Measurement and manipulation of body temperature
in rest and exercise
Lennart Teunissen
The work presented in this thesis was conducted at MOVE Research
Institute Amsterdam, Faculty of Human Movement Sciences, VU
University Amsterdam, The Netherlands, in association with and
supported by TNO, Behavioural and Societal Sciences, Training and
Performance Innovations, Soesterberg, The Netherlands.
Reading committee:
Prof. dr. H.-C. Gunga
Prof. dr. G. Havenith
Prof. dr. M.T.E. Hopman
Prof. dr. W.D. van Marken Lichtenbelt
Prof. dr. E.J.W. van Someren
Dr. C.J. de Ruiter
Cover: Hans Bulthuis
Printer: Ipskamp Drukkers, Enschede
ISBN:
978-94-6191-486-6
© L.P.J. Teunissen, Amsterdam 2012
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and
retrieval system, without written permission from the author.
VRIJE UNIVERSITEIT
Measurement and manipulation of body temperature
in rest and exercise
ACADEMISCH PROEFSCHRIFT
ter verkrijging van de graad Doctor aan
de Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam,
op gezag van de rector magnificus
prof.dr. L.M. Bouter,
in het openbaar te verdedigen
ten overstaan van de promotiecommissie
van de Faculteit der Bewegingswetenschappen
op woensdag 28 november 2012 om 11.45 uur
in de aula van de universiteit,
De Boelelaan 1105
door
Lennart Pieter Jan Teunissen
geboren te Amersfoort
promotoren: prof.dr. H.A.M. Daanen
prof.dr. A. de Haan
copromotor: dr. J.J. de Koning
Voor Quirine
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABBREVIATIONS .......................................................................................................... 9
GLOSSARY OF TERMS ................................................................................................. 10
CHAPTER 1 ........................................................ FOUT! BLADWIJZER NIET GEDEFINIEERD.
General introduction
1.1 Human body temperature 15
1.2 Core temperature determination 21
1.3 Heat stress and exercise 31
CHAPTER 2 ........................................................ FOUT! BLADWIJZER NIET GEDEFINIEERD.
Non-invasive continuous core temperature measurement by zero heat flux
CHAPTER 3 ........................................................ FOUT! BLADWIJZER NIET GEDEFINIEERD.
Infrared thermal imaging of the inner canthus of the eye as an estimator of
body core temperature
CHAPTER 4 ........................................................ FOUT! BLADWIJZER NIET GEDEFINIEERD.
Limitations of temperature measurement in the aural canal with an ear mould
integrated sensor
CHAPTER 5 ........................................................ FOUT! BLADWIJZER NIET GEDEFINIEERD.
Telemetry pill versus rectal and esophageal temperature during extreme rates
of exercise-induced core temperature change
CHAPTER 6 ................................................................................................................125
Effect of warm-up and precooling on pacing during a 15-km cycling time trial
in the heat
CHAPTER 7 ........................................................ FOUT! BLADWIJZER NIET GEDEFINIEERD.
Effects of wind application on thermal perception and self-paced performance
CHAPTER 8 ................................................................................................................169
Heat strain and performance in ice hockey goalies
CHAPTER 9 ................................................................................................................185
Summarizing discussion
APPENDIX .................................................................................................................199
Core temperature measurement methods
A.1
A.2
A.3
A.4
Electrical resistance 201
Infrared 209
Radio waves 212
Heat flow 214
SAMENVATTING (DUTCH SUMMARY)............................................................................ 223
DANKWOORD (WORD OF THANKS) ............................................................................... 227
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS ............................................................................................. 231
CURRICULUM VITAE ................................................................................................ 232
Abbreviations
ABBREVIATIONS
avg
= average
Tac
= aural canal temperature
BM
= body mass
Tamb
= ambient temperature
bpm
= beats per minute
Tax
= axillary temperature
°C
= degree Celsius
Tbl
= bladder temperature
CBF
= cerebral blood flow
Tbody
= mean body temperature
CNS
= central nervous system
Tca
= temperature of the inner canthus

 = difference
of the eye
HR
= heart rate
Tcore
= core temperature
Hz
= hertz
Teb
= exhaled breath temperature
ICE
= ice-slurry
Tes
= esophageal temperature
IR
= infrared
Tfh
= forehead temperature
LoA
= limits of agreement
Tgi
= gastrointestinal temperature
MRI
= magnetic resonance imagery
Tnp
= nasopharyngeal temperature
NIRS
= near-infrared spectroscopy
Tor
= oral temperature
p
= statistical significance level
Tpa
= pulmonary artery temperature
PO
= power output
Tpill
= temperature measured by
r
= correlation coefficient
RH
= relative humidity
Tre
= rectal temperature
RPE
= rate of perceived exertion
Tsk
= (mean) skin temperature
RT
= reaction time
Ttr
= temporal radiation temperature
SC
= scalp cooling
Tty-c
= tympanic temperature measured
SD
= standard deviation
TC
= thermal comfort
TS
= thermal sensation
VO2
= oxygen uptake
Tur
= urine temperature
W
= Watt
Tva
= vaginal temperature
WBGT
= wet bulb globe temperature
Tzhf
= temperature measured using
ZHF
= zero heat flux
telemetry pill
by direct contact
Tty-ir
= tympanic temperature measured
using infrared
the zero heat flux technique
9
Glossary of terms
GLOSSARY OF TERMS1
Ambient temperature (Tamb): The average temperature of the environment surrounding
a body (usually air or water), as measured outside the thermal and hydrodynamic
boundary layers that overlay the body.
Body heat balance: The steady-state relation in which total heat gain in the body equals
its heat loss to the environment.
Core temperature (Tcore): Ideally, the mean temperature of the thermal core. In practice
it is represented by a specified core temperature at the site of measurement.
Core, thermal: Those inner tissues of the body whose temperatures are not changed in
their relationship to each other by circulatory adjustments and changes in heat
dissipation to the environment that affect the thermal shell of the body.
Body heat content: The product of the body mass, its average specific heat, and the
absolute mean body temperature.
Heat flow: The amount of heat transferred per unit of time between body parts at
different temperatures, or between a body and its environment when at different
temperatures.
Heat strain: In temperature regulators: 1. Any deviation of body temperature induced by
sustained heat stress that cannot be fully compensated by temperature regulation; 2.
Any activation of thermoeffector activities in response to heat stress that causes
sustained changes in the state of other, non-thermal, regulatory systems.
Heat stress: Any change in the thermal relation between a temperature regulator and its
environment which, if uncompensated by temperature regulation, would result in
hyperthermia.
Homeostasis: General term characterizing the relative constancy of the internal
environment of an organism as being maintained by regulation.
1
Partly from: The Commission for Thermal Physiology of the International Union of Physiological
Sciences. Glossary of terms for thermal physiology. Jpn J Physiol 2001; 51(2): 245-80.
10
Glossary of terms
Hyperthermia/hypothermia: The condition of a temperature regulator when core
temperature is above/below its range specified for the normal active state of the
species.
Mean body temperature (Tbody): The total temperature signal generated by all
thermosensors distributed in the core and shell.
Mean skin temperature (Tsk): The weighted average of a certain number of regional skin
temperatures.
Precooling: The artificial reduction of body heat content prior to exercise.
Selective brain cooling (SBC): Lowering of brain temperature, either locally or as a
whole, below aortic (arterial blood) temperature.
Shell, thermal: The skin and mucosal surfaces of the body engaged directly in heat
exchange with the environment. In addition, those tissues under these surfaces whose
temperatures may deviate from core temperature due to heat exchange with the
environment and to changes in circulatory convection of heat.
Temperature regulation: The maintenance of the temperature or temperatures of a
body within a restricted range under conditions involving variable internal and/or
external heat loads.
Thermal comfort (TC): Subjective rating on how comfortable the thermal environment is
experienced.
Thermal sensation (TS): Subjective rating on the sense of temperature.
Thermoeffector: An organ system and its action, that affect heat balance in a controlled
manner as part of the processes of temperature regulation.
Thermography, infrared: The recording of the temperature distribution of a body from
the infrared radiation emitted by the surface.
Wet bulb globe temperature (WBGT): a composite temperature used to estimate the
combined thermal stress of air temperature, humidity, wind speed and solar radiation on
humans
11
Glossary of terms
12