Adv Physiol Educ 35: 416–420, 2011;
doi:10.1152/advan.00021.2011.
How We Teach
Does sex (female versus male) influence the impact of class attendance
on examination performance?
Ronald N. Cortright,1 Heidi L. Lujan,2 Julie H. Cox,1 and Stephen E. DiCarlo2
1
Departments of Kinesiology and Physiology, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina;
and 2Department of Physiology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan
Submitted 17 March 2011; accepted in final form 30 September 2011
evaluation; motivation; distance learning; assessment
that female students miss class more
frequently than male students, perhaps because the classroom
environment is somehow less hospitable to female students
(40). Furthermore, we documented sex (male vs. female)
differences in learning style preferences among undergraduate
physiology students (37) as well as first-year medical students
(31). Importantly, learning style preference impacts class attendance (40). Accordingly, sex may influence the impact of
attendance on examination performance.
This is an important question because policies on class
attendance vary markedly (20). Many faculty members require
class attendance and count attendance positively in grade
determination or count the lack of attendance against the
student’s grade. Even when attendance is not required, many
faculty members encourage attendance in a variety of ways
because they believe that attendance is important in student
success. Faculty members may believe this because there is
THERE IS LIMITED EVIDENCE
Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: S. E. DiCarlo,
Wayne State Univ. School of Medicine, 540 E. Canfield Ave., Detroit, MI
48201 (e-mail: [email protected]).
416
strong support for the benefits of attendance. For example,
Schmidt (29) reported that the most valuable and important
time commitment in a course was the time actually spent in the
classroom. Specifically, the time actually spent in the classroom had the greatest positive impact on overall student
performance (29). Similarly, Park and Kerr (27) documented
that each absence from class lowered a student’s grade by 0.06
in a 4.00 grading system. Accordingly, a student with 10
absences would lower his/her grade by 0.6, which would be the
difference between a C⫹ and a B. Finally, Romer (28) reported
that the mean grade point average for students with strong
attendance was, on average, one entire letter grade higher than
that of students with poorer attendance. Similar results, i.e., frequently missed classes are associated with lower grades, have also
been reported (20). Taken together, these studies suggest that class
attendance is a better predictor of college grades than any other
predictor, including SAT scores, studying skills, and the amount
of time spent studying (6, 15, 20, 25a).
However, “So far as the mere imparting of information is
concerned, no university has had any justification for existence
since the popularization of printing in the fifteenth century”
(38). This quote, from British mathematician, logician, and
philosopher Alfred North Whitehead, has challenged our assumptions about the importance of class attendance in lecturebased classes. Our assumption was that grades are related to
class attendance, i.e., students who attend classes more frequently obtain better grades and class attendance dramatically
contributes to enhanced learning. However, with printed materials, electronic resources, the internet, and other technologies (25), is there any reason for students, female or male, to
attend lecture-based classes, i.e., is regular attendance associated with performance on examinations, for female or male
students, in a lecture-based course (1, 39)?
These questions are particularly relevant because the imparting of information through lecturing remains the predominant
form of teaching in postsecondary and healthcare professional
education (7, 17, 26). This may be due, in part, to the fact that
lecturing is effective in transmitting and sharing factual information with a large number of students (11, 21, 30). However,
do students need to hear the content from the teacher or can
they master the content by other means? Specifically, if the
students do not hear the content in class, can the content still be
mastered (22)?
To address these issues, we determined the effect of class
attendance on examination scores for female and male students
enrolled in our undergraduate exercise physiology class of 51
students (20 female students and 31 male students). The
experiment was designed not to interfere with the normal
conduct of the course. Attendance was recorded in each class,
and, although regular attendance was encouraged, it was not
1043-4046/11 Copyright © 2011 The American Physiological Society
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Cortright RN, Lujan HL, Cox JH, DiCarlo SE. Does sex
(female versus male) influence the impact of class attendance on
examination performance? Adv Physiol Educ 35: 416 – 420, 2011;
doi:10.1152/advan.00021.2011.—The “conventional wisdom” is that
grades are related to class attendance, i.e., students who attend classes
more frequently obtain better grades and class attendance dramatically
contributes to enhanced learning. However, the influence of sex
(female vs. male) on this relationship is understudied. Furthermore,
there have been several studies examining the impact of attendance on
course grades that challenge the conventional wisdom. To address
these issues, we determined the effect of class attendance on examination scores for female and male students enrolled in our undergraduate
exercise physiology class of 51 students (20 female students and 31 male
students). The experiment was designed not to interfere with the normal
conduct of the course. Attendance was recorded in each class, and,
although regular attendance was encouraged, it was not required and did
not factor into the final grades. The final grade reflected the average days
of attendance for female students only. Specifically, female students
earning a grade above the class average attended 89 ⫾ 4% of the classes;
however, female students earning a grade below the class average
attended only 64 ⫾ 6% of the classes. In sharp contrast, there was no
difference in the number of classes attended for male students earning
grades above or below the class average (84 ⫾ 3% vs. 79 ⫾ 5%).
Accordingly, some male students were absent frequently but scored
above the class average, whereas other male students attended many
classes but scored below the class average. Thus, the influence of
regular attendance on examination performance is more important for
female students than male students.
How We Teach
SEX, CLASS ATTENDANCE, AND EXAM PERFORMANCE
required and did not factor into the final grades. Examinations
consisted of multiple-choice questions derived from the lecture
material. Grades were calculated on four 1-h examinations and
one 2-h cumulative final examination. The final grade reflected
the average days of attendance for female students only. Thus,
the influence of regular attendance on examination performance is more important for female students than male students.
METHODS
required and did not factor into the final grades. The maximum
possible score was 922 points based on four (summer 2010) or three
(summer 2011) 1-h examinations and one 2-h cumulative final examination (each summer session). Examinations consisted of multiplechoice questions derived from the lecture material. Each of the
examinations and the final exam were weighted equally. Final grades
were determined by dividing the total points accrued for the five
exams by the total possible points. Letter grades were determined as
follows: A ⫽ 100 – 85%, B ⫽ 84.99 –75%, C ⫽ 74.99 – 65%, D ⫽
64.99 –55%, and F ⫽ 54.99% or lower.
Analysis. Descriptive statistics are presented as means ⫾ SE. In
addition, a linear regression analysis between the percentage of points
scored and absences for each student was performed to determine the
relationship between class attendance and scores on examinations
(Fig. 1, A and B).
A nonparametric Mann-Whitney rank-sum test was used to compare the percentage of the classes attended for students earning a
grade above and below the class average grade for both female and
male students (Fig. 2). Significance was set a priori at P ⬍ 0.05.
RESULTS
Daily attendance for female and male students combined
averaged 81 ⫾ 2%. There was no difference in daily attendance
between female and male students (female students: 78 ⫾
4% and male students: 81 ⫾ 3%). Examination scores for
female and male students combined averaged 74 ⫾ 2%. There
was no difference in examination scores between female and male
students (female students: 73 ⫾ 2% and male students: 74 ⫾
2%). However, attendance and examination scores varied
Fig. 1. Relationship between days absent and exam score (%) in an undergraduate Exercise Physiology course for both female and male students
combined (A) and female and male students separately (B). The results indicate
a small decrease in course grade with an increase in the number of absences.
This relationship was stronger for female students.
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Design. All procedures were reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board, and informed consent was obtained from all
students before the study began. This experiment was implemented
during the Exercise Physiology class at East Carolina University
during the summers of 2010 and 2011 (EXSS 3805). The class in 2010
consisted of 30 students (13 female students and 17 male students).
The class in 2011 consisted of 21 students (7 female students and 14
male students). The course, offered through the Department of Kinesiology, must be completed in the third or fourth year in order for
majors to meet the graduation requirements in 1) Health Fitness
Specialist (BS), 2) Physical Education (BS), 3) Sport Studies (BS), or
4) Exercise Physiology (BS). Students from other basic science
departments could also enroll. The class was lecture based and
presented using Microsoft PowerPoint slides provided ahead of lecture by the instructor of record. The students could also supplement
the lecture content by reading and consulting their recommended
textbook. Many slides used in class were directly from the textbook,
but these were supplemented by slides designed by the instructor to
address current literature. As such, the students were informed and
reminded periodically that attending lecture was important because a
significant amount of course content was not addressed by the textbook due to scientific advances in various aspects of subdisciplines in
the field of exercise physiology (e.g., mitochondrial bioenergetics).
The instructor has taught this and similar classes at East Carolina
University for ⬎12 years. Didactic classroom engagement occurred 4
times/wk for a period of 120 min/class over the 5-wk summer session.
The course content was specifically constructed to build on the
student’s core requirements of foundational anatomy and physiology.
As such, the beginning semester lectures included a thorough review
of basic skeletal and cardiac muscle architecture, which was followed
by an expansion of details on the cellular/molecular aspects of the
sliding filament and excitation-contraction coupling processes for
muscle tension development. Afterward, a comprehensive view of
cellular bioenergetics and cardiopulmonary physiology was provided.
These topics were presented in a backdrop of exercise performance
and training principles. Finally, the course ended with “special topics”
on environmental physiology, the use and efficacy of ergogenic
supplements, and finally content on cardiovascular, pulmonary, and
metabolic (obesity and cardiovascular) pathologies and the use of
exercise as a prevention and intervention strategy. In all, 16 chapters
were addressed from the textbook. Supplemental materials were
provided by the textbook in the form of a CD, and animations of
important concepts and principles were provided by the instructor on
the BlackBoard website at East Carolina University. All students were
provided with detailed exam outlines at least 1 wk ahead of each test.
Questions were exclusively multiple choice. The final exam was
comprehensive but contained ⬃20% of the questions from materials
after the third exam. Semester exam grades were provided within 24
h of the exam on Blackboard, and the students were coached on how
to compute their performance/grades after each exam. Questions and
advice on performance and study approaches were provided during
office hours.
The experiment was designed not to interfere with the normal
conduct of the course. Attendance was recorded anonymously in each
class, and, although regular attendance was encouraged, it was not
417
How We Teach
418
SEX, CLASS ATTENDANCE, AND EXAM PERFORMANCE
widely for both female and males students (Fig. 1). The class
average for the present course was typical of previous class
averages, based on instructor records (data not shown).
As shown in Fig. 1, there was a small decrease in score with
an increase in the number of absences when female and male
students were combined. Based on the maximum possible
score of 922 points, the average student with perfect attendance
scored 747 points (81%, the intercept), and each absence was
associated with an average decrease of 16.8 points (1.82%, the
slope). Although the score obtained by the average female and
male student with perfect attendance (female student: 83% and
male student: 79%) was not different, each absence was associated with a greater decrease of points for female students
(21.6 points or 2.3%) compared with male students (15.0
points or 1.6%).
The final grade reflected the average days of attendance for
female students only (Fig. 2). Specifically, female students
earning a grade above the average class grade attended 89 ⫾
4% of the classes; however, female students earning a grade
below the average class grade attended only 64 ⫾ 6% of the
classes. These results for female students contrast sharply with
the results for male students. Specifically, there was no difference in the number of classes attended for male students
earning grades above or below the class average (84 ⫾ 3% vs.
79 ⫾ 5%; Fig. 2). Thus, some male students were absent
frequently but scored above the class average, whereas other
male students attended many classes but scored below the class
average. This was not true for female students.
DISCUSSION
In this study, we determined the relationship between class
attendance and scores on examinations for female and male
students enrolled in our undergraduate exercise physiology
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Fig. 2. Class attendance (percentage of attended classes) for both female and
male students who earned a grade above or below the class average in an
undergraduate Exercise Physiology course in which attendance was not mandatory. The final grade reflected the average days of attendance for female
students only. Specifically, female students earning a grade above the average
class grade attended 89 ⫾ 4% of the classes; however, female students earning
a grade below the average class grade attended only 64 ⫾ 6% of the classes.
These results for female students contrast sharply with the results for male
students. Specifically, there was no difference in the number of classes
attended for males earning grades above or below the class average (84 ⫾ 3%
vs. 79 ⫾ 5%). Thus, some male students were absent frequently but scored
above the class average, whereas other male students attended many classes
but scored below the class average. *P ⬍ 0.05.
class of 51 students (20 female students and 31 male students).
A linear regression analysis between the percentage of points
scored and absences for each student was calculated. There was a
greater decrease in score with each absence for female students.
Furthermore, the final grade reflected the average days of attendance for female students only. Accordingly, the influence of
regular attendance on examination performance is more important for female students than male students.
Policies on class attendance vary markedly, with many faculty
members requiring class attendance and counting attendance positively in grade determination and other faculty members not
requiring class attendance. The results from this study document
that the influence of regular attendance on examination performance is more important for female students than male students,
which provokes the provocative thought that policies on class
attendance should be based on the sex of our students. Although
this thought may appear politically incorrect, it seems reasonable
to suggest that women and men learn differently and have different preferred ways of learning (31, 37). It is even possible that
female and male preferences in learning styles are rooted in
evolutionary biology and/or overwhelming social differences
(12). These differences have sparked an emotional debate regarding sex differences in learning (12). This debate is further inflamed by questions regarding “innate differences” between men
and women and theories that claimed that women were biologically incapable of reason (12). However, despite the passions and
political correctness encountered by former Harvard President
Larry Summers (Summers suggested that the gender gap in math
and science might be due to “issues of intrinsic aptitude”), these
are important questions that must be addressed by the academic
community if we are to provide quality education (37).
The results of the present study support previous findings of
the limited impact of class attendance on exam performance
when results from female and male students are combined (Fig.
1A). In addition, the results of the present study are novel in
that they extend previous findings by documenting that the
impact of attendance on exam performance is sex specific. The
present data, therefore, challenge the conventional wisdom or
beliefs held by many educators regarding the importance of
attendance on class performance. The conventional wisdom is
that grades are related to class attendance, i.e., students who
attend classes more frequently obtain better grades and class
attendance dramatically contributes to enhanced learning. The
conventional wisdom appears to be correct for female students
only.
The results from several previous investigations on the
impact of attendance on course grades also challenge the
conventional wisdom (5). For example, although most studies
have reported a positive correlation between attendance and
course grade and document that each day of absence costs
students points in their final grade, the impact of attendance is
rather modest (4, 13, 14, 16, 18, 32, 35, 36). Furthermore,
because these are correlation studies, the direction of the
relationship is unclear. That is, does attending class “cause”
improved grades, or do students who earn better grades attend
classes more? Although these questions cannot be answered by
the present study, it is clear that students who do not attend
classes also earn good grades. Furthermore, a study (36) has
suggested that students who attend classes are often those who
“regulate their own learning.” These students are intrinsically
motivated and feel an obligation to attend class. These students
How We Teach
SEX, CLASS ATTENDANCE, AND EXAM PERFORMANCE
alternatives to students who are unable to attend traditional
classes. It is suggested that most distance learning courses have
the same content and are equivalent to traditional courses. The
interesting component of distance learning is that there are few,
if any, regular class meetings. Rather than regular meetings,
courses are offered in a variety of formats, including online,
videotape, CD-ROM, and print. For many of these formats, the
lecture portion of the course is viewed on a computer, and
students use textbooks and other supplements to complete the
course. These formats give students freedom and require motivation and an acceptance of responsibility. Because of the
success of distance learning combined with the use of recording
and disseminating classroom lectures and various computerbased educational technologies, students are less reliant than
ever on classroom teaching (8). In this context, motivation, or
the desire to learn, influences academic achievement (34). A
component of motivation is the feeling of control over our
environment. Having control requires making choices, one of
which is whether to attend class or not. Making attendance
mandatory may have the impact of reducing the feeling of
control and thereby reducing motivation and negatively impacting achievement.
The academic value of class attendance may also depend on
what students, as well as teachers, do in class (3, 9, 14, 23, 34)
because learning is not a passive activity. Students do not learn
by passively sitting in a classroom listening to the teacher.
Rather, students learn when they are actively involved in
learning. Therefore, students must do more than just passively
listen: they must read, write, discuss, and be engaged in solving
problems.
Achieving these goals should be easy because few students
want to passively sit and listen to a lecturer. When this
happens, the students and the lecturer are often bored, disengaged, and often fast asleep. Therefore, we must engage
students, get them excited, and show them how to gather
information and solve problems. In fact, we must show them
how we learn rather than tell them what we know (10).
In this context, the United States ranks 12th globally in the
percentage of young adults with college degrees (19). This
disturbing reality is due, in part, to that fact that more than half
of America’s college students fail to earn degrees. Students fail
to complete college, mainly because students become uninspired and unchallenged by the content and drop out of school
entirely (33). That is, they lack motivation and interest because, let’s face it, it is more often the rule than the exception
that classes are boring and uninspiring. Thus, the teacheroriented system relying on lecturing to passive students must
be revised to a learner-centered process in which students
become actively involved in their own learning. Otherwise,
what’s the value of attending class (1, 39)?
Limitations. The conclusions and inferences regarding the
relationship between sex, class attendance, and examination
performance, based on results from this study, must be confirmed with other populations in other geographic locations.
Specifically, this study used a relatively small sample obtained
from a single geographic location with potentially unique
characteristics. Accordingly, investigators are encouraged to
extend these experiments to students in other geographic locations with their unique and idiosyncratic settings.
In this context, it is also important to consider that the
specific type of class as well as the attitude and approach of the
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also complete assigned readings, pursue excellence in assignments, and accrue as much knowledge as possible from their
college education (36). In this context, it seems obvious that for
students to succeed academically, they must be motivated! A
notable expression of student motivation is class attendance.
Thus, highly motivated students attend more classes and succeed academically.
Accordingly, although studies have reported a positive correlation between attendance and course grade and document
that each day of absence costs students points in their final
grade, additional variables such as diligence, communication
skills, and study habits are likely also required to fully understand the impact of attendance on grades. Thus, the results
from this study suggest that although attendance is important
for female students, it is not the only or even perhaps the major
indicator of success on examinations. Future studies examining
other important qualities, such as integrity, interpersonal skills,
and willingness to commit to lifelong learning, merit further
investigation.
To extend the above discussion, it seems likely that the true
value of an educational activity, such as attendance, should not
be determined soley by the content the student learns, nor by its
ability to enhance content learning, but also by its ability to
stimulate critical thinking, problem solving, communication,
and interpersonal skills as well as the desire to learn. However,
educational researchers have evaluated the effect of attendance
on learning (performance on exams) in isolation as a singular
variable with only a small emphasis on an evaluation of the
effect of attendance on these additional goals. Furthermore, it
could be argued that student performance on examinations is
highly overrated because students forget much of the content that they memorize. Thus, attempts to evaluate the
effect of attendance on student performance on examinations may be missing a bigger point. Rather, the value of
attendance must be determined by behavioral parameters
that are based on the observation of the student, the student’s work, and the student’s perspective as well as future
effects on performance of learning novel tasks or even
self-taught learning. This involves expanding the evaluation
tools beyond content learning because the impact of educational interventions may be obscured if evaluated only by
student’s performance on exams, i.e., all interventions will
seem equal when based on student’s exam performance.
In this context, the lecture-then-test format may result in an
abundance of memorized facts that are quickly forgotten;
however, activities outside of the class structure may engage
students more deeply. Specifically, students have rated internships, study-abroad programs, and senior thesis or other “capstone” projects, including undergraduate research, as the most
valuable part of their learning experience (24). Importantly,
none of these activities require classroom time, and all must be
evaluated on criteria beyond student performance on examinations. Thus, the most profound learning experiences occur
outside the classroom. This point was emphasized in a controversial book, Academically Adrift: Limited Learning on College Campuses (2), which documented that colleges fall short
by requiring little of students in traditional courses and that
students respond with small efforts outside the classroom.
The results from the present study also provoked the following question: does distance learning confirm the low impact of
regular class attendance? Distance learning offers convenient
419
How We Teach
420
SEX, CLASS ATTENDANCE, AND EXAM PERFORMANCE
students and instructor may impact the results. Specifically, it
is expected that the results obtained in this lecture-based class
may be different from results obtained with problem- or inquirybased instruction.
DISCLOSURES
No conflicts of interest, financial or otherwise, are declared by the author(s).
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
R.N.C. and S.E.D., conception and design of the research; R.N.C., performed the experiments; R.N.C., H.L.L., and S.E.D., interpreted the results of
the experiments; R.N.C., H.L.L., and S.E.D., edited and revised the manuscript; R.N.C., H.L.L., and S.E.D., approved the final version of the manuscript; H.L.L., J.H.C., and S.E.D., analyzed the data; H.L.L. and S.E.D.,
prepared the figures; S.E.D., drafted the manuscript.
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