll in
In order for a student to enroll
in credit hours exceeding seventeen, a signature from the
advisor, chairman, or dean is needed.
Freshman students
with low ACT (American College Testing) scores may be
limited to twelve or thirteen by their advisor.
Since
students are somewhat limited to the number of quarter
hours they may attempt this could influence the correlation.
No correlation was found between the number of
quarter hours attempted and PFI scores,
IV,
RELATIONSHIP OF PFI SCORES TO FRESHMEN
WITH OR WITHOUT MAJOR
During the freshman year many students select major
areas of study that are included in the College of Arts and
Sciences and the professional schools.
The subjects in this
study from the College of Arts and Sciences had an 01,00
mean PFI and majored in anthropology, biological sciences,
chemistry, economics, English, history, liberal arts, mathe­
matics, medical technology, physical therapy, political
science, pre-business administration, pre-forestry, pre­
medical sciences, sociology and wildlife biology.
The students from the professional schools had a
70,13 mean PFI and majored in drama, elementary education,
forestry, journalism, music, and pharmacy.
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35
The students who had not selected a major had a mean
PFI of 83.6 4 .
The means of the three groups were then com­
pared with Duncan^s new multiple range test.
TABLE III
COMPARISONS BETWEEN PFI MEANS OF
GROUPS WITH AND WITHOUT MAJORS
Non-Majors
— ——
Non-Î/Iajors
College of
Arts and
Sciences
Professional
Schools
2.56
College of Arts
and Sciences
—
Professional
Schools
— ——
:2
— ——
Significant at the .05 level.
Significant at the .01 level.
Non-majors, who had the highest PFI mean scores, were
significantly superior to freshman students of professional
schools, and freshmen in the College of Arts and Sciences
were superior to the students in the professional schools.
V.
DISCUSSION OF DATA
The results of this study show that there was no
relationship between the PFI and GPA of 108 male freshman
students enrolled in physical education activity classes at
the University of Montana.
Even when individual items of
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36
the PFI were compared to GPA, no relationship was found.
This concurs with the results found by Ricci (52), who
studied Ô95 freshmen at the University of Massachusetts and
found no significant relationship between PFI and GPA,
However, most studies mentioned in the review of
literature have found a low positive significant correla­
tion between PFI and GPA.
These studies were not identical
to the one conducted by the author.
Page (71), Coefield and
McCollum (22), and Doornick (25) used all the male freshmen
as their sample and tested in the fall.
Hart and Shay (30),
Wilson (68), and Weber (67), also tested in the fall.
this study, testing was done in the spring.
In
This does not
mean that the testing results would have been significantly
altered according to Rogers (9).
However, if the freshman
students were physically active in the summer, they might
be well conditioned in the fall.
Due to the demands created
by the university environment the level of physical condition
could be changed by spring.
The sample was obtained from a group of more than
■450 freshmen enrolled in activity classes.
ate sample in terms of randomness
Had an appropri­
and representativeness of
the total male freshman class participated, the results might
have differed.
Additionally, this study might have included
those freshmen enrolled in certain activity classes to
eliminate the effects of the activity on the PFI scores.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
37
Activities such as physical conditioning and weight lifting
will have a significant effect on the PFI scores.
This
might indicate a need for developing more stable measures
of physical fitness.
With a little effort, PFI scores
can be improved, just as grade noint average can be changed.
In addition, perhaps a more stable index of academic achieve­
ment, which measures intelligence, should be used.
From this investigation and research cited in the
literature, it is rather questionable whether future studies
should be continued in the area of physical and mental
relationships.
The attempts have been so confounded with
variables it may be impossible to partition those variables
that may be related.
If any factor needs to be partitioned,
perhaps it is the characteristic of persistence.
Persis­
tence tcj endure a task until it is completed might be the
factor which is developed through physical fitness.
If a
physically fit individual is able to endure physical strain
for a longer period than one who is physically unfit, per­
haps this persistence carries over to mental tasks.
If,
however, it is impossible to partition this variable or
others that may have an effect upon mental tasks, then these
studies should be discontinued.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
I.
SUMMARY
The purpose of this study was to determine the
relationship between academic achievement and physical fit­
ness of University of Montana male freshmen with at least
twenty credit hours.
The measures used in this study were the Rogers *
PFI, the cumulative academic index, and the total number
of credits earned.
The subjects were 10S freshmen enrolled in activity
classes at the University of Montana.
Correlations between
the Physical Fitness Index and cumulative academic indices
.011, between the Physical Fitness Index and number of
credits earned ,079 were not significant at the ,05 level
of confidence.
An r of ,5289 was found between the cumula­
tive academic index and the number of credits earned at the
,05 and the ,001 level of significance.
Students classi­
fied as non-majors had significantly higher PFI scores
(83 .6 4 ) than students from the professional schools (?8„13);
and majors in the college of Arts and Sciences also had sig­
nificantly higher PFI scores
(8l.08) than the majors in the
professional schools.
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3Q
II.
CONCLUSIONS
An analysis of the results in this study reveals
the following conclusions:
1.
Students with high physical fitness indices do
not have high academic indices.
2.
Students classified as non-majors are superior
in physical fitness indices to student majors
in the professional schools, but not to those
in the College of Arts and Sciences.
3.
Students majoring in the College of Arts and
Sciences are superior in physical fitness
indices to the students in the professional
schools.
4.
Students who have high cumulative academic
indices also have completed more quarter credit
hours than students with low cumulative aca­
demic indices.
III.
RECOMMENDATIONS
It is recommended that the psychological and
sociological benefits of physical fitness be partitioned and
related to academic achievement.
If, however, further re­
search indicates that these qualities can not be partitioned,
it is recommended that studies relating the physiological
benefits to academic achievement be discontinued.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
SELECTED REFERENCES
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
SELECTED REFERENCES
A.
BOOKS
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Edwards, Allen L. Experimental Design in Psychological
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3.
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Paterson, Ann, and Edmon C. Hallberg.
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Cattell, Raymond B, "Some Psychological Correlates of
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Clarke, H, Harrison.
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Mental Rehabilitation, 20:134-39, July-August,
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M a y ; 1961 o
21.
Coates, Edward.
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43
22o
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"A Case
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with Low Physical Fitness Indices/' Microcard Mas­
t e r ’s thesis, University of Oregon, 1955o
23 «
D a y , James,
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Selected Physical, Motor, and Strength of Boys
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Eidsmoe, Russell,
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Gates, Arthur I, "The Nature and Educational Sig­
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Gutin, Bernard.
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Hart, Marcia E ,, and Clayton T, Shay, "Relationship
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Hawkes, Nina Ray,
"The Relationship of Motor Ability
to Academic Success Among Women Physical Education
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32.
Hines, Thomas.
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35.
Jarraon, Boyd 0. "Interrelationships Between the Aca­
demic Achievement and Selected Maturity, Physique,
Strength, and Motor Measures of Fifteen-Year-Old
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36.
Johnson, Granville D. "A Study of the Relationship
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Johnson, Warren R, "Critical Periods, Body Image, and
Movement Competency in Childhood," Report Symposium
on Integrated Development, Purdue University, June,
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Athletic Participation," Dissertation Abstracts,
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42.
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43.
McCollum, Garlando ”A Comparison Between the Physi­
cally Fit and Physically Unfit in Intelligence,
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McCormick, Clarence C ., Janice Nelson Schmobrich, S,
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tween Certain Fitness Variables and an Index of
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46.
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Achievement Related to Selected Maturational,
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Hawkes, Nina Ray.
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to Academic Success Among Women Physical Education
Majors at Brigham Young University," unpublished
Master's thesis, Brigham Young University, 1965.
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48
71o
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APPENDIX A
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
50
TO:
FROM:
RE:
ALL M E N ’S ACTIVITY CLASS INSTRUCTORS
VINCE CELTNIEKS
ROGERS’ PHYSICAL FITNESS INDEX TEST
TO BE ADMINISTERED TO ALL FALL I960 FRESHMAN
ENROLLEES ON WEDNESDAY,' MAY 7, IN THE M E N ’S
GYM.
The study I am conducting involves the relation­
ship of physical fitness to academic achievement.
All male freshmen who have enrolled at the U of
M since fall 1968 and are not in activity classes
comprise rjiy sample.
your cooperation.
Therefore, I am soliciting
Please send your freshman stu­
dents to the men's gym at your regular class
time on Wednesday, May 7.
THANK YOU
VINCE CELTNIEKS
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
51
PHYSICAL FITNESS INDEX
ROGERS STRENGTH TEST
Name
Telephone
Date Enrolled at U of M
M
Age
Years and whole months
Weight
Nearest pound
Height
Nearest inch
Multiplier
Pull-ups
Weight + Height - 60
10
Total number
Push-ups
Total number
Arm Strength
Leg Lift
Pull-ups + push-ups X
Multiplier
Nearest pound
Back Lift
Nearest pound
Left Grip
Nearest pound
Right Grip
Nearest pound
Lung Capacity
Cubic inches
Strength Index
Total from arm strength
through lung capacity.
Normal Strength Index:
Find norm in tables for
age, sex, and weight. If
weight is an odd number
use nearest even number
in weight column. Record
the figure from table as
normal strength index.
Normal Strength Index
Physical Fitness Index
A freshman student taking this test must be a fall 1968
enrollee, having attended the winter quarter at the U of M
and not having transferred from another college.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
APPENDIX B
PFI INDIVIDUAL ITEMS AND GPA
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
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5 1 .i
5 3 .4
5 5 .6
5 6 .5
5 6 .7
5 0 .6
5 9 .2
5 9 .3
6 1 .8
6 2 ,3
6 3 .5
6 6 .0
6 6 .4
6 6 .6
6 7 .3
6 8 .7
6 3 .9
6 9 .3
6 9 .7
6 9 .9
7 0 .7
7 1 .0
7 1 .0
7 1 .0
7 1 .1
7 1 .2
7 1 ,7
7 1 .7
7 2 .0
7 2 .1
7 2 .2
7 2 .5
7 3 .1
7 3 ,1
7 3 .6
7 4 .0
7 4 .5
7 5 .0
7 3 ,6
7 6 .0
7 6 .1
7 6 .6
7 7 .0
7 7 .1
7 7 .2
7 7 .9
7 8 .0
7 3 .1
7 8 .5
C 3 .0
7 3 .8
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Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
PPI
GPA
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88,8
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92.3
2,C3
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92.5 2,33
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3,37
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2,24
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9 3 .9 2.37
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22.5' 6'70 .' ^'3 5'0 1'3 0^ 'iTo " H 4. T I 62'
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9 0 294.2496
9 5 12.
770 . __3_l_y
1- . ' 66. ' 69 . ' 8 i 3 . ' r- 1
1 5 = . T4"“ / 9 n ./9 '6 L
66.
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y c 7 f 66. T F T 10 T 5 .
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1J r -~T73-rZ5^T
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63 * 1C 5 16.5
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290
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167.
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295.2911
19.
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70. ......10
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3 90
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
APPENDIX C
PFI AND GPA FREQUENCY CHARTS
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Graph I.;
Grade Point Average of 108 Freshmen
GE& meaD=
^0
2.376
t9
If
16
Ï1
11.
f
r
e
q
u
e
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c
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a.t 3.0 J.Î; oW 3.1. 5.Î
4,0
Physical Fitness Index of 108 Freshmen
.80
/f
PFI mean =
/o
9
g
7
é
f
9
J
I
0
PFI
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
80.
APPENDIX D
COMPUTATION OF DATA
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
58
PEARSON PRODUCT kOMSNT CORRELATION COMPUTATION
N
108
X
(measures)
Y
Ü
^fx
if:
-
r2
^ 7
_
^xy
(measures ) G P A
^fy
77S
y
=
2
7
—
= - '^y
C_2
108
N
Cy
,
=
#
=
T Ô8
N '
a' X
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77<T
7 7 ^
=
N
f
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=
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y
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=
(C^>y)
(S. I. y)
y xy
(
=
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r
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(°y)
(.
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=
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(
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)
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— , 077/
59
PEARSON PRODUCT ROEEi'ÏT CORRELATION COMPUTATION
N
=
108
X
(measures) WeiQK't
y
PA
(measures)
= -/y
^fx^
=
y/cZ,
^xy
= — /
N
;yZ"
' 1o8
~
—
zZtS^Ù>
N
“ TôB“
=
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(O* )
(S, l.y)
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r
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=
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^
( /‘^
(
)
=
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"ü
,
- .^9^
( /'f
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_
=
9 ^
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2;xy
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= '^
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fa^9
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1
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=
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)
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Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
— , ÛO L ^c-‘
PEARSON PRODUCT LOrlSNT CORRELATION COMPUTATION
60
N
=
108
X
(m easures)
Luhg
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PEARSON PRODUCT kOHSwT CORRELATION COMPUTATION
W
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(measures) R \g k t
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PEAKSOîî Pk ü DUCT iiOl'iENT CORKELATIOiï COMPüTATIOIf
62
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(measures) L e f t
108
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PSARSOK PRODUCT R0M5NT COk KRLATIOU COMPUTATION’
63
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PEARSON PRODUCT l.OHENT CORF.ELATION COMPUTATION
N
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65
PEARSON PRODUCT kOMEKT CORRELATION COMPUTATION
N
108
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Y
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(measures)
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PEâRSON PRODUCT ROMEKT CORRELATION COMPUTATION
N
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PEARSON PRODUCT luOMENT CORRELATION COMPUTATION
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PEARSON PRODUCT LOluENT CORRELATION COMPUTATION
N
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108
(measures)*Xbir<^^ NJuvvibcv*
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71
ONE- WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
College of
Arts and
Sciences
=
60
33
15
4953.1
2578.4
1254.6
81 .0816
=
NonMajors
Professional
Schools
N = 108
T = 8786.1
83 .64
78.1353
T^N j=_ 71_4_7_73.64
Knj
77195553.21
108
nj
,
S Xij-2 = 422021.81
Tj^/nj
204591.76
91305.14
= 408886.6016 2 p i 95^.9866
t
= 717918.7
104934.744
= 715279.3322
Sum of Squares
(ETj^/nj - t 2/N) Between 715279*3322-714,773.6700=505*691 4
A nj
o k
o
Xij - 5: M
) W i t h i n 71791 8.71 -71 5 ,279.3322=2639.3778
^j
^
^
k 'nj
(e e Xij2_T2/N)
Total 1433190.0422-1430,052.9730=3145.0692
>/
hi
Source of
Variation
Sum of
Squares
Degrees of
Freedom
Between
505.6917
(k-1)=2
Within
TOTAL
2639.3778
769.0682
(n-k)=105
107
Variance
Estimate
252.8457=sb^
25,1369= s w ^
F=10 .0587^'
-'Since a significant F was found, the differences of means
had to be located.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
72
DUNCAN»S NEW MULTIPLE RANGE TEST
W i t h i n means square = 25.13?
Harmonic mean
= 26.785
Standard error of a single m ean
s
= s = 5.01
= .968
X fn
Ttrrtr
Duncan*s significant studentized ranges
2 steps
3 steps
2,800
2.947
2.710
2.853
(.05
level)
3.584
3.733
(-01
level)
College of
Arts and
Professional
NonSciences_____ Schools____________ Majors
Mean
83.64
81,08
83.64
—— —
81.08
2.56
78.13
5 .6 1 ^
2.95^-
Significant at the .01 level
Significant at the .05 level
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.