Development Backgrounder
May 2006
01
Empowerment
Development Backgrounder
Development Backgrounders will
provide factual information relevant to
topical international challenges related
to development, and analyse the
implications for cooperation policies.
Empowerment
The lax use that is commonly made of empowerment in
development theory and practice obscures a problematic
concept that means a great deal to some and nothing to others. This ambiguity calls for a clear definition of the term so
that it may be used legitimately.
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“Empowerment is like obscenity, you
don’t know how to define it but you
know it when you see it.”
Strandberg
2
Jo Rowlands presents another way of understanding
Empowerment in
Development
power by distinguishing between four types of power:
power over, power to, power with and power within.
“Power over” represents a zero sum game where the
increase in power of one, means the loss of power of
another. This concept involves a dynamic of oppression
that characterises decision-making and the way
What is Power?
influence is wielded. In contrast, the other three forms
of power – power to, power with, power within – are all
Many of the theories associated with empowerment have
examined the idea of power, its use and its distribution,
positive and augmentative. An increase in the power of
one, boosts the power of all.
as a key point in understanding social transformation.
The origins of the theories on power date back to the
1970s.The discourse from the schools of modernisation
and dependence placed the cause of underdevelopment
in the relationship between power and poverty. Freire’s
theory argued that only access to real power could end
what he named “the culture of silence,” characterised by
the dependence and marginalisation of those without
power. The sum of these theories and the failure of the
development programmes of the 80s were the catalysts
that made bilateral and multilateral agencies
understand that the only way to break the cycle of
poverty was through structural reform and a more
equitable distribution of power.
“Power to” is the power that some people have to
inspire the activity and boost the morale of others. It is
a generating power that engenders possibilities and
actions without domination, that is, without the use of
“power over”. This type of power is related to “power
with” in that it allows for the sharing of power. It
manifests itself when a group generates a collective
solution to a common problem, allowing each member
to express him or herself in the creation of a group
agenda that is also assumed individually. This
demonstrates that the whole can be greater than the
sum of its individual parts. Another form of positive
and augmentative power is “power within” or “internal
power.” This is based on the generation of trust in
A review of the concept of power, within the context of
oneself and is related to self-esteem. It is manifested in
development, reveals two clear distinctions between
the ability to resist the power of others by refusing
negative
demands that are unwanted.
and
positive
power, although
their
nomenclature varies according to each author. In the
negative perception, power is the means to achieve
Parallel to this view is the theory of Craig and Mayo,
deep change and a way for those who do not have
and Korten. They have distinguished between power as
power to confront those who do. This interpretation
a “variable sum” or “positive sum,” and a “zero sum.”
argues that significant change can only be achieved if
The first type of power is generative in that it assumes
the existing patterns of power are challenged directly.
that all individuals have power and that this power is
A more constructive definition of the term is the power
added to that of the rest of the community with the aim
to do, of being capable, and of having a greater feeling
of achieving a common good. The “zero sum power”
of control over situations. According to this point of
implies that for one group to gain power, another must
view, the individual is considered as having an active
inevitably lose it.
role, and due to his critical outlook, he can be active in
any development programme. This perception implies
Power is also related to knowledge. Due to this,
breaking away from the idea that the individual is a
legitimacy and authority are achieved, it is easier to
passive being and transforms him into a legitimate
interpret the context in which one lives, and changing
actor in development.
the existing power relations is made possible.
Development Backgrounder 01
3
Development recognises in power a key element for
measurable and assessable. As has been shown in
bringing about effective social change. Power exists in
recent history, a lack of definition can become a
any process of transformation and it is the dynamic that
problem in development policies and programmes
determines social, economic and political relations.This
because it enables the selective use of the term. For this
concept has been put into practice in the idea of
reason, a series of definitions1, considered the most
empowerment, which is understood as a process that
relevant for the theory and practice of development, is
seeks to empower – in confronting imbalances of power
presented below.
as much as in supporting those who do not have it.
What is Empowerment?
The History of Empowerment in
Development
Despite the fact that the concept of empowerment has
The anthropological tradition of seeing change as a constant
become a central concept in the discourse and practice
in social processes and the refinement of alternative
of development, it is a complex term that lacks a
development paradigms in the 80s merged together, in 1990,
universal definition, a fact that has allowed for an
in the concept of empowerment. Within a short period of
endless number of interpretations with differences and
time, the term began to be formally used in both the
similarities. The term ‘empowerment’ has diverse
strategies of non-governmental organisations and donor
meanings depending on the socio-cultural and political
policies. Throughout different sectors, areas, geographic
context, and cannot be easily translated in all
regions and actors, literature on empowerment exploded just
languages. It can be understood as a process, as a
as the concept of participation had a decade earlier. The
product, as an approach or as an aim. Moreover, it is
growth of this concept can be explained, to a large extent, by
multidimensional as it has implications on the
the need to give a more humane undertone to donor
individual, organisational, political, sociological,
interventions and power, and in this way address criticisms
economic and spiritual levels. It can be understood as
directed at structural adjustment programmes and neo-
a personal process through which the individual takes
liberal orthodoxies. In addition, empowerment emerged with
control of his life or as a political process in which
the aim of being a tool for bringing about significant political
human rights and social justice are guaranteed for a
and cultural change in existing development policies. Far
group that has been marginalised from society.
from succeeding, it has become a half-empty and diluted
concept that has been used to gloss over the protests and
In recent literature, the meaning of empowerment has
demands of those who insist on significant change in
usually been assumed rather than explained or defined.
interventions.
Many authors agree that empowerment can be defined
by its absence, yet is difficult to define when present, as
it takes different forms depending on the context.
Therefore, although its use has become widespread in
the last fifteen years, ambiguities, contradictions and
paradoxes still exist. On another front, the very act of
defining empowerment is subject to debate given that
imposing a single definition could be limiting,
contradicting in this way the very idea of it, which is
The World Bank has carried out extensive theoretical
and empirical work in this field. In short, the Bank
considers that empowerment is the freedom of choice
and action. This means increasing control over the
resources and decisions that affect the life of an
individual. As an individual exercises his ability to
choose, control over his life increases. The options of
about being subjective, flexible and personal. In spite of
this, an understanding of the concept from the point of
view of development is critical for it to be functional,
1 To consult other authors, see bibliography.
Empowerment
May 2006
4
the poor are extremely limited, due as much to a lack
ideology (internal control). Thus, if power means
of resources as to an inability to negotiate better
control, empowerment is the process through which
conditions with institutions. Given that institutional
control is gained. Empowerment as such involves two
relations exist between different levels of power, the
types of control and is rarely possible without both.
World Bank believes that an institutional definition of
One of Sen’s most important and original contributions
empowerment is the most appropriate in the fight
is the sustainability of empowerment. Empowerment is
against poverty. This view fits in with the Bank’s own
only sustainable if the individual manages to alter his
work. Thus, empowerment is defined as an increase in
perception of himself and take control of his life. This
the resources and capacity of the poor to participate,
involves an exclusively internal process in which the
negotiate, influence, control, and ultimately demand
role of external agents is reduced to that of mere
accountability from the institutions that affect their
catalyst.
lives. Aside from these theories, the Bank can be
credited with other progress achieved in this field. For
According to Jo Rowlands, one of the most prolific
example, it has identified four characteristics, which
contemporary authors on these subjects, empowerment
are common in different contexts, that encourage the
means “the ability to make decisions” in questions that
promotion
to
affect the life of a person.This involves including those
participation,
who are outside the decision-making process, thus
accountability, and capacity for local organisation.
ensuring their access to political structures and the
Based on this, many of the development programmes,
control of resource distribution. Empowerment is
and policies with empowerment as an aim, are
understood in a tri-dimensional way: personal,
oriented in this direction.
developing a sense of oneself and self-confidence;
information,
of
empowerment:
inclusion
and
the
access
relational, the ability to negotiate and influence the
An advocate of the term, John Friedman considers
nature of relations; and collective, working together to
empowerment as an alternative strategy to the
achieve a greater impact than that which could be
traditional way of promoting development. His
achieved through individual effort.
interpretation of the concept emphasises an
improvement in the quality of life of the marginalised.
This is achieved because empowerment tries to rewrite
The Empowerment of Women
the history of exclusion from economic and political
power that the vast majority of the population has
Since the birth of the concept of empowerment in the
experienced. According to Friedman, empowerment
development arena, those who have most endorsed and
attempts to humanise the system and its long term
promoted this terminology have been the feminist
objective is the transformation of society, including the
movements. This is reflected in the significant number of
structures of power. This requires that the State
programmes that have been implemented and the extensive
assume more responsibility with regards to civil
amount of literature that has been written specifically on the
society and that the corporate world respond to State
empowerment of women. Furthermore, feminism has
demands.
attempted to fill the definition vacuum of empowerment and
reduce the variability in its use. Along these lines, Wieringa
Ghita Sen has developed an interesting theory on
empowerment, based on the work of Srilatha
Batliwala, which is focused on the concept of power. In
this case, empowerment is defined as a change in the
relations of power. Power has two main aspects:
control of resources (external control) and control of
Development Backgrounder 01
claims that the concept only has sense “if it is used for social
transformation according to the feminist view of the world.”
Feminists believe that this concept of empowerment, as an
emancipating political process, is what must be applied in
development processes.
5
One of the most frequently quoted contemporary
involving a process of the empowerment of the poor.
authors, particularly with regards to the empowerment
This transfer of power can even have a perverse effect
of women, is Naila Kabeer. This author provides an
if the local hierarchy is strong and opposes the
innovative view by directly linking empowerment with
empowerment of marginal communities.
disempowerment.
Based
on
this
relationship,
empowerment is the process by which those who have
Participation is also often confused with the concept of
been refused the opportunity to make decisions achieve
empowerment. Participation programmes can be
this opportunity. According to this interpretation, only
effective tools for promoting empowerment but a
those who have been disempowered can be empowered.
political or superficial use of this tool is highly unlikely
This implies that not any sort of decision-making
to do so. When the objective is to involve people,
involves the process of empowerment. In other words,
especially the powerless, in the formulation of
empowerment refers to an increase in the ability of
strategies and development policies and the selection
individuals to make strategic decisions within a context
of programmes, and in their monitoring and
where this possibility did not previously exist.
assessment,
empowerment
an
is
appropriate
environment
created. In
for
contrast, when
Although some of these definitions differ considerably,
participation is merely a means to respond to the
and may even be vague or ambiguous, some similar
demands of donor agencies, to make participants
characteristics can be discerned. The majority of the
responsible for the outcome of a programme or to
definitions are focused on questions of power and
carry out a simple consultation, empowerment will not
control over the decision-making and resources that
be achieved. Therefore, only if the aims are specified,
determine an individual’s quality of life. Others, in
and the methods used are transparent and genuine, will
contrast, take into account the structural inequalities
participation meet the definition of empowerment.
that affect social groups instead of analysing individual
characteristics.
The bottom-up approach is linked with empowerment
because both imply an inverted pyramidal process,
although this does not mean that they are synonyms.
What isn’t Empowerment?
Achieving real empowerment requires that external
initiatives, whether by donors or by governments, affect
The very lack of a definition of the term
both at an individual and social level (bottom-up) and
‘empowerment’, and the need to explain this concept in
at government level (top-down). These external
objective and familiar terms has allowed for
interventions may be necessary to eliminate the control
misconceptions, comparing it to other terms as if they
of power not only at the local level but also at national
were synonyms. While empowerment may be an aim in
level. Therefore, depending on the situation, a
its own right, concepts such as decentralisation and
combination of top-down and bottom-up approaches is
participation, or approaches like bottom-up and rights-
required in order to promote empowerment.
based, are a means to an end.This end may or may not
be the empowerment of the poor.
The rights-based approach is a conceptual framework
defining human development based on international
Likewise, decentralisation, for example, may be a
standards for human rights. This approach involves a
means to achieve greater control over decision-making
series of rules and principles,2 amongst which
at local level and a way for development programmes
empowerment is included. Therefore, this approach is
to better respond to the needs of the people. But
decentralisation may also simply be a return of
resources and power to the local authority without this
2 These factors are: the link with rights, accountability,
participation, lack of discrimination and attention to vulnerable
groups.
Empowerment
May 2006
6
broader than empowerment, although empowerment
forms an essential part of it. In this context, the aim of
empowerment is to give people the power and capacity
needed to change their lives, improve their
communities and influence their own fates more
strongly. This way, the individual is placed at the heart
of policies, is the owner of his own rights and the
driving force behind his own development.
Empowerment in
Different Fields
Empowerment has different meanings in each context
and for each individual or group. Definitions vary
according to the disciplines that use the term:
psychology, political science, education, law or
Etymology of the word “Empowerment”
The root of the term empowerment dates back to the middle
economics, among others. Below is a short
presentation of the most important fields where the
term is used.
of the 17th century when its use was limited exclusively to the
legal sphere and was hence understood as “giving power to
another person who acts as representative; authorise.” This
meaning is still in use today although it has been overtaken
by the use of the term employed in other fields.
In the context of social work, empowerment is defined
as a process that allows individuals, families and
communities to increase their personal, socioeconomic and political strength, thereby enabling them
to improve their quality of life. Similarly, in social
communication, empowerment is understood as the
The philosophy of empowerment has its origins in the
ability to produce specific effects in other people.
popular educational approach developed in the 1960s
by Paulo Freire and in the participative approaches of
Empowerment in the educational field has its roots in
the 70s. In its current conceptualisation, the term
Paulo Freire’s concept of “consciousness.” His
‘empowerment’ did not appear until 1976 in the book
philosophy is based on placing the individual in the
Black Empowerment by Barbara Salamon, where the
centre of his life so that he can understand his personal
concept was used as a methodology for social work
circumstances and the social environment in which he
with the marginal Afro-American community. However,
lives. This process enables the individual to develop a
the term did not become popular until 1989 with
critical awareness and to act according to it. According
Carolina Moser’s work on the analysis of race. Since
to this interpretation, empowerment involves a
then, empowerment has been used in different
transformation in personal awareness.
environments, in addition to development theories,
which have had a significant influence on the evolution
Recently, the term ‘empowerment’ has begun to be used
of the concept.
in the field of business management. In this context, it
refers to the process of the distribution of power that
allows the employee greater capacity for decisionmaking and greater autonomy over his work.Thanks to
this strategy, companies achieve better service and
respond more effectively to the demands of trade
unions. This definition has been criticised and labelled
as pseudo-empowerment in that it does not correspond
with the original concept of empowerment that seeks to
improve individual interests. In contrast, this strategy
attempts to change the attitudes of employees so that
Development Backgrounder 01
7
they will work more, without actually giving them an
increase in real power.
In the health field, the use of the term is widespread.
Empowerment is understood as the process by which
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Empowerment in Development
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of disease. However, it may also disempower3 when
used by the authorities as a tool for social control.
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Empowerment
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