THE tt£ANINGS OF Yl>RDS
EDmon Bach
Unive r s ity of Massachusetts
VtBERE DO LANGUAGES EXPRESS
WHAT?
Human l anguages p r e sent us wi t h s t ructured u t t e r ances i nvo l v i ng
ph r a s e s , wo r d s, and t h i ngs sma l l e r t han words . They do th i s i n ways
that d i f f e r wi de l y in d e t a i l but end up accomp l i sh i ng pre t ty muc h
the s ame j ob s a r ound the wo r l d .
I wou l d l i ke t o cons i de r he re t h e
k i nd s of mean i ng s that words have , a n d h aw the s e meanings a r e bu i l t
up f rom mo r e e l emen t a ry mean i ng s .
I wi l l t ake as g i ven that t he r e a r e such t h i ngs as word s , i n
eve r y l anguage , and t h a t mo s t o f t he t ime � can be fa i r l y conf i de n t
about i dent i fy i ng t hem .
I wi l l NOT t ake as g i ven that the r e i s a
sha r p and un i ve r s a l l y r e c ogn i z ed d i s t i nc t i on be tween i nf l ec t i ona l
and d e r i va t i ona l p r o ce s s e s , component s, e l emen t s , or whatnot .
I
hope t h a t some of wha t I s ay wi l l cont r i bute to unde r s tanding this
d i v i s i on or the p r ob l ems that i t p r e s e nt s , i f it ex i s t s or doesn't
exis t . Sap i r ( 1 9 2 1 ) a r gued f o r the p sycho l og i ca l r ea l i ty of the
word ( i n cont r a s t t o t he mo r e ·theo r e t i ca l · s t a tus o f the sentence) ,
adduc i ng expe r i ence wi th na t i ve s p e a ke r s of uDWT i t t en l anguage s , who
he c l a imed had l i t t l e h e s i t at i on abo u t s eparat i ng wo r d s in their
t r an s c r i p t i ons.
In a s imi l ar ve i n, 8wade s h ( 1 9 3 9 ) c l a imed a l l
l anguag e s have ·ex t e rna l syntax· wh i l e on l y some ( l i ke Noo tka
Nuu ' chah ' nu l t h ) have · i n t e rna l syn t ax . · � can i nt e r p r e t this a s
the c l a im that a l l l anguages have wo r d s and a gr amma r for pu t t i ng
t hem t oge t he r i n t o comp l ex phrase s , b u t that on l y some l anguage s
have c omp l ex wo r d s , bu i l t out of sma l l e r par t s .
-­
8wade s h ( 1 9 3 9 : p . 7 8 ) on Noo tka :
The expr e s s i on · i n t e r na l syn t ax , ·
u s e d i n the t i t l e i s based on the recogn i tion o f the fac t t h a t
t h e comb i na t i on o f morpheme s i nt o a s i ng l e wo r d i n a syn t he t i c
l anguage h a s the s ame func t i on a s t he j ux t apos i t i on of
i ndependent words in an ana l yt i c l anguage . Th i s func t i on i s
the put t i ng t oge t h e r of s eman t i c un i t s o r · l exeme s · i n t o
s eman t i c comp l exe s expr e s s i ng commu n i ca t i ons o r par t s of
commun i c a t i on s . I f th i s p r o c e s s of p i ec i ng t oge ther is of the
s ame o r d e r whe the r the c omb i na t i on i s a phone t i c un i t ( a
wo r d ) o r a s e quence of phone t i ca l l y i ndependent un i t s , then we
may app l y the t e rm s yn t ax t o t h e p r oc e s s in gene r a l , and
d e s i gna t e the s emant i c [ s i c EB ] theory of un i t�rd comb i na t i on
a s i nt e r na l synt ax , that of t he p l u rlve rb a l c omb i nat i on a s
e x t e r na l syntax . S i nce synthe t i c a s � l l a s ana l yt i c l anguage s
make some u s e of juxtapo s i t i on of wo r d s , a l l l anguage s emp l oY
e xt e rna l syn tax . No t a l l l anguages make use of i nte rna l
syn t ax .
[my empha s i s: EB ]
( Se e G r e enbe rg ' s e s s ay on the def i n i t i on of the wo r d for a summa r y
o f e a r l i e r t h i nk i ng about words ( i n G r eenbe r g , 1 9 5 7 ) and di Sciu l l o
and W i l l i ams ( 1 9 8 7 ) f o r s ome mo r e r e c ent i de a s about the que s t i on . }
Mandy Harvey and
© 1994 by Emmoo Bach
Lynn Santelmann (eds�),SALT IV 16-34, Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University.
The Meanings of Words
My exh i b i t s come ma i n l y f r om l anguage s t h a t have been c a l l ed
" po l y syn t he t i c " and one of my subs i d i a ry goa l s i s to show t h a t t h i s
t e rm cove r s a l ot of imp o r t an t d i f f e r ent ways of be i ng a l anguage i n
wh i ch wo r d s may cons i s t o f qu i t e a f ew sma l l e r compone n t s . ( I s ay
" c omponen t s " to l e ave r o om f o r ope r a t i ons t h a t may not have e a s i l y
i s o l ab l e phono l og i c a l s ub s t ance . ) Denny ( 1 9 8 9 ) not e s that t he r e
have been two senses o f the t e rm " po l ysynthe t i c . " One o f t h em i s the
one I have j u s t used : hav i ng many mo rpheme s o r ope r a t i ons in a
s i ng l e wo r d .
The o the r s e n s e ( acco r d i ng to von Humbo l d t a c c o r d i ng
to Rob i n s a c c o r d i ng to Denny ) i s that a l anguage i s po l ysyn t he t i c i f
wo r d s can s t and a s s en t e nce s . � ' l l cons i de r t h i s se c ond s e n s e
be l ow .
I n o l d e r l i t e r a t u r e , f o r examp l e Sap i r , 1 9 2 1 , t e rms l i ke
po l ysynthe s i s are s ome t i me s exp l a i ned l i ke t h i s : a l anguage i s
po l ysynthe t i c i f i t s wo r d s a r e capab l e of pack i ng many i de a s i nt o
the i r me an i ngs . He r e a r e some exp r e s s ons that encode " many i de as " :
Ha i s l a :
k ' e l t - (monomo r phemi c r o o t ) : r e l uc t ant to go out be cause of
the we a t h e r ( L i nco l n & Ra th , 1 9 8 6 )
Noo t ka : yao(monomo r phemi c root ) t o shout in a p r e s c r i be d manne r
i n the woods a s a d a i l y morn i ng prac t i c e f o r a
mother o f tw i n s for a year a f t e r t he i r b i r th ( Sap i r
and 8wade s h , Noo tka Tex t s )
Eng l i sh : b e an ( v . ) t o h i t ( a b a s eba l l ba t t e r ) on the
head wi t h a p i t ched ba l l ( i ntent i ona l l y? )
Bu t t h e s e f o rms a r e no t examp l e s of po l ysynthes i s . C l ea r l y , wha t
was meant wa s the f i r s t s e n s e ment i oned above : compl ex i n f o rm a s
we l l a s i n me an i ng .
L e t me out l i ne a f ew o f my a s sump t i ons or p r e j ud i ce s about the
gene r a l ways in wh i ch we shou l d t a l k about l anguage :
a)
C a t egor i a l d e f i n i t i ons of s yn t ac t i c c a t egor i e s .
i n t end " c a t egor i a l " he r e i n the sense of c a t egor i a l g r amma r .
a s s ume i t i s not nece s s a r y t o go t h r ough a who l e expos i t i on o f th i s
gene r a l f r amewo rk , wh i ch I am t h i nk i ng about a s a spec i a l s e t o f
cho i ce s wi t h i n t h e gene r a l f r amewo rk o f " Extended MOnt ague G r amma r . "
Two p o i nt s a r e wo r t h unde r l i n i ng : one , I a s s ume that f unc t o r
ca t eg o r i e s c a r ry wi th i n them a spec i f i cat i on of t h e ope r a t i on t h a t
i s u s e d t o comb i ne them wi t h t he i r argumen t s ; two , I a s s ume t h a t
exp r e s s i on s that a r e ca t e g o r i z ed b a s i ca l l y a s func t o r s can f i gu r e as
a rgumen t s for func t o r s t hems e lves .
( Fami l i ar examp l e s : t e rm phr a s e s
as a r gumen t s of ve r b s a n d p r e po s i t i ons , manne r adve rb i a l s a s
a r g ume n t s of ve rbs l i ke behave , t rea t . )
b)
F r egean p r o j ec t i on p r i nc i p l e : Func t o r s requ i r e a rgument s,
or mu s t be s p e c i f i c a l l y l i c ensed .
17
18
Emmon Bach
CATEGOR I ES ABOVE AND BELOW THE VtORD
The gene r a l que s t i on h e r e i s t h i s : a r e the c a t e go r i e s o f
word-format i on and i nf l e c t i on j u s t t h e s ame a s t h o s e o f t h e p h r a s a l
synt ax? The s emant i c que s t i on wi l l then be : a r e the k i nd s o f
me an i ng s exp r e s sed by a f f i xa t i on o r o t he r wo r d - f o rma t i ona l
ope r a t i ons j u s t the s ame a s those exp r e s sed by wo r d s and p h r a s e s i n
the phrasa l syn t ax?
Reca l l the c ommo n i de a about ( s ome ) po l ysynthe t i c l anguage s : i n
such l anguage s , wo r d s a r e j u s t l i t t l e ( o r n o t s o l i t t l e ) s e n t e n c e s .
He re a r e some r e p r e s en t a t i ve exp r e s s i ons of t h i s i de a :
Sap i r , 1 9 2 1 [ paper bd . ed . 1 : p . 3 2 . . . the wo r d may be anyt h i ng f r om
the expr e s s i on of a s i ng l e conc e p t -- conc r e t e o r ab s t r ac t o r
pure ly r e l a t i ona l ( a s i n o f o r b y o r and ) -- t o the
exp r e s s i on of a comp l e t e t hought ( a s in Lat i n d i c o " I s ay "
o r , wi th g r e a t e r e l abo r a t ene s s o f form , i n a Noo t ka ve r b fonn
denot i ng " I have b e e n a c c u s t omed t o e a t twenty r ound ob j ec t s
[ e . g . app l e s ] wh i I e e ngaged i n [ do i ng s o and s 0 1 " ) .
I n t he
l a t t e r c a s e the wo r d b e c ome s i dent i c a l wi t h t h e s e n t ence .
Who r f ( 1 9 4 1 ) : Noo tka h a s no p a r t s of s peech ; t he s imp l e s t u t t e r ance
Long
i s a s e n t ence , t r e a t i ng o f some event o r eve n t - c omp l ex .
sent ences are s e n t e n c e s of sentences ( c omp l ex s e n t ence s ) , not
j us t sentenc e s of wo r d s . ( p . 2 7 0 [ p o 2 4 2 1 in Ca r r o l l . 1 9 56 ] ;
c i ted i n Jacob s e n . 1 9 7 9 . p . 8 9 ) .
And r ews ( 1 9 7 5 : on C l a s s i c a l Nahua t l ) : the theor e t i c a l p r i nc i p l e
beh i nd the organ i z a t i on o f these l e s sons i s tha t the
s entence�rd ( i . e . a wo r d that cont a i ns wi th i n i t s e l f a l l t h e
nuc l e ar cons t i tuen t s nece s s ary t o a " comp l e t e " s en t e nc e ) i s t h e
bas i s of Nahua t l s t r u c t u r e . Th i s i s s o becau s e t he nuc l e a r
func t i ons of sub j e c t and p r ed i ca t e s r e i ne s ca p ab l y p r e s e n t b o t h
i n ve rb words and i n noun words . The sentence�rd t h u s
"
cons t i t u t e s t h e n o rm f o r t h e un i t of u t t e r ance i n the l anguage .
( p . xi i )
I n Nahua t l . i n cont r a s t t o Eng l i sh . a v e r b wo r d a lways
p r esents a comp l e t e s en t ence ; i t i s a " s ent ence � r d " and a s
such unavo i da b l y c on t a i ns the nuc l e a r func t i on s o f s ub j ec t
and pred i cate . The wo r d s whose s t r uc t u r e wa s p r e s en t e d i n
Les sons 2 and 3 [ i n t r an s i t ive v e r b fo nns EB ] a r e , t hen .
comp l e t e sentence s .
( p . 25 )
A sub s t an t i ve wo r d i n Nahuat l . l i ke a ve r b wo r d , i s a
" sentence�rd " . . . . I n e i the r of the two s t a t e s [ ab s o l u t i ve o r
pos s e s s i ve EB ] , a noun wo rd unavo i da b l y conta i n s the
nuc l ea r cons i t u t e n t s of s ub j ec t and p r ed i c a t e .
( p . 147 )
I n the gene r a t i ve t r ad i t i on f r om the beg i nn i ng t o the p r e s en t
there have been many p r op o s a l s that embody i n one f o nn o r o t he r the
c l a im that the i nterna l s t r u c t u r e of words mi r r o r s the s t r uc t u r e s o f
the syn tax p r ope r . and n o t j u s t i n po l ysynthe t i c l anguage s l i ke
19
The Meanings of Words
Kw ' a kwa l a , o r Yup ' i k , but i n ' p a u r o s yn t he t i c '
1 anguage s 1 i ke Eng I i s h . [ A sma 1 1 s amp l e : e a r I y : t r an s f o rma t i o na I
d e r i va t i ona l t he o r i e s of wo r d - f o rma t i on a s i n Le e s , 1 9 6 0 ; m i d d l e :
ana l y s e s i nvo l v i ng s yn t a c t i c d e c omp o s i t i on s a s i n Po s t a l ' s ( 1 9 7 0 )
ana l ys i s of r em i n d ; mo r e r e c e n t l y Bake r , 1 9 8 8 , Ha l e and Ke y s e r ,
1993 . ]
Nuu ' ch a l ' nuu t h ,
wa n t t o d i s c u s s he r e s ome q ue s t i on s t h a t a r i s e i f y o u t ake
s u c h i d e a s s e r i ous l y , as I t h i nk you shou l d .
I am g o i ng t o t r y t o
f r ame my r ema r k s i n a wa y t ha t i s f a i r l y t h e o r y - n e u t r a l .
In
gene r a l , I wi l l b e p o i n t i ng out f a c t s t h a t m i l i t a t e a g a i n s t a s imp l e
I n l i ne
i dent i f i c a t i o n o f wo r d - s t ruc t u r e s and ph r a s e - s t r uc t u r e s .
wi t h my t i t l e and wi t h t he c o n t e x t of t h i s c o n f e r e n c e , I wi l l be
concen t r a t i ng on s eman t i c a s pe c t s of l angua g e .
( Th e s e r ema r ks a r e
d r awn f r om ong o i ng wo r k wh i ch i s a imed a t i nve s t i g a t i ng f o rma l and
s emant i c a s pe c t s o f po l y syn t h e s i s . )
I t s e ems t o me t h a t v i ews of wo r d - f o rma t i on a s s yn t ax-d r i ven
wou l d l e ad u s to expe c t a p o s i t i ve answe r to t h e que s t i on p o s e d
above : the c a t e g o r i e s a n d me an i ngs o f t he wo r d - i n t e r na l g r amma r
shou l d be t h e s ame a s t h o s e of the p h r a s a l s yn t ax .
As i nd i c a t e d above I am go i ng to be t a k i ng a c a t eg o r i a l v i ew o f
c a t egor i e s .
Th i s me ans t h a t i f a f unc t o r c a t egory i s c l a s s i f i ed a s
a l b , s ay , t h e n i t h a s g o t t o be ab l e t o t ake ANY e l emen t o f
c a t egory b a s an a r gume n t t o y i e l d an exp r e s s i on o f c at e g o r y
a.
I n c o;p a r i s o n t o X-ba r sys t ems , t h i s me a n s , f o r examp l e ,
tha t i n t r an s i t i ve and t r ans i t i ve ve r b s ( e t c . ) be l ong t o d i f fe r ent
c a tego r i e s ( i . e . s ub c a t eg o r i z a t i on i s j us t c a t egor i z a t i on ) , i t ems
gove r n i ng d i f f e r e n t c a s e s mu s t be l ong to d i f f e r en t c a t eg o r i e s , i t ems
s howi ng d i f f e r e n t c a s e s mu s t be l ong to d i f f e r e n t c a t eg o r i e s , and s o
on .
G i ven t h i s p r ov i s o we c a n answe r t h e que s t i on r a i s e d a bove i n
t h e nega t i ve : i n gene r a l , t h e c a t e go r i e s o f a f f i xe s a r e d i f f e re nt
f r om t h o s e o f the syn t ax .
The r e i s s ome ove r l ap , a s � mi ght
expec t , but t h e s e t s o f c a t egor i e s f o r t h e two d oma i n s a r e
i nc omp a r ab l e .
T o d emon s t r a t e th i s c l a im wo u l d t ake mo r e t ime and
s pace than � have he r e .
To make i t s e em p r ob ab l e , I wi l l p r e s e n t
s ome f ac t s f r om a numb e r o f l anguage s t h a t s e em t o b e good
cand i d a t e s f o r b e i ng at t he h i gh end o f anyone ' s s c a l e o f
po l ysynthe s i s .
EXHIBITS :
WAKASHAN
He re ' s a b r i e f e s t i n t r oduc t i on to wakas han .
thems e l ve s i nc l ude :
The l anguage s
Southe r n : Makah , Nuu ' chah ' nu l t h ( No o t ka ) , Kyuquo t , N i t i na t , e t c .
No r t he r n : Rwakw' a l a , Ha i s l a , Henaks i a l a , He i l t suk e t c .
The gene r a l s t ructure of a l l of t h em i s : VSO , po l y s n t he t i c ,
suff i x i ng on l y , no c ompound i ng . A con t r ove r s i a l c l a im that h a s been
repeated l y made i s t h a t t he r e i s n o l ex i c a l d i s t i nc t i on b e � e n
Nouns and Ve r b s ( t he be s t a s s e s smen t o f t h i s c l a im, wi t h exten s i v e
gene r a l d i s c us s i on a n d a d e t a i l ed exami na t i on o f Makah , i s Jacobsen ,
20
Emmon
Bach
1979 ) .
The gene r a l s t r uc t u r e o f wu r d s i s t h i s :
( Ex t e nd ed ) Roo t + De rAf *
+
GrAf/C l i t i c s * :
Roo t s a r e e x t ended by v a r i ous o pe r a t i on s o f r edup l i c a t i on ,
expans i on , and s o on , De rAf s t ands for d e r i va t i ona l aff i xe s ,
G rAf / C l i t i c s f o r v a r i ou s gr amma t i c a l a f f i xe s o r c l i t i c s . The r e a r e
mo r e c ons t r a i n t s o n the c omb i na t o r i c s o f d e r i va t i on than i s
r e f l e c t e d i n t h i s f o rmu l a , b u t they have neve r been fu l l y s pe l l ed
out .
I ' l l c i t e f i r s t the twu c l o s e l y r e l a t e d l anguage s of K i t ama a t
V i l l age , B . C . Ha i s l a a n d Hen a k s i a l a . The n ame of t he second
p r ov i de s a good f i r s t examp l e :
�enaks i a l ak ' a l a ' K i t l ope l anguage '
-[k ] ! a1
xen ( a ) - [ k ] s i
-a 1 ( a )
f ew - s c a t t e r ed - con t i nuat i ve [ ? ] - l anguage / s ound
-a
- c omp l e t ive-a
He r e a r e s ome mo r e l ex i ca l i t ems :
1.
2.
3.
4.
' i k s duq " i a ( s . v . i n LR ) b a l d e ag l e
' i k- - s du -q i -a
good - eye / a p pe a r an c e - head - comp l e t i ve-a
l hax "mec ' uaq i a l a have a headache ( -c ' ua means ' i ns i de ' )
xuc ' eq i a c l o s e ha i r cut ( ma l l e t head )
( xuc ' ma l l e t )
' wn' a s eq i a ( have a ) b i g head
The s e examp l e s a l l conta i n t h e l ex i ca l suf f i x -q i ' ( i n/on ) head ' (wi th
r e gu l a r l ab i a l i z at i on a f t e r lui in Ex . ( 1 » . The r e i s a f o rma l
cont r a s t b e bNeen a wu r d l i ke t he l a s t examp l e and a phr a s e l i ke
' um ' a c h i x t ' i
' b i g head ' ( t h i s i s ' um' a s - s h i x t ' i ) wi t h a
' conne c t i ve ' ( i . e . syn t a c t i c ) - s o Not e t h a t t h e r e i s no
connec t i on b e tween the i ndependent l ex i ca l i t em mean i ng ' head ' and
t h e s u f f i x f o r ' head . '
The ne xt examp l e s a l s o show a var i e ty o f f o rms made wi th the
s ame suf f i x e s :
5.
- ! ( e ) xd a s s , b o t t om . bu t t ocks
ge l t ' e�d t a l l p e r son [ ge l t - l ong ]
k" ' enc ' eXd ( hav i ng ) wr i nk l ed bum LR
l a zy pe r s on LR
q ' emc ' exd
6 . -i i na
shou l de r , a rm
' ux" i na '
s hou l de r
deml i na k i ck i n shou l d e r
I ha 1 x "m' ex i na l a have a p a i n i n the s hou l de r
( c f . Yup ' i k exx . b e l ow)
Some no t i on of the ext e n t of de r i vat i ona l ve r sus o t h e r
r e s ou r c e s o f the l anguage s can be g i ven b y t h e s e rough numbe r s f o r
Ha i s l a : the r e a r e about 1 4 0 0 r o o t s anc a r o und f i ve or s i x hund red
The Meanings of Words
d e r i va t i ona l s uf f i xe s ( f i gu r e s b a s e d on L i nco l n and Ra t h , 1 9 8 6 ) .
E l sewhe r e ( Bach , 1 9 9 3 ) I have t r i ed t o show t h a t wo rd- f o rma t i on
i n � k a s han l a rge l y exp r e s s e s r e l a t i ons of opt i ona l mod i f i c a t i on
( " adve r b i a l " me an i ng s ) . Henc e : no " i nc o r p o r a t i on . " To sUbs t an t i a t e
t h i s c l a im wou l d r e qu i r e go i ng exhaus t i ve l y t h r ough the i nven t o r y o f
d e r i va t i ona l p r oc e s s e s , wh i c h I o bv i ou s l y c anno t do he r e . Bu t I
w i l l t r y t o g i ve a r e p r e s e n t a t i ve s amp l e . (� shou l d r e a l l y s p e a k of
s t em- f o rm i ng a f f i xe s and o p e r a t i on s , but I wi l l cont i nue t o i gno r e
th i s r e f i neme n t and t a l k o f wo r d - f o rma t i on . )
Sa.£ TYPES OF DERIVATIONAL SUFF I XES (HAl SLA/BENAKS IALA)
ARGUMENT CATEGOR I ES :
S i nc e i n t h e ve r s i on of c a t e g o r i a l g r amma r f o l l owed h e r e , mod e s
o f c omb i na t i on a r e encoded i n func t o r c a t ego r i e s , t h e ba s i c
c a t eg o r i e s o f s t anda r d sys t ems , � an d � , c ou l d not be
r e p r e sented a s a f f i xe s or o t h e r de pendent ope r a t i ons . But g i ve n the
o p t i on of type- l i f t i ng , the r e i s an easy way t o get a f f ixes to
f u l f i l l the s ame r o l e . Cand i d a t e s for such a f f i xe s in Ha i s l a wou l d
b e t he p r on�i n a l s ub j e c t c l i t i c s ( o r gr amma t i ca l af f i xe s ) , such a s
- ( e ) n/-nugNa ' I ' ( i sg s ub j ec t f o rm) , wh i ch c ou l d b e s pe c i f i e d a s
h i gh e r o r d e r func t i ons o f type « e , t ) , t ) , that i s , the type of
gene r a l i z ed q uan t i f i e r s , o r -u t I
' you sg ' ( i i sg ob j ec t ) of type
« e , ( e , t } ) , ( e , t » , that i s the type of " ac c u s a t i ve " ope r a t o r s
( fu nc t i ons f r om t r ans i t i ve ve r b me an i ng s t o i n t r ans i t i ve s , Keenan .
1 9 87 ) ,
S i nc e ne i the r of the s e k i nd s of e l ement s func t i on at t h e
l eve l of wo r d - f o rmat i on , i n the s e n s e of p r oduc i ng new l ex i c a l
e l eme n t s , I wi l l n o t d i s c u s s them f u r t he r he r e ,
( See be l ow f o r
o t h e r a f f i xe s that mi ght seem t o f i t i n he r e , s u c h a s t h e va r i ou s
" pa s s i ve " a f f i xe s , )
As f a r a s I know the re a r e i n Ha i s l a no af f i xa l coun t e r pa r t s
f o r the othe r a r gument-on l y c a t eg o ry (�) ,
The a b s ence of " nomi nat i ve " wo r d - f o rmi ng a f f i xe s or r u l e s i s
e xa c t l y what we expec t g i ven t he f o l l owi ng a s s ump t i ons :
i ) Wb r d - f o rma t i on r u l e s a r e r u l e s f o r e x t e nd i ng the membe r s h i p
o f l ex i ca l wo r d c l a s s e s ( Dowty , 1 9 7 8 , 1 9 7 9 ) .
1 1 ) The c a t ego r y � ( S , I P , CP e t c . ) h a s no l ex i ca l membe r s .
F o r a nomi na t i ve a f f i x ( on a v i ew l i ke Keenan ' s ( 1 987 ) on seman t i c
c a s e ) wou l d have t o be a funt i on f r om i n t r ans i t i ve ve rb mean i ng s t o
s e n t ence me an i ngs ( of type �) a n d a c c o r d i ng to ( i ) t he output
c a t egor i e s o f wo rd-forma t i ona l r u l e s are conf i ned t o l ex i ca l
c a t egor i e s . Compa r e Kroebe r ' s o b s e rvat i on ( 1 9 0 9 [ 1 9 1 0 ] : 5 7 4 , i n
Sap i r , CW, V , 1 : 5 ( 4 ) :
I f noun sub j ec t and ob j e c t we r e both i nc o r p o r ated ,
i nc o r p o r a t i on as a proce s s wou l d b r e ak down of i t s e l f . A l l
e l emen t s of the s e nt ence , o r a t l ea s t of the c l ause , wou l d b e
21
22
Emmon Bach
con t a i ned in the ve r b , and the syn t ac t i c a l wo r d wou l d be no t
on l y i n s cheme but i n f a c t i den t i c a l wi th th e s e n t ence .
As no t e d above , the r e has b e e n c o n s i d e r ab l e d i s c u s s i on a s t o
whe the r t h e r e i s a l ex i c a l d i s t i nc t i on be tween Noun s and Ve r b s ( and
p r e d i c a t i ve Ad j e c t i ve s ) i n wa ka sha n ( Bo a s , 1 9 4 1 ; Swade s h , 1 9 3 9 ;
J a c o b s e n , 1 9 1 9 . F r om a c a t egor i a l p e r s p e c t i ve , b o t h t h e s e c l a s s e s
a r e usua l l y ana l ysed s emant i c a l l y a s p r ed i c a t e s ( t ha t i s , o f type
jjLJll ) . Wi t hout p r e j ud i ce t o t h e ou t c ome o f t h i s d i s pu t e , I
wi 1 1 d i s c u s s .wha t a r e ( no t i ona l l y ) two ( o r t h r e e ) s o r t s of i t ems
s e p a r a t e l y , but no t e some imp l i c a t i on s of t he d i s c u s s i on f r am and
for word f o rma t i on p r o c e s s e s . As far a s func t i on / a r gument
s t ruc t u r e s go , i t i s qu i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t both type s a c t
syn t ac t i c a l l y a s argument c a t e g o r i e s r a t he r t han func t o r s .
I n any
c a s e , t he r e a r e no a f f i xe s ( o r wo r d- f o rmi ng ope r a t i ons ) t h a t
c o r r e s pond d i r ec t l y to e i the r type .
Ob s e rve r s comi ng to waka shan f r am a backgr ound of Eur op e an
l anguag e s have been s t ruck by t he l a r g e number of l ex i c a l a f f i xe s
t h a t encode conce p t s t h a t a r e exp r e s s e d by sepa r a t e wo r d s i n the i r
l anguage s ( s ee for examp l e Boa s ' s r ema r k s o n t h i s p o i n t i n Boa s ,
1 9 4 1 : 2 3 6 - 2 3 1 ) . The r e a r e two gene r a l p o i n t s to be made he r e about
wa k a s han : F i r s t , a l though t he r e are p l enty o f word-formi ng a f f i xes
and o t he r �pe r a t i ons that r e su l t in f o rms wi t h ve r b a l and nomi na l
k i nd s o f me an i ngs , the r e a r e none t h a t d i r e c t l y encode the mean i ng s
I f these c a t e go r i e s a r e
o f c ommon nouns o r i n t r ans i t i ve ve r b s .
t r e a t ed as bas i c a r gument c a t eg o r i e s ( as i n the wo r k o f Mi chae l
Benne t t ( 1 9 8 4 , 1 9 86 ) , then t h i s f a c t i s unremarkab l e .
Second , a s
i s t he c a s e wi th t h e ' head ' examp l e s above t h e r e i s i n gene r a l no
synch r on i c r e l a t i on sh i p between a f f i xe s wi th par t i cu l a r conc r e t e
me an i ngs and sepa r a t e wo r d s t h a t encode r e l a t ed me an i ngs . Compa re
t he f o l l owi ng :
1.
= i l h ' i ns i de , i n a hous e '
-q i ' on/ i n the head '
-i s ' i n c anoe , veh i c l e '
guk " ­ ' house '
' head '
hi ' xt ' i
ge l 'w' a ' c anoe '
Appa r e n t excep t i ons occur wi th p a i r s l i ke these :
8.
-l i na
on/ i n the shou l d e r
But t h e f r e e f o rm he r e i s d e r i ve d b y a t t a c h i ng t h e s u f f i x t o an
" empty " r o o t , � ' u - ' p l ace , t h i ng . '
ADJUNCT IVE FUNCTORS :
The examp l e s j u s t g i ven i l l u s t r a t e a v e r y l a rge c l a s s of ad j unc t i ve
spec i f i e r s of l oc a t i ons , d i r e c t i ons , a r e a s of the body , and t he
l i ke . As the g l o s s e s a r e i n t ended to i nd i c a t e , t h e s e a f f i xe s
gene r a l ly add s ome t h i ng l i ke a n adve r b i a l o r ad j ec t i va l
s p e c i f i cat i on t o t he s t em t o wh i ch t hey a r e at tached . A f ew mo r e
examp l e s :
9.
-be t
i n ( t o ) ho l e
ga!ebe t a l a c ame i n t o ho l e o r
The Meanings
=z i
on s i de of f l a t t h i ng
-atus downr i v e r
=zu
of Words
open i ng LR
qe l 1 xe z i
eggs i n s i d e body ( o f
s a lmon ) i n or on a b d ome n
ga ' a t u s g e t up e a r l y t o go
d own r i ve r LR
l a a 1 t u s go d own s t r e am LR
t ' i ' be z ud
s t e p on t o ( s ome t h i ng
f l at )
on f l a t th i ng
The s e g l o s s e s a r e s omewh a t mi s l e ad i ng .
The l a s t examp l e i s u s ed a s
a t r ans i t i ve ve rb wh i ch s t i l l r e qu i r e s a n ob j e c t .
The s uf f i x d o e s
n o t f i l l u p a n a rgument s l o t , a s wou l d b e the c a s e i f i t we r e I i ke
a n i nc o r p o r a t e d ob j e c t .
The re a r e qu i t e a f ew wo r d s wh i ch a t f i r s t mi gh t s e em t o b e
formed b y t ak i ng ( fo r examp l e ) a body-pa r t s uf f i x a s a n a r gument o f
t h e s t em to wh i ch i t i s a t t ached :
10 .
' ge l ' t e l d
l ong
+
b u t t ocks , beh i nd
But ( a s Sap i r no t e d f o r s im i l a r examp l e s i n Yana , 1 9 1 1 : 2 1 1
( CW: 4 8 ) th i s wo r d doe s n o t mean " l ong beh i nd " but r a the r h a s a
ba huv r i h i type o f mean i ng : ' hav i ng a l ong beh i nd , t a l l '
( " l ong- a s s ed " ) .
Ano the r k i nd of examp l e i s g i ven by t he wo r d f o r ( p l ay i ng )
baseba l l :
11 .
yayacem' a I ( yaya s sm ' a l
LR )
< �ye s - ' h i t wi t h c l ub o r s t i ck '
+ - s em ' r ound t h i ng
+ - ! a (wi th a-r edup l i ca t i on )
' t ry t o V '
'
He r e - s em i s not s t and i ng i n f o r an ob j e c t b u t i s aga i n
mod i f i ca t i ona l , i n fac t i t i s u s e d a s a r eg u l a r c l a s s i f i e r f o r
coun t i ng r o u n d s o l i d ob j ec t s .
( The form r e f l e c t s a r egu l a r
phono l og i c a l r u l e s + s > c . )
The l oc a t i ona l and d i r e c t i ona l aff i x e s c ove r a w i d e r ange o f
mean i ngs f r om qu i t e spec i f i c ( on beach , i n house , o n c anoe o r b o a t ,
on sur face of wa t e r ) t o qu i t e gene r a l one s muc h l i ke p r e p os i t i on a l
mean i ngs i n l anguage s l i ke Eng l i sh ( i nto , ont o , a t , i n s i de o f , o u t
of ) . Ve ry often , a ce r t a i n s uf f i x wi l l i nc l ud e " ex t ended " a s we l l
a s conc rete mean i ngs :
1 2 . Conc r e t e / ab s t r ac t : -eksa l a
i n a l l d i r e c t i on s , r andoml y , wr o ng ,
mi s -
The examp l e s g i ven s o f a r r e f l ec t the f a c t t h a t mod i f i ca t i ona l
a f f i xe s can be a t t a ched t o s t ems wi t h a wi de var i e ty o f me an i ng s .
I n th i s r e spec t , they r e semb l e syn t ac t i c mod i f i e r s t h a t a r e o f t e n
c r o s s catego r i a l ( fo r examp l e , p r e p o s i t i ona l p h r a s e s i n Eng l i sh ) , b u t
t h i s f a c t wou l d a l so b e cons i s t e n t wi th t h e i dea t h a t s t ems a l l
be l ong t o a s i ng l e open c l a s s of " p r ed i ca t i v e s , " a s i s c l a imed b y
t h e ana lyses of the l anguage a s havi ng no l ex i c a l d i s t i n c t i on s among
23
24
Emmon Bach
Nouns , Ve r b s , Ad j e c t i ve s .
EXOCENTR I C FUNCTORS :
Boas ' s c l a s s i f i c a t i on of s u f f i xe s ( 1 9 4 7 ) i nc l ud e s these
" Ve r b s , " and " Ad j e c t i ve and Adve r b s . "
head i ng s : " Nomi na l Suf f i xe s , "
I n v i � of t h e c l a im t h a t the r e i s no d i s t i nc t i on among t he s e k i nds
of s t ems ( Bo a s , 1 9 4 7 : 2 8 Q ) , t h i s mi ght seem cur i ou s , but Boas makes
c l e a r ( 2 3 7 ) that t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i on i s i n t ended j us t a s a
conven i ence " t o g i ve an imp r e s s i on o f the range of i de a s exp r e s s ed
by s u f f i xe s . " In t h a t s p i r i t , I wi l l g i ve a f ew Ha i s l a examp l e s for
each of Boa s ' s c a t eg o r i e s :
NCM I NAL :
13 .
-as
t r e e , bu s h
' u i ' q ' a s dev i l ' c l ub
-b i s pa r t i c l e , l i qu i d
ce l l Xb i s
ha i l s t one
hemg i l a 1 c ' i cook i ng p o t
=ac ' i r ec e p t ac l e , l a i r
ve s s e l , r ound ho l l ow ob j ec t
- ! i n i i W agent i ve , c l a s s o f p e r s on
He l ' X ' i n i X w
B l ackf i s h , K i l l e r Wha l e c l an memb e r
VERBAL :
14 .
-ut I
-!a
t o catch X
q ' i ' u t l c a t ch a l o t
hunt f o r , gather X c ' a 1 c ' i k w ' a
hunt f o r b i rds ( �c ' i k N ' ­
' b i r d ' ) (wi th a- r edup l i ca t i on )
- ! i Xd
want t o V k ' a l l ' i ida
want t o s l ee p * * LR
- [ g ] i l a t o mak e X , go t o X
Te r r ac e - i l a go t o Te r r ace
ADJECT I VAL
15 .
-p ' a t a s t i ng o f , l i ke
-p ' a l a sme l l i ng o f
- s d u appe a r i ng l i ke ,
-co l ored
' i ' xp ' a swe e t
y ' a 1 x W pa l a s t i nk , s kunk
' i ' xsdu b r i ght c o l o r ed
Many of the l ex i c a l a f f i xe s a r e ( no t i ona l l y ) c r o s s -c a t egor i a l ,
both i n the i t ems wi t h wh i ch they can occur and a s to the r e s u l tant
mean i ngs o f t h e d e r i va t e s . F o r examp l e , the l a s t one l i s t ed a l s o
means " eye " and can pa r t i c i pa t e i n f o rms l i ke tho s e ment i oned above
under body p a r t s . The suff i x - [ g J i l a l i s t ed unde r VERBAL above , a l s o
can be used t o r e f e r t o s ome t h i ng made to l ook l i ke X , an so on .
Aga i n , none of the s e a f f i x e s c a n be r e l a t ed t o i ndependent
wo r d s , and f o r s ome t h e r e i s no i nd ependent wo r d . Among these
de r i vat i ona l p a t t e r n s we c an i nc l ude ope r a t i ons t ha t don ' t a c t ua l l y
have any s egment a l e x i s tence apa r t f r om the i r e f f ec t , such a s the
( t ot a l ) r edup l i ca t i on of s t ems , g i v i ng a r e s u l t an t mean ing ' t o e a t
[wha t eve r t h e s t em deno t e s ] ' .
I c l o s e t h i s s e c t i on wi th a b r i e f ment i on o f seve r a l other
c l a s s e s of a f f i xe s that I wi l l n o t d i scus s he r e .
The
Meanings of Words
COUNTERS : u s e d p r imar i l y on numbe r wo rd s , but s ome a r e s pec i a l i z ed
u s e s of a f f i xe s wi th o t h e r u s e s .
e t c . The s e i nc l ude a numb e r of a f f i xe s that re l a t e to focus ,
speake r a t t i t ude , ev i dent i a l i t y , e t c .
MODAL ,
TENSE and ASPECT : The s e i nc l ude a f f i xe s that r e l a t e to tempo r a l
l oc a t i on ( pa s t , f u t u r e ) , contour o f the act i on ( r epet i t i t i ve ,
g r adua l , mome n t aneous , e t c . ) but i n a way that I v i ew as de r i va t i ona l
r a t h e r than i n f l e c t i on s a l .
VALENCE AFFECT I NG : causat i ve , t r an s i t i v i z i ng , and so on i nc l ud i ng
about f i ve t h a t Boa s c a l l s " pa s s i ve ' ( s ee Lev i ne , 1 9 8 0 , for
pe r s ua s i ve a rgumen t s that the s e l a s t a f f i x e s , wh i ch Lev i ne c a l l s
" f ocus ' a f f i xe s , a r e t o b e t r e a t e d a s wo r d - f o rma t i ona l -- ' l ex i c a l '
r a t he r than s yn t a c t i c ) .
I n g e n e r a l , a l l of the d e r i v a t i ona l a f f i xe s of No r the rn
�kashan l anguage s ope r a t e at the l eve l of s t em- f o rma t i on .
I n X-Ba r
t e rms , th i s wou l d mean that the i r i nput and o u t put ca tegor i e s a r e of
l eve l S .
I t i s po s s i b l e that they a r e uns p e c i f i ed a s to the N and
V feature s .
I f t h i s i s c o r r e c t that wou l d have impo r t ant
It is
con s e quenc e s f o r the gene r a l theory of s yn t ac t i c c a t egor i e s .
uncont r ove r s i a l that i n the syn t ax the r e i s a c l ear d i s t i nc t i on
between ma i n p r ed i c a t o r s o r v e r b s and nomi na l c o ns t i tuents , but th i s
d i s t i n c t i on c ou l d not b e d i r e c t l y p r o j e c t e d f r om the l ex i con i f the
i t ems i n the l ex i c on we r e uns p e c i f i ed .
POR'IMANTEAUS
Among the many c on t r ove r s i e s about bas i c c l au s e s t ructure i n natur a l
l anguage s one l og i ca l l y po s s i b l e que s t i on doe s not s e em t o occur : do
the sub j ec t and the ob j e c t of a t r an s i t i ve s e n t ence t oge the r form a
cons t i t uen t ? And �ng the p o s s i b l e mean i ng s f o r l ex i c a l i t ems we
do not f i nd i t ems l i ke dog-cow' that might be added to a t r ans i t i ve
ve r b ' cha s e ' t o mean ' dog cha s e s c ow . ' Ye t p o r tmanteau fo rms for
comb i na t i on s o f sub j ec t s and ob j ec t s a r e f a i r l y c ommo n ( for exmnp l e
i n the I r oquo i an and Esk imo l anguage s ) . Categor i a l l y , we can th i nk
of t he me an i ng s of the s e f o rms a s func t i on s f r om t r ans i t i ve ve r b
me an i ngs t o s en t ence me an i ng s . MO r eove r , i f we adop t t h e v i ew o f
p r onomi na l a f f i x e s o r agr e ement ma r ke r s a s f un c t o r s , t h e n t h e fo rms
a r e j us t garden va r i e ty c ompo s i t i ons of func t i on s .
•
Cent r a l Yup ' i k o f f e r s a r i ch s e t of examp l e s of such fo rms for
Sub j ec t - Ob j e c t ( Re l a t i ve
Abso l u t i ve ) pa i r s , for three pe r s ons ,
t h r e e n umb e r s thus 63 c omb i na t i ons ( 9 t ime s 9 mi nus the mi s s i ng
fo rms f o r ' r e f l ex i ve ' c omb i na t i on s , wh i ch a r e exp r e s sed
ana l yt i ca l l y ) . MO r eove r , the c omb i nat i ons are gene r a l l fused
further wi th mode a f f i xe s s o we have ac tua l l y a further d imens i on
r e su l t i ng i n c hunks that c o r r e s pond even l e s s t o pos s i b l e l ex i ca l
i t ems ( ? ' d og [ sub j ec t ] -c ow[ ob j ec t ] -dec l a r a t i ve ' ) . He r e are a few
fo rms f r om Cent r a l Yup ' i k ( c f . J a c obson , 1 9 8 4 ) :
-
,
25
26
Emmon Bach
see
t a ng r r 1 6 . Some Yup ' i k t r ans i t i ve end i ngs ( i nd i c a t i ve ) :
( c f . Jacobson , 1 9 8 4 )
I SG- I I DU :
tang r r amt e k
I SG- I I SG :
tang r r amken
I SG- I I I SG :
t ang r r aqa
I SG- I I PL :
t angr ramc i
I SG- I I I PL :
tang r r anka
I SG- I I I DU :
tang r r agka
I DU- I I SG :
t ang r r amegten
I DU- I I DU :
t a ng r r amegtek
I I DU- I DU :
t ang r r a r pe t egkuk ' "
I I DU- I SG :
tang r r a r pe tegnga
I I DU- I I I DU :
t angr r agtek
I I DU- I I I PL :
t ang r r a t e k
I I PL- I DU :
t a ng r r a r pe c i kuk . . .
I I PL- I SG :
tang r r a r pec i a
I I I SG- I DU :
t angr r aakuk . . .
I I I SG- I SG :
tang r r aanga
I I I PL- I I I PL :
t ang r r a i t
Often , a s i n Yup ' i k , such fo rms r e s i s t fu l l ana l y s i s i nt o sma l l e r
componen t s , and seem t o d i s p l ay the c r os s p l ay o f a numbe r of
conf l i c t i ng and par t i a l ana l y s e s and ana l og i e s .
The r e i s a l e s s on he r e . � p r obab l y c anno t s ay f l a t out that
the se a f f i xe s represent mean i ngs that cannot be mean i ngs of wo r d s i n
any l anguage , s i nce the re a r e l anguage s that have f o rms ( us ua l l y i n
some s o r t o f AUX func t i on ) that a r e ve r y s imi l a r t o the Yup ' i k
examp l e s . S o the r e l evant d i s t i nc t i on i s s ome t h i ng l i ke t h a t
unde r l y i ng t he d i s t i nc t i on be twe e n a f f i xe s , c l i t i c s o r p e r ha p s
" func t i ona l c a t egor i e s " ( i n the s ense of s ome cur r ent G B type
theor i e s , c f . e . g . Spe a s , 1 9 9 0 ) on the one hand , and other i tems :
fu l l wo rds , nonfunc t i ona l wo rds , a r gumen t c a t egor i e s . The r e i s a
l o t mo r e t o be sa i d and thought about h e r e .
I NSTRUMENTAL CAUSAT IVES
The examp l e s just cons i dered f r om Yup ' i k wou l d not usua l l y be
t hought of a s pa r t i c i pant s i n wo r d- f o rma t i ona l o r d e r i va t i ona l
proce s s e s . MO r e on the der i vat i ona l s i de a r e the f o l l owi ng s o r t s of
i t ems f r om Lakhot a and r e l a t ed l anguage s , wh i ch s e rve t o d e r i ve f r om
i nt r ans i t i ve ve rbs caus a t i ve s wi th a s p e c i f i ca t i on o f i n s t r ument o r
manne r . He r e a r e some examp l e s f r om Lakho t a ( f r om Geo r ge Wh i r lwi nd
So l d i e r , UMa s s c l as s no t e s , 1 9 87 ) :
1 7 . Lakho t a " i ns t rumenta l /manner " causat i ve s :
s l ohan
kas l ohan
nas l ohan
wos l ohan
pahomn i
nahomn i
wohomn i
kashuzhe
nashuzhe
pashuzhe
pashuzhe
gmiya
kagmi ya
nagmiya
c r awl , s I i de
cause to c r awl , s l i de by s t r i k i ng
cause to c r awl , s l i de wi th foot
c r awl , s l i de ( cause wi th s ome t h i ng )
push ar ound
push ar ound wi th foot
push a r ound wi th some th i ng
push dawn by s t r i k i ng
push ove r wi th foot
push ove r wi th i n s t r ument
push ove r , dawn , cause t o f a l l ( t o p i eces )
r o l l ar ound
r o l l ( c ause by s t r i k i ng )
r o l l ( cause wi th foot )
( c f . Boas & De l o r i a , 1 9 4 1 )
The Meanings of Words
Cha f e ( 1 9 7 6 ) cons i de r ed such f o rma t i on s as s ugge s t i v e ev i d e n c e f o r
t h e r emo te re l a t i onsh i p of I r o quo i an , S i ouan , a n d Caddoan .
The
gene r a l p a t t e r n of " add i ng two p i e c e s of me an i ng " s e ems to me ,
howeve r , to be not tha t unusua l .
I t i s h i gh l y r emi n i scent o f t he
b i t s and p i e c e s that we come up wi t h when we p a r a p h r a s e the me an i ngs
of l ex i c a l i t ems . The a f f i xe s o r r u l e s i n t r oduc i ng t hem a r e
examp l e s o f a common enough wo r d - f o rma t i ona l p r o ce s s : add i t i on o f an
a r gument p l ace . �at I c l a im i s that the pa r t i cu l a r me an i ng s
( ' cause to a b y me ans o f hand ' and t he l i ke ) a r e n o t me an i ng s o f t he
k i nd that a r e assoc i ated wi t h l ex i c a l wo r d s i n t he ph r a s a l o r wo r d­
ex t e r n a l syn t ax .
AFF I XES AND STEM)
I t i s i n t e r e st i ng to a s k about l anguage s l i ke Ha i s l a or Yup ' i k
wi t h r i ch sys t ems o f de r i va t i ona l p r o c e s s e s , wh e t he r the r e a r e any
p r i nc i p l e s of cho i ce in de t e rmi n i ng whe ther a pa r t i cu l a r me an i ng
wi l l be encoded i nto an a f f i x o r i n t o a r o o t o r s t em . Que s t i on s of
th i s s o r t have been posed by Car l so n ( 1 9 8 3 ) and Bybe e ( 1 9 8 5 ) ( and
no t many othe r s ) , but pr ima r i l y about i t ems mo r e on the i nf l ec t i ona l
end . The be s t way to get s ome f e e l for the pos s i b i l i t i e s and to
beg i n a sys t emat i c i nve s t i g a t i on i s t o peruse e x i s t i ng d e s c r i pt i ons
such as Boas ( 1 9 4 7 ) on Kwakw' a l a (wi t h extens i ve l i s t s of suf f i x e s ) .
The fo l l owi ng examp l e s g i ve a sma l l e s t h i nt of the r ange of mean i ngs
for Yup ' i k d e r i vat i ona l aff i xe s o r pos tbas e s , a l l f r am Jacob s on ,
1 9 8 4 ( t he spec i a l ma rk i ng s at the f r on t end of the aff i xe s encode
var i ous mo r pho l og i c a l o r mo r phophonemi c e f f e c t s of aff i xat i on ) :
1 8 . %a l l i qe-
19 .
20 .
21 .
22 .
23 .
to suffer the l ack of be i ng V ( f r om %a t e - O and
-1 i qe [ 2 ] )
p i n i r - to be s t r ong . p i n i a l l i quq he i s hav i ng a hard t ime
because he i s �ak
puq i g- to be i n te l l i gent puq i a l l i quq he i s s u f f e r i ng f r om the
l ack of i nt e l l i gence
: ( ng } a r ( a r ) t e- [ 2 ] ( a l s o - c a r ( a r } te - ) t o h i t/get h i t in or on
one ' s N ( body p a r t )
i i eye
i i nga ' r tuq
i t was h i t r i gh t i n t h e eye
i i nga r t aa he h i t it r i ght in the eye
@5+cetaaq ( a l s o @5 +c i t aaq )
and @5 + c e t a a r ( s ome t h i ng used ) t o c a u s e o n e t o V ( and wi th . . r - ) t o t ry
to cause one to V ( f r om @5+ - c e t e - [ 1 ] l e t , a l l ow, pe rmi t ,
cause , compe l t o V and +aar- t o V r e p e a t e d l y )
tuqu- to d i e
tuquc e t aaq po i son
qavar- t o s l eep
qava r c e taaq s l eep i ng p i l l
@5+c i a r ( a r ) - to wa i t p a t i en t l y f o r ob j ec t t o V (wi t h
i n t r ans i t i ve end i ngs r e f l ex i ve mean i ng )
kuml ate- O t o be co l d
kuml ac i a r araa he i s pat i ent l y
wa i t i ng for i t t o c o o l
@3 : ( u ) c i t e - [ 3 ] to V i n p l ac e o f , i ns tead of , o r f o r ( bu t n o t i n
t h e sense of ' f o r the s ake of ' )
c a l i - to work
ca l i t aa he i s work i ng i n h e r p l ac e
-cu l ngu- t o b e i nd i s p o s ed wi th r e spect t o one ' s N ; t o have
t r oub l e V- i ng
27
Emmon
28
Bach
a q s a k s t omac h
a q s a c u l nguunga
me r t a r - t o f e t c h wa t e r
me r t ac u l nguuq
h a v e a s t omac h - a c h e
he i s hav i ng t r ou b l e
f e t c h i ng wa t e r
2 4 . -cur l ag- t o b e i n t e r f e r ed wi t h wh i l e V- i ng ; t o V wi th
uns a t i s f a c t o ry r e s u l t s
qava r - t o s l e e p
qvacu r l ag tu q h e d i dn ' t s l ee p we l l
2 5 . %i l i t a q dev i c e f o r p r o t e c t i ve l y b i nd i ng N , f o r de a l i ng w i t h N ,
f o r c oun t e r ac t i ng V
e s va i l i t aq
brass i er
e sva i q b r e a s t
c i un e a r
c i u t a i l i t aq e a nnu f f , e a r b a n d
ngev ' a- mucus
ngeva i l i t aq handke r ch i e f
2 6 . -kc ak-
s ome t h i ng t h a t l oo k s l i ke N , wi t h po s s e s sed end i ng : one
that l ooks l i ke p o s s e s s o r ' s N
angyaq b o a t
angyakcak s ome t h i ng that l ooks l i ke b o a t
angya kc aka ( l s g p o s s ) a b o a t tha t l oo k s l i ke
my b o a t
( "my b o a t - o i d " : [my-boa t ] -o i d ]
2 7 . -le l l r i i k ( dua l ) , -le l l r i i t ( p I ) the pa i r o r g r oup
whe r e o f one membe r h a s the o t h e r as h i s N . Wi t h non- s i ng
un-pos s e s s e d end i ng
a i paq s pouse
a i page l l r i i k ma r r i ed c oup l e
nu l i r r f wi fe
nu l i r qe l l r i i k ma r r i ed coup l e
maur l uq gr andmo t h e r mau r l uqe l l r i i k gr andmother and g r andch i l d
2 8 . -le - fee l V t owa r d , t o V ( ob j ec t )
t emc i - ( r o o t ) humor
t emc i ka a he f i nd s i t humo r ou s , f unny
No t e in c ompar i s on t o Ha i s l a examp l e s ( 2 ) , ( 5 ) , ( 6 ) , the Yup ' i k
examp l e s ( 1 9 ) , ( 2 3 ) , ( 2 5 ) s h aw j u s t t he oppos i t e cho i ce wi t h r e s pe c t
t o s t em vs . a f f i x .
LEXI CAL
DER IVAT IVES AND C<M'OUNDS
Ne i t he r t he waka s han l anguag e s nor Yup ' i k do any compound i ng .
As s ome of the examp l e s we ' ve l ooked a t shaw, i t l ooks a s i f a l o t
of the burden that i s c a r r i ed by c ompound i ng i n a l anguage l i ke
Eng l i s h i s ca r r i ed by c omb i na t i on s of bound a f f i xe s ( o r oper a t i on s )
and r o o t s i n the f o rme r l anguage s . F r om t he p o i nt of v i ew o f t h o s e
l anguage s , o n e m i g h t j us t a s we l l say : i n Eng l i sh a n d s imi l a r
l anguage s , f r e e fo rms c an b e t r e a t ed a s a f f i xe s b y spec i a l r u l e s i n
the wor d -gr amma r .
I NTERACT I ONS OF Y1DRD- AND PBRASE-GR#Mt'IAR
As f a r as the i n t e r pene t r a t i on of word- i nt e r na l and
word-ex t e r na l syn t ax goe s , t he r e s e ems t o be an i n t e r e s t i ng
d i f f e r ence be tween the n o r t h e r n and t h e southe rn b r anche s of t he
waka s han l anguage s .
I have n o t s een any th i ng i n t h e forme r
l anguage s l i ke t he c l i t i c- l i ke behav i o r of d e r i va t i ona l a f f i xe s that
is d i s cu s sed i n Ro s e ( 1 9 8 1 ) for Kyuquo t , wh e r e an a f f i x that s e ems
t o mean s ome t h i ng l i ke Ha i s l a [ g J i l a ' make ' above can a t t ac h t o
the f i r s t e l ement i n a mod i f i ed nami na l cons t i tuent ( examp l e s and
numbe r i ng f r am Ro s e , 1 9 8 1 : 2 9 4 f f . ) :
-
( 3 4 2 ) � ' ap i c t
He made a c anoe
The Meanings of Words
/ � ' ap i c - ( � ) i ! / c a noe-make . .
( 3 4 3 ) Xu l i · l � ' ap i c
He made a n i c e canoe
( 3 4 4 ) mU ' k w i ' l xu ! � ' a p i c He made four n i c e c anoe s
Comp ar e the a l t e r nat i ve exp r e s s i on , us i ng the root ? u - , wh a t
Ro s e c a l l s ' a r e f e rent i a l copy of t h e NP ' :
He made a ( n i ce ) canoe
( 3 4 5 ) ?uk w i ' ! ( Xu ! ) � ' ap i c
/
i t -make n i c e canoe
/ ?u- ( � ) i !
The " i nc o r p o r a t e d " nomi na l mus t be nonpar t i cu l a r :
( 3 4 6 ) � ' ap i c ! He made a ( * the ) canoe
( 3 4 7 ) ?uk w i ' ! � ' ap i c i he made the c anoe
/ ?u- ( � ) i ' ! � ' ap i c - ? i ' /
i t -make . . canoe -DEF
Imp l i c i t nomina l s :
( 3 4 8 ) Xu l i ' !
He made a n i ce one
( 3 4 9 ) mU ' k w i ' ! Xu l He made four n i ce one s
( 3 50 ) X ' i Omaq s na � a ' l He was t e a s i ng a woodpecke r
/ X ' i Q w -ma-q- ( c ) sna�a : l / r ed-N�COMB- t e a s e . .
( 3 5 1 ) ?aXc ' aq s i ' k
He made two of t hem (wa t c he s )
/ ? aX-c ' aq-s i : k M /
two- . . ve s s e l -f i n i sh
No t e ( p . 2 9 5 : )
( c an ' t r e p e a t s t em)
* � ' ap i c l � ' ap i c e t c .
*� ' ap i c l Xu l e t c . ( c an ' t use head for base and l eave mod i f i e r s )
but :
( 3 5 2 ) ? i ' Q i ' l Xu ! � ' ap i c
( 3 5 3 ) xu l i ' ! t an i � ' ap i c
He made a r ea l l y n i ce c anoe
He made a r e a l l y n i ce canoe
The l a s t pa i r i s e s p ec i a l l y t e l l i ng , s i nc e t he adve r b i a l e l emen t s
mean i ng ' r ea l l y ' d i f f e r syn t a c t i ca l l y i n c omi ng bef o r e ( - ( � ) i l )
and a f t e r ( t an i ) the i r a r gumen t and the a f f i x i s a t t ached t o
t h e f i r s t e l emen t of t h e phr a s e accord i ng l y .
Wi t h the s e examp l e s f r om Kyuquo t we move beyond t h e I imi t s o f
word- i n t e r na l s emant i c s . Th i s br i e f excur s i on i nt o S ou t he r n
�kashan h a s i l l u s t r a t ed o n e o f t h e impo r t an t d ime n s i ons o f
d i f f e r ence among po l ysynthe t i c l anguage s : the ext e n t t o wh i ch
d e r i va t i ona l proce s s e s can i nvo l ve phr as a l syn t ax .
ENGL I SH AS A WAKASHAN LANGUAGE
I t i s often fun and en l i gh t e n i ng t o l ook back a t our mo r e
fami l i a r l anguage s f r om the po i nt of v i ew o f l e s s f ami l i ar one s .
He r e , I wi l l make a few observa t i on s about Eng l i s h i n t h a t s p i r i t .
Eng l i sh has c ompounds , Ha i s l a and Yup ' i k do not .
I s ugge s t ed
above tha t many comp l ex d e r i va t i ve s i n Ha i s l a a r e r em i n i s cent o f
Eng l i sh compounds . So we can e a s i l y repr oduce the s eman t i c s t r uc tu r e
of t h e Ha i s l a word f o r e ag l e b y me ans of a c ompound l i k e
29
Emmon Bach
30
wh i t ehead or (mo r e exac t l y s t i l l ) b r i gh t co l orhead (whe r e
we have t o unde r s t and b r i gh t c o l o r a s a l r e ady hav i ng t he
convent i ona l i z ed mean i ng 'wh i t e ' ) , and t h i s wou l d even be a common
pa t t e r n f o r f o rmi ng nouns f o r s p e c i e s of an ima l s , b i r d s , k i nd s of
p e op l e , e t c . : b l ue f i n , redb r e a s t , g r aybea r d , pa l e f a c e . Wh a t i s
d i f f e r e n t i s t h a t the Ha i s l a wo r d i s bu i l t not b y c ompound i ng
( put t i ng t oge t h e r two o r mo r e ' f r e e ' fo rms ) but by a f f i x i ng a bound
So we mi gh t ask : doe s Ha i s l a have s ome t h i ng that Eng l i sh
mo r pheme .
doe s n ' t ? The r e i s a t r ad i t i on t h a t s e ems to say Ye s t o th i s
que s t i on , name l y Ha i s l a (�k a shan , o t h e r f ami l i e s l i k e Sa l i shan ) has
t h i ngs c a l l ed var i ou s l y ' s emant i c ' or ' l ex i c a l ' s uf f i xe s . Mo r e on
th i s be l ow . But f i r s t , some Eng l i sh t h i ngs that a r e somewhat but
no t exac t l y l i ke t he s e suff i xe s .
Eng l i s h ( l i ke many l anguage s ) shows spec i a l f o rms of mo r pheme s
that occur on l y i n c l o s e comb i na t i on i ns i d e wo r d s . MO s t of t he s e
a r e l e a rned L a t i no-G r aeco [ ! ] mo r pheme s , b u t t h e r e a r e s ome
p e r f ec t l y o r d i na r y n a t i ve one s a s we l l .
29 .
-man , - l and , - s a l a s i n
s e a l ubbe r s )
p o s tman , F i n l and , ma i ns a i l ( on l y f o r
Bu t the ma j o r i ty of t h e s e s p e c i a l c omb i n i ng f o rms o c c u r i n l e a rned
or ' fo r e i gn ' i t ems ( l i ke Gra e c o - ) : we have s e r i e s l i ke :
30 .
syn t ax , syn t a c t - ; synt ac t i c , s yn t a c t i c o- ( s eman t i c ) e t c .
Somewhat c l o s e r a r e i t ems t h a t o c c u r on l y as c omb i n i ng forms . we
can co i n a wo r d l i ke l e ucocepha l i c ( 'wh i t e-headed ' ) , but the r e
a r e n o f r e e fo rms l i ke l e uk ( os } o r cepha l ( os ) .
J a p ane s e
a l s o h a s l o t s of S i n o - J a pene s e mo r pheme s t h a t occur a s such on l y i n
c om i na t i on :
3 1 . den ' e l ec t r i c i ty ' ; n i t i ' day ' ( denwa , densha ; n i t i yoob i e t c . )
[ gr a t i a M. Takaha s h i ]
Two t h i ng s a r e d i f f e r ent about t h e s e bound f o rms o f Eng l i sh ( and
Japane s e ) as aga i n s t the Ha l s l a i t ems : ( 1 ) i n the f o rme r c a s e the
i t ems s e em more l i ke r o o t s o r s t ems , whe r e a s in Ha i s l a the r e i s no
doub t about the a s s i gnment of the i t ems t o the c l as s of suf f i xe s
( note t h a t t he Eng l i sh i tems c an o f ten o c c u r a s f i r s t membe r s o r
l a t e r membe r s o f wo r d s ) ; ( 2 ) t h e l earned Eng l i s h ( and J apane s e )
i t ems seem to be ma rked off a s p a r t i c i pant s i n a s p e c i a l subsys t em
of t he l anguage ( of t e n s i gna l l ed i n l i ngu i s t i c d i s c us s i ons and
ana l y s e s by f e a t u r e s l i ke F o r e i gn , -Yama t o , e t c . ) wi t h spec i a l
t h i ngs t o say about t he i r c omb i na t o ry po tent i a l and phono l ogy . To
appr oach t he Ha i s l a e ag l e wo r d we wou l d have to have s ome
mons t r o s i ty l i ke wh i t e -cepha l or imag i ne t h a t pa t e s ay cou l d
on l y occur a s a s u f f i x and make u p a wo r d l i ke wh i t e -pa t e .
ST I LL and a l l :
Eng l i sh does have some genu i ne a f f i xe s wi t h me an i ngs t h a t a r e qu i t e
c ompa r ab l e to t he mean i ngs o f p a r t i cu l a r Ha i s l a l ex i c a l suf f i x e s . A
The Meanings of Words
31
f ew examp l e s :
32 .
-ade : o r angeade , l emonad e , l ime ade , g r ape f r u i t ade ?
I wou l d c omp a r e th i s s uf f i x t o i t ems l i ke Ha i s l a - b e s me an i ng
' l i qu i d f r om o r sma l l p a r t i c l e s o f ' ( s now, mi l k , e t c . ) , Kw - a s d i
' d r i ed me a t o f ' e t c . ( N� s f o r f oods s e em to exc i t e the energ i e s
of Ame r e ng l i s h wo r d smi t h s : - b u rge r , - f u r t e r , -wi cb e t c . ) .
33.
- ( e ) t e r i a : c a f e t e r i a , wa s ha t e r i a
' p l ac e o r e s t ab l i shment f o r '
( 3 3 ) i s qu i t e c omp a r ab l e t o Ha and Rw s u f f i x e s l i ke =as , = i l a s
' p l ace ( e t c . ) f o r . '
34 .
35 .
36 .
37 .
-ga t e : wa t e r g a t e , Wh i t ewa t e rgate , I r anga t e , ska t ega t e ( =
Tonyaga t e )
-er : n o t j u s t agen t i ve - e r but a l s o - e r f o r t oo l
n ame s , p e r s on f r om , b i rdnames a s i n baker , thr e s he r ,
t h r a s h er , wa r b l e r , New Yo rke r
-o i d : humano i d , and r o i d e t c .
( c f . Yup ' i k ( 2 6 ) : " my boat-o i d "
� " the t h i ng t h a t i s l i ke my boat " )
-ee : payee , emp l oyee , e t c .
Ha i s l a and Kwakw' a l a h ave a numbe r of comparab l e suf f i xe s : -n i x · ,
- l g i s , -axsem (woman f r om) , =ayu ( i ns t rument ) , =em ( i ns t rument )
etc .
F i na l l y , l i ke Kyuquot , Eng l i sh has a " ph r a s a l " de r i vat i ona l suf f i x :
37 .
- i sh X- i sh : somewhat X , somewhat l i ke an X
green i s h boy i sh , MOnday mo rn i ng i sh
.
-
No t e tha t same accoun t s of t he Pas s i ve i n Eng l i sh t r e a t i t as a
phr a s a l ope r a t i on ( Ba c h , 1 9 8 0 ; Keenan , 1 9 80 ) .
Eng l i s h s e ems t o be poor or e nt i r e l y l ac k i ng i n ' adve rb i a l '
aff i xe s l i ke Ha i s l a - i s ' on beach ' = i l b ' i n house ' but par t i c l e s and
prepos i t i ons in Eng l i sh seem to func t i on i n somewhat the same way ,
wi th i d i oma t i c comb i na t i on s a c t i ng as l ex i c a l de r i va t ives .
F I NAL TBOUGBTS
Maybe l anguages d i f f e r mo r e i n the extent to wh i ch they e l aborate
c e r t a i n pos s i b i l i t i e s t han a b s o l u t e l y . hence " pa r ame t e r s " shou l dn ' t
be t hought o f i n t o o g l oba l a way .
I n th i s b r i e f e s t l ook a t a few po l ysynthe t i c l anguages
seen a numb e r of d i f f e r ent ways of be i ng po l ysynthe t i c :
we
have
chO i ce o f c a t egor i a l r e l a t i ons exp r e s sed ( ad j unc t s vs .
argumen t s ) ;
i ndependence v s . i n t e r r e l a t edne s s of word- i nt e r na l and word­
ext e r na l gr amma r ;
32
Emmon Bach
use of wo rd- i nt e rna l mod i f i c at i ons as d e r ivat i ona l vs .
inf l e c t i ona I .
I n gene r a l , the expe c t a t i on that the ca tego r i e s and mean i ng s o f
wo r d- i n te r na l cont ruc t i ons wi l l f o l l ow c l o se ly tho s e o f the ph r a s a l
g r amma r i s not fu l f i l l ed . Me an i ngs of aff i xes a r e o f t en not r e l a t ed
to the me an i ng s of the i r hos t s as a rgumen t s to func t i ons and o f t e n
encode comp o s i t i ons o f f unc t i ons and other comb i na t i ons of me an i ng s
t h a t a r e n o t a s soc i a t ed as such comb i na t i ons wi th i nd i v i dua l l ex i ca l
i t ems . Hen c e , i n my op i n i on , the r e l a t i ve i ndependence o f t he
doma i n s of wo r d gr amma r and phrase gr amma r i s suppo r t ed .
*Acknowl edgmen t s : I wou l d l i ke to thank my expe r t s on Ha i s l a and
Henaks i a l a ove r the yea r s for the i r he l p , e s pec i a l l y Gordon
Robe r t son , Samson Ro s s , Ame l i a Grant , Kay G r ant , I r ene S t a r r , Don
S t ewa r t , and the l a t e J e f f r ey Lega i k and the l a t e Mi ke Sh� . F o r
i n t r oduc i ng me t o Lakhot a I am gratefu l to George Wh i r lwi nd So l d i e r ,
I am
and for f i r s t s t eps i n Cent r a l Yup ' i k I thank wa l k i e Cha r l e s .
g r a t e f u l t o Ba rbara H . P a r t e e for comme n t s on the p r e sent pape r .
I
t ake f u l l r e s pons i b i l i ty for any e r r o r s of fac t , i nt e r pr e t a t i on , o r
taste .
References
Andrews , J . R i chard .
1975 .
I n t roduc t i on t o C l a s s i ca l Nahua t l .
Aus t i n and London : Un i ve r s i ty of Texas Pre s s .
Bach , Emme n .
1 9 80 . In defense of pa s s i ve . L i ngu i s t i c s and
Ph i l osophy 3 : 2 9 7 - 3 4 1 .
Bach , Emme n .
1 9 9 3 . On the semant i c s o f po l ysyn t he s i s . BLS
1 9 : 3 6 1 - 3 6 8 . Guent e r , Joshua S . , Ba rbara A. Ka i se r , and Che r y l
C . Zo l l , e d s . Proceed i ngs o f t h e Nine t een th Annua l Mee t i ng o f
t h e Berke l ey L i ngu i s t i c s Soc i e ty . February 1 2 - 1 5 , 1 9 9 3 .
Bake r , Ma r k C .
1988 .
I ncorpora t i on . Ch i cago : Un i ve r s i ty of
Ch i c ago P r e s s .
Benne t t , Mi chae l .
1 9 7 4 . Same extens i ons o f a MOnt ague f r agment o f
Eng l i s h . Ph . D . d i s s e r t a t i on : Un i ve r s i ty of Ca l i f o rn i a , Los
Ange l e s .
Benne t t , Mi c hae l . 1 9 7 6 . Va r i a t i on and extens i on o f a MOntague
f r agment of Eng l i sh .
I n Ba rbara H. Pa r t e e , e d . MOn t ague
Gr amma r ( New Yo rk , et a l . : Academi c P r e s s ) , p p . 1 1 9 - 1 6 3 .
Boa s , F r an z and E l l a De l o r i a . 1 9 4 1 . Dako t a Gramma r .
wa s h i ng t on , D . C . : �mo i r s of the Nat i ona l Academy of Sc i ence s ,
Vo l . XX I I I , Sec ond Memo i r .
( Repr . , AMS Pre s s , New Yor k , 1 9 7 6 . )
Boas , F r anz .
1 9 4 7 . RWak i u t l G r amma r wi th a G l os s a ry of the
Suff i xe s . Ed i t ed by He l ene Boas Ymnpo l sky wi t h the
Co l l abor a t i on of Ze l l i g S . Ha r r i s . Transac t i ons of the
Ame r i can Ph i l os oph i ca l Soc i e ty . N . S . Vo l 37 ,
Par t 3 , pp .
2 0 2 [ 1 ] - 3 7 7 . Rep r i nted by AMS P r e s s , New Yo rk .
Bybee , Joan L .
1 9 8 5 . MOrpho l ogy : a S t udy of the Re l a t i on be tween
Mean i ng and Fo rm. Ams t e r dam/Ph i l ade l ph i a : John Ben j ami n s .
Car l son , Greg . N .
1 9 8 3 . Ma r k i ng cons t i tuent s . I n F r ank Heny and
Ba r r y R i chards , eds . , L i ngu i s t i c Ca t egor i e s : Aux i l i ar i es and
The Meanings of Words
33
Re l a ted Puz z l e s ( Do r d r echt : Re i de l ) , I , p p . 6 9 - 9 8 .
Ca r r o l l , John B . , ed .
1 9 5 6 . Language , Though t , and Rea l i ty :
Se l ected � i t i ngs of Ben j ami n Lee Wh o r f . C amb r i dge , Ma s s . :
M I T P r e s s . ( and J ohn Wi l ey , New Yo r k . )
Chafe , � l l ace L .
1 9 1 6 The Caddoan , l r oquo i an , and S i ouan
L a n gu ag es . The Hague-Pa r i s : Mou t on .
Denny , J . P e t e r .
1 9 8 9 . Po l ysyn t hes i s i n A l gonqu i an and E s k imo .
In
The o r e t i ca l
Donna B . Ge r d t s and Ka r i n Mi che l s on , eds
Pe r spec t i ve s on Na t i ve Ame r i ca n Language s ( A l b any : SUNY
P r e s s ) , pp . 2 3 0 - 2 5 8 .
D i Sc i u l l o , Anna� r i e and Edwi n Wi l l i mms .
1981 .
On the
De f i n i t i on of Wbrd . Cambr i dge , Ma s s achu s e t t s : M I T P r e s s .
Dowty , Dav i d R .
1 91 9 . Wbrd Mean i ng and MOn tague G ramma r .
Do r d r echt : Re i de l
G r e e nberg . J o seph H . 1 9 5 1 . Es says i n L i ngu i s t i cs . Ch i cago :
Un i ve r s i t y of Ch i cago Press .
Ha l e , Kenne th and Samu e l Jay Keys e r .
1 993 .
On a rgumen t s t r u c t u re
I n Kenn e t h
and the l ex i ca l expre s s i on of ·syn t ac t i c re l a t i ons .
Ha l e and Samue l Jay Keys e r , ed s . , The Vi ew fram Bu i l d i ng
20 ( C amb r i dge , Ma s s . and London : MIT P r e s s ) , pp . 5 3 - 10 9 .
Jacobsen , Wi l l i am H . , J r .
1 9 1 9 . Noun and ve r b i n Noo t kan . I n
Ba r ba r a S . Efrat , ed . , The Vi c t or i a Conference on
Nor thwe s t e rn Languages ( V i c to r i a : B . C . P r ov i nc i a l MUseum) ,
pp . 8 3 - 1 5 5 .
Jacobson . S t even A . 1 9 8 4 . Yup ' i k Esk imo D i c t i on a r y .
Fa i rbanks : Al a s ka Nat i ve Language Cente r , Un i ve r s i ty o f A l a s ka .
Je l i nek . E l o i s e .
1 9 8 4 . Empty c a t egor i e s , c a s e and
conf i gu r a t i ona l i ty . Na t u ra l Language and L i ngu i s t i c Theory
2 : 3 9-1 6 .
Keenan , Edwa rd L .
1 9 8 1 . Semant i c c a s e theory .
I n J e roen
G r oenend i j k , Ma r t i n S t okhof . and F rank Ve l tman , ed s . ,
Proceed i ngs of the S i xth Ams terdam Co l l oqu i um . Ap r i l 1 3 - 1 6
1 98 1 ( Un i ve r s i ty of Ams t e r d am : I TL I ) , pp . 109- 1 3 2 .
Kee nan , Edward L .
1980 .
Pass i ve i s phr a s a l ( no t sentent i a l o r
I n Teun Hoeks t r a , Ha r ry van d e r Hu l s t , Mi c ha e l
l ex i ca l .
Moortga t , eds . , L ex i ca l Gr amma r ( Do r d r echt : Fo r i s ) , pp .
181-2 1 3 .
Lee s , Robe r t B . 1960 .
The Gramma r of Eng l i sh Nami n a l l za t i on s .
I nd i ana Un i ve r s i ty Re s e a r c h Cen ter i n Anthr opo l ogy , F o l k l o r e .
and L i ngu i s t i c s , Pub l i ca t i on 1 2 .
[ = I JAL , Vo l . 2 6 , No . 3 .
Part ll . ]
Lev i ne , Robe r t D . 1 9 8 0 . On the l ex i c a l o r i g i n of t h e RWakwa l a
pass i ve .
I JAL 46 : 2 4 0- 2 5 8 .
L i nco l n , Nev i l l e J . and John C . Ra th .
1 9 8 6 . Phono l ogy ,
Di c t i onary and L i s t i ng of Roo ts and Lex i ca l Der i va t e s of the
Ha i s l a Language of K i t l ope and Ki t imaa t .
( 2 vo l s . ) O t t awa :
Nat i ona l MUseum of Man Me r cury Ser i e s . Canad i an E t hno l ogy
Serv i ce : Pape r No . 1 0 3 .
( r e f e r red to as LR )
Po s t a l , Pau l M.
1 9 7 0 . On the s u r f ace ve r b ' r eni nd . '
L i ngu i s t i c
Inqu i ry 1 : 37 - 1 2 0 .
Ro s e , Suzanne Mar i a .
1 9 8 1 . Kyuquot G r amma r . Unpub l i shed Ph . D .
D i s s e r tat i on : Un i ve r s i ty of V i c t o r i a .
Sap i r , Edwa rd .
1 9 1 1 . The prob l em of noun i nc o r po r a t i on i n Ame r i c an
l anguages . Amer i can An t h r opo l og i s t , n . s . 1 3 : 2 5 0 - 2 8 2 .
.
.
.
Emmon Bach
34
Sap i r , Edwa r d S .
1921 .
L a nguage : an I n t r o d u c t i o n to t h e S t udy
o f Speech . New Yo r k : Ha r c o u r t , B r a c e .
1939 .
Noo t ka Tex t s .
Sap i r , Edwa r d and Mo r r i s SWade sh .
Ph i l ade l ph i a : L i ngu i s t i c Soc i e ty of Ame r i c a .
Spe a s , Ma r ga r e t J .
1990 .
Ph r a s e S t r u c t u r e i n Na t u r a l L a ng u a ge
Do r d r e c h t / Bos t o n / London : K l uwe r Ac ademi c Pub l i she r s .
Swad e sh , Mo r r i s .
1939 .
Nootka i n t e r n a l s y n t ax .
I JAL 9 : 7 7 - 1 0 2 .
.