PROGRAMME NEEDS OF CHILDREN IN
CONFLICT WITH THE LAW
A Research Project conducted by
Willem JH Roestenburg & Emmerentie Oliphant
For the Gauteng Department of Social Development
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Copyright © 2008 by Gauteng Department of Social Development
All rights reserved
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior permission of the Gauteng
Department of Social Development
Research and Policy Unit
Gauteng Department of Social Development
ISBN 978-0-620-41588-0
Printed in South Africa
This report has been produced for the Research Unit for Children Strategy, Gauteng Department of Social
Development as a commissioned research project.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ 3
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................... 6
List of figures ................................................................................................................................... 8
Executive Summary ....................................................................................................................... 12
Conclusions ................................................................................................................................ 14
Recommendations ..................................................................................................................... 15
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... 15
Contributors ............................................................................................................................... 16
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 18
PROBLEM FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH ............................................................................... 19
RESEARCH QUESTIONS, AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS ............................... 20
Research questions .................................................................................................................... 20
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: YOUTH OFFENDERS ........................................................................ 22
Concepts specific to youth offending .................................................................................... 22
International and national policy related to the child in conflict with the law ..................... 24
Contributing factors related to youth offending in South-Africa .......................................... 25
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................... 34
Overview of methodology ..................................................................................................... 34
Historical analysis: Qualitative and Quantitative sections .................................................... 35
Focus group assessments with service providers ................................................................. 36
Current profile of crime and service perceptions ......................................................... 36
Limitations of the study ......................................................................................................... 36
Phases in research project ......................................................................................................... 37
Trustworthiness in the project .................................................................................................. 37
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Validity and Reliability ........................................................................................................... 38
Phase 1: Historical Analysis ........................................................................................................... 40
Overview of historical analysis: ................................................................................................. 40
Phase 1 Method for historical analysis: ..................................................................................... 41
Phase 2: method for Focus groups with service providers ........................................................ 43
Phase 3: Method for current profile of crime and service perceptions .................................... 47
RESULTS of the different studies ................................................................................................... 49
Phase 1: HISTORICAL ANALYSIS: QUANTITATIVE THEMES ........................................................ 49
1995 Period ................................................................................................................................... 50
2006 – 2007 Period........................................................................................................................ 50
Current offence profile .............................................................................................................. 56
HISTORICAL ANALYSIS: QUALITATIVE THEMES ............................................................................. 71
Result 1: MASTERY ..................................................................................................................... 71
Result 2: Independence ............................................................................................................. 72
Result 3: Generosity ................................................................................................................... 73
Result 4: Belonging .................................................................................................................... 74
HISTORICAL ANALYSIS: Discussion of qualitative themes and quantitative results: ................. 76
Language................................................................................................................................ 77
Family relationships............................................................................................................... 77
Primary care-giver ................................................................................................................. 77
Contributing factors to the youth offending ............................................................................. 78
Service delivery...................................................................................................................... 79
Crimes and related behaviour ............................................................................................... 79
Interventions ......................................................................................................................... 80
FOCUS GROUP ASSESSMENTS: QUALITATIVE THEMES ................................................................. 80
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RESULTS: CURRENT PROFILE OF CRIME AND SERVICE PERCEPTIONS ........................................... 86
Section 1
Profile of crime ...................................................................................................... 86
Family composition ............................................................................................................... 88
Characteristics of the offence type ....................................................................................... 99
Section 2
Measuring children’s perceptions regarding various aspects of programmes ... 106
Section 3 Perceptions of children and demographic variables ............................................... 113
Section 4 Findings regarding crimes committed ..................................................................... 120
Section 4 Events after the arrest ............................................................................................. 123
Section 5 Programmes attended ............................................................................................. 134
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 139
Perceptions of Care givers ........................................................................................................... 140
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 140
Sampling .................................................................................................................................. 140
Results of the study ................................................................................................................. 141
descriptive statistics ............................................................................................................ 141
Reasons for committing offence ......................................................................................... 141
Service delivery aspects....................................................................................................... 143
Interaction with service staff ............................................................................................... 145
Care giver contact with service staff ................................................................................... 147
Care giver perceptions about the programme .................................................................... 148
INTERPRETATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................................... 149
RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................................................. 155
Concluding remark ...................................................................................................................... 163
Reference list ............................................................................................................................... 165
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Sample for historical study ............................................................................................... 42
Table 2 Differences between 1995/2007 biographical variables .................................................. 76
Table 3 Service provider perceptions regarding causes and types of crimes ............................... 85
Table 4 Gender distribution of the sample ................................................................................... 86
Table 5 Rank ordering of primary person responsible for taking care of respondent .................. 88
Table 6Reasons for dropping out of school................................................................................... 94
Table 7 Age at school dropout ...................................................................................................... 96
Table 8 Grade repetition ............................................................................................................... 97
Table 9 Indication of learning problem ......................................................................................... 98
Table 10 Extra help in the school system ...................................................................................... 98
Table 11 Type of crime/offence committed.................................................................................. 99
Table 12Number of offences committed .................................................................................... 101
Table 13 Combined types of crimes/offences ............................................................................. 102
Table 14 Other types of crime/offence ....................................................................................... 102
Table 15 Position in intervention ................................................................................................ 104
Table 16 Reasons for committing and offence............................................................................ 105
Table 17 Items in the Family Risk Behaviour Index (FRB) ........................................................... 107
Table 18 Items for Programme Impact dimension...................................................................... 109
Table 19 Items for Post programme Behaviour Index (PPB) ....................................................... 110
Table 20 Items for Post-Programme Insight Sub-scale ............................................................... 111
Table 21 Items for Post-Programme Remorse Sub-scale ............................................................ 112
Table 22Mean scores on Indexes regarding school attendance ................................................. 120
Table 23 Mean scores on Family Risk Behaviour index. .............................................................. 121
Table 24 Mean scores for type of sentencing ............................................................................. 123
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Table 25 ANOVA table for understanding court procedures ...................................................... 130
Table 26 Frequency table for duration of programme ............................................................... 137
Table 27 Reasons for committing crime ...................................................................................... 142
Table 28 Effectiveness of service delivery aspects ...................................................................... 144
Table 29 Child's experiences in the first phase after the offence ............................................... 144
Table 30 Frequency of involvement with service staff ............................................................... 146
Table 31 Care giver contact with service staff ............................................................................ 147
Table 32 Care giver perceptions of programmes ........................................................................ 148
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Layout of the study ....................................................................................................................... 35
Figure 2 Survey area comparison: 1995/2007 ........................................................................................... 50
Figure 3 Language comparison: 1995/ 2007 .............................................................................................. 51
Figure 4 Gender comparison: 1995/2007 .................................................................................................. 51
Figure 5 Age comparison: 1995/2007 ........................................................................................................ 52
Figure 6 Family Type comparison: 1995/2007 ........................................................................................... 52
Figure 7 Family type comparison: Graph: 1995/2007 ................................................................................ 53
Figure 8 Place of residence comparison: 1995/2007 ................................................................................. 53
Figure 9 Primary care giver comparison: 1995/2007 ................................................................................. 54
Figure 10 Primary care situation: 1995/2007 ............................................................................................. 54
Figure 11 Employment profile: 1995/2007 ................................................................................................ 55
Figure 12 Work situation of care-giver: 1995/2007 ................................................................................... 55
Figure 13 Grade at time of offence: 1995/2007......................................................................................... 55
Figure 14 Graphs illustrating grade at time of offence: 1995/2007........................................................... 56
Figure 15 Behaviour at school: 1995/2007 ................................................................................................ 56
Figure 16 Behaviour at school: 1995/2007 ................................................................................................ 57
Figure 17 Categorical behavioural problem indication: 1995/2007 .......................................................... 57
Figure 18 Types of crime: 1995/2007 ......................................................................................................... 58
Figure 19 Illustrated types of crimes: 1995/2007 ...................................................................................... 59
Figure 20 Other party involvements in the incident: 1995/2007............................................................... 59
Figure 21 Person accompanying child: 1995/2007 .................................................................................... 60
Figure 22 Were weapons used during the incident? ................................................................................. 60
Figure 23 Recommended intervention: 1995/2007 .................................................................................. 61
Figure 24 Number of days in detention: 1995/2007 .................................................................................. 62
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Figure 25 Accepting responsibility: 1995/2007 .......................................................................................... 62
Figure 26 Causes for offensive behaviour: 1995/2007 .............................................................................. 63
Figure 27 Age of victim: 1995/2007 ........................................................................................................... 63
Figure 28 Types of programmes attended: 2006/7 ................................................................................... 64
Figure 29 Number of previous offences: 1995/2007 ................................................................................. 65
Figure 30 Previous offence type: 1995/2007 ............................................................................................. 66
Figure 31 Institutionalization type: 1995/2007 .......................................................................................... 67
Figure 32 Likelihood of assessments being done: 1995/2007 ................................................................... 67
Figure 33 Distribution for recommended programme: 1995/2007 ........................................................... 68
Figure 34 Recommendation after first incident: 1995/2007 ..................................................................... 68
Figure 35 Attendance of diversion programmes: 1995/2007 .................................................................... 69
Figure 36 Graphical illustration of diversion programme attendance: 1995/2007 ................................... 69
Figure 37 Service profile statistics: 1995/2007 .......................................................................................... 70
Figure 38 Service provider profile: 1995/2007........................................................................................... 70
Figure 39 Circular nature of behaviour patterns ....................................................................................... 78
Figure 40 Age distribution of sample ......................................................................................................... 86
Figure 41 Third choice of language ............................................................................................................ 87
Figure 42 Second choice of language ......................................................................................................... 87
Figure 43 First choice of language .............................................................................................................. 87
Figure 44 Illustration of family composition .............................................................................................. 91
Figure 46 Educational qualification ............................................................................................................ 91
Figure 47 Marital status of parents ............................................................................................................ 91
Figure 49 Reason for not attending school ................................................................................................ 92
Figure 45 Primary source of caregiver's income ........................................................................................ 92
Figure 50 Graph indicating reasons for dropping out of school................................................................. 95
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Figure 51 Grade at school dropout
Figure 52 Highest grade passed at time of school dropout ........ 97
Figure 53 Bar-graph of type of crime/offence committed ....................................................................... 101
Figure 54 Type of sentence given ............................................................................................................. 103
Figure 55 Own description of programme ............................................................................................... 103
Figure 56 Significant differences between positions in service provision ............................................... 114
Figure 57 Significant differences for living at home or not ...................................................................... 116
Figure 58 Differences for having moved to current area of residence .................................................... 116
Figure 59 Family source of income and index scores ............................................................................... 117
Figure 60 Means Plot for Marital status on Perceptions Index ................................................................ 118
Figure 61 Type of Crime committed ......................................................................................................... 122
Figure 62 FRB rating for appearing in court within 48 hours ................................................................... 124
Figure 63 Having to share a cell with an adult ......................................................................................... 125
Figure 64 Means Plot for Service Perceptions.......................................................................................... 126
Figure 65 Were you told what to say in avadavat? .................................................................................. 127
Figure 66 Mean scores for influences regarding avadavat ...................................................................... 128
Figure 67 Means for being interviewed by someone other than police officer ...................................... 129
Figure 68 Mean Plots for knowing court procedure ................................................................................ 132
Figure 69 Means Plots for parental involvement ..................................................................................... 133
Figure 70 Place of safety........................................................................................................................... 134
Figure 71 Distribution for type of programme attended ......................................................................... 135
Figure 72 Means Plot for type of programme .......................................................................................... 137
Figure 73 Means plot for duration of programme ................................................................................... 138
Figure 74 Means Plots - How long ago programme was attended .......................................................... 139
Figure 75 Proposed Service Delivery process model................................................................................ 156
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FOREWORD BY THE MEC FOR GAUTENG
PROVINCIAL DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT: THE HONOURABLE
KGAOGELO LEKGORO
G
auteng faces a challenge in terms of rising crime in the Province. It is especially
concerning to note the number of our children being arrested daily for offences. The
Department of Social Development is committed to its endeavors to providing responsive
services to its clientele. A portion of the clientele we service are those children who are
arrested for offences, (children in conflict with the law); their families and communities from
which they hail.
Our services aim to channel arrested children into a continuum of care that provides them
with a range of services to prevent them from committing offences, intervene early with
children who are arrested; provide services to their families and the communities vulnerable
to crimes; assist children who are already in the system by ensuring that the services they
receive help them to better themselves and help re-integrate these children back into their
communities.
As part of our commitment to improved service delivery, we have conducted this research on
the “Programme Needs of Children in Conflict with the Law” in an effort to consult with our
service recipients and to ensure that our services are „in tune‟ with the need out there. We all
have a responsibility to the children of this country – to help guide them into adulthood and
towards being responsible citizens who are the positive fabric of tomorrow‟s society.
The Department of Social Development releases this research report to share the findings
with all who read it as it provides insight into the life of an arrested child, their family
circumstances and the communities from which they hail. The research reaffirms the
Department‟s commitment to providing quality services which ensure that all children within
the province have a right to a future that is free from fear, favor or prejudice and that
safeguards the future of this country by investing in its most valuable assets – our children!
Let us join hands in helping our children make the right choices, the right decisions and let
them learn from their mistakes so that they become better, future citizens of tomorrow!
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The services of the Department of Social Development have changed significantly since the year
1995. Following the change to a democratic society in 1994 it was regarded as a priority to
transform services to youth in conflict with the law. Today, 13 years after the change to
democracy, it is considered a priority to determine the extent to which services have changed
and to reach an estimate of the extent to which services are effective in preventing reoccurrence of crime. The goal of this study was three-fold, to:
Develop a profile of the child in conflict with the law in Gauteng
Begin evaluating the services of the Department of Social Development in Gauteng and
its NGO sector regarding children in conflict with the law
Recommend strategies to improve gaps in service delivery based on empirical evidence.
Based on these goals the study is divided into three sections. Firstly a historical study was
conducted that provides a profile of youth offending patterns of services compared between
1995 and the 2006/7 period. This study utilized both qualitative and quantitative methodology
whilst the units of analysis were case files of those periods. Secondly a qualitative study was
conducted in which the perceptions and views of service providers, mainly from the NGO sector
were obtained regarding the factors contributing to youth crime as well as their perceptions on
the effectiveness of services. The third part of the study comprised of a cross sectional survey in
which youth in the province who are currently in the service delivery system were asked to
complete a questionnaire on factors of crime and their perceptions regarding the services they
receive.
The selection of three phases in the research was specifically done to ensure adequate
triangulation or coverage of three different data sets to facilitate comparison and greater
validity. The three phase strategy also had the advantage of allowing the results of the one
phase to feed into the design of the following phase. In this way the methods and results of the
historical study were used in the design of questions in both phase two and three. This study
was conducted over an eight month period.
The most prominent findings of these three sections of the research will now be discussed.
The historical study clearly showed a trend regarding the profile of youth crime and the
factors contributing to crime. It was found that youth predominantly come from
complete families; families who are fairly well established in society and who appear to
be quite stable. Comparison of files for the two periods confirmed this trend. It appears
that the profile of crime also hardly changed over time. The types of crimes committed
corresponded between the two periods. It was quite clear however, that although
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diversion programmes were already implemented back in 1995, the predominant
intervention then was still imprisonment or some form of institutionalization. In
contrast to that it was clear that in the 2006/7 period a range of diversion programmes
were available and utilized; that the period of detention in a detention centre had
decreased significantly and that children were no longer subjected to imprisonment. It
became clear that the whole case management system had completely changed.
The second phase of the study involved focus group interviews with groups of service
providers. Interviews conducted indicated a significant change in service delivery over
time but the profile of crime or crime factors remained consistent with what was found
in the historical study. At the service delivery end the focus groups reported significant
and notable problems in the structuring of services and the communication between
organizations and the department was generally not regarded as satisfactory. The
report highlights the main concerns in this regard as for example weak information
systems and weak case management systems. Inconsistencies in the state’s service
delivery system, court procedures and administrative procedures of different regions
were identified. This part of the study also revealed concerns about the community
and that service are unable to effectively address community problems. The NGO
sector reported an inability to finance their services to the state with current subsidy
systems.
The factors of crime and perceptions regarding services study of the last phase
revealed many significant findings regarding the child in conflict with the law. Firstly a
number of factors were found regarding the demographic profile of youth committing
offences. The report confirms that the profile of youth has changed very little from
1995 and from 2006/7. It was for example found that the age of children committing
offences is between 15-18years. More males than females committed offences;
children tended to come from complete families; families appeared to be
predominantly lower middle class with fairly stable working parents. It was found that
only a small group of children had left home to live on their own. The reasons for
committing offences can mainly be attributed to weak impulse control and poor
judgment as main reason. Survival issues and poverty accounted for a smaller
percentage of offending behavior than was anticipated. Personal greed accounted for
the remainder of reasons. It was also found that most of the children in the system
were still attending school.
Youth perceptions were measured by means of six indexes that were designed
specifically for this study. These indexes assisted greatly in determining the main issues
and concerns of youth. Amongst other it was found that the way in which youth were
treated after arrest is a very critical indicator of the eventual effectiveness of the
programme. Aspects such as police officers shouting at children, not knowing what to
expect, being kept in cells with adults were identified as significant indicators of
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negative perceptions regarding services. Parental involvement, belonging to a church,
staying with your family, not being kept for longer than 48 hours and being able to
discuss your problems with a social worker were significant indicators of effective
services. It was found that short programmes are less effective than longer term
programmes; the time period after completion of a programme contributes to
extensive fading in insight and remorse levels, and youth who had completed
programmes more than 5 months ago were more likely to have forgotten the essence
of the programme. This phase also showed the impact of other societal problems, such
as children who had left home. Although small percentages of children had actually run
away from home, it was clear that these children were more likely to hang out with
negative friends, and were more likely to get involved in more serious offences such as
robbery and assault. These candidates had significantly weaker relationships with their
families. It was also found that children who remained in their families were more
likely to have committed crimes such as murder. The second most common crime type
committed was rape, and this is of great concern to the researchers. This phenomenon
was confirmed by service providers who noted the same trend. The reasons for this can
be multiple and perhaps beyond the scope of this research.
CONCLUSIONS
This study provided findings mostly related to two aspects, namely the factors contributing
to crime and the services and programmes that are provided in response tot the crimes
committed by youth. The study concludes that policy adjustments and programme
adjustments have to be made on a continuous basis to improve the range and scope of
services as well as the standards of programmes. The need for improvement of services
involves the design and implementation of programme standards, improved
communication with stakeholders and improved monitoring systems. Improved
cooperation between the Criminal justice department and Social development is necessary.
Although probation officers and social workers are overloaded with work these groups are
in constant need for in-service training to improve their knowledge and skill levels. It was
found that the quality of child assessments needed improvement. It can be recommended
that an effort is made to design and develop an improved structured and scientifically
based assessment model with associated protocols, and that staff are trained in the
implementation of such a model. Another area of improvement is the departmental
information system. At present this system appears to be inadequate and inconsistent in
the kinds of information that it provides. It is for instance difficult to track and monitor
child movements and progress during the service delivery process.
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RECOMMENDATIONS
It is specifically recommended:
That a Programme Standards Manual is developed that contains service delivery
guidelines, programme standards, procedures and processes related to all aspects
of the service delivery process to children in conflict with the law.
That service delivery processes and communication processes between
government departments, the department and NGO’s are improved.
That a comprehensive information system and case tracking system is developed to
keep track, monitor and evaluate the child in the service delivery process as well as
services provided to the child. This system should be used to monitor and evaluate
services on a continuous basis. It should contain a single case file for the client that
follows him/her throughout the service delivery process
That the subsidy system according to which service providers is paid is reviewed.
That Programme contents and focus areas are standardized to reflect main
intervention focus areas.
That in-service training of probation officers and staff involved in service delivery is
conducted in assessment models, strategies of investigation and intervention.
Finally, the strengthening of the family as cradle for child functioning should receive
priority as this study has once again indicated the importance of this institution in
preventing occurrence and re-occurrence of crime in the community.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to the following people who have contributed largely to the success of this
project.
Margot Davis, Shamona Kandia, Refilwe Makapela and staff members at the Gauteng
Department of Social Development for their support in making this study possible. Many
interventions were made possible by these people to ensure that data could be
collected in an accountable way.
We are grateful to the staff at the different assessment centers for making available
case records, children and any form of data that was needed to make this project
possible.
The many NGO’s, detention centers, facilities and schools who have assisted us, often
on short notice to access children, provide their facilities for data collection purposes
and assist with the research in any possible way.
The project team, assistants and field workers both in South Africa and the USA who
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worked under pressure and difficult, sometimes painful uncharted circumstances.
Without your efforts this project would not have been possible.
The many children and parents who made themselves available to participate in this
project.
CONTRIBUTORS
This research project was conducted by Afri.Yze Consult (Pty) Ltd, a private research company
established in 2002. The key investigators in this project are the two directors of the company
and were assisted by a team of contributors. The company specializes in conducting surveys,
structuring research projects, developing and validating of measurement scales for use in the
social environment, publishing research reports and scales, writing and presenting training
programmes. The company aims to enhance social service delivery in Southern Africa through
scientific Research and Development. Its research products are implemented through innovative
training methods.
Through dedicated and scientifically based research methods and a professional track record,
Afri.Yze has grown into a recognized social science small enterprise. A record of our customers
includes Ndahwo Consulting, Dept of Social Development, Dept of Public Works, Rand Aid
Association (Wedge Gardens), National Alliance for Street Children, Islamic Careline, SelfPreservation Institute and Child Welfare South Africa. The company mostly utilizes contract
employees who work for the company for the duration of a project.
The objective of the company is to provide applicable research services to social sciences, the
business sector and governments on a national and international level.
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATORS
Willem Roestenburg (D Litt. et Phil.)
Willem is an associate professor at the Department of Social Work, University of Johannesburg.
His academic career spans over 14 years and he has conducted several research projects. He
teaches research at graduate and post graduate level and is Director of the Clinical Masters
programme at UJ. He is co-founder of Afri.Yze and currently Executive director. He has published
several papers in local and international journals and has presented papers at International and
national conferences. His main area of speciality is scale development and he is interested in
developing macro level measurement systems as application of rigorous measurement
technologies to social phenomena.
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Emmerentie Oliphant (D Litt. et Phil.)
Emmerentie is an associate professor in Social Work at the Stephen F. Austin State University,
School of Social Work, Nacogdoches, Texas, USA. She specializes in Family Therapy and has been
been in academia for 14 years. She is co-founder and director of Afri.Yze. She has expertise in
the design and development of programmes in social sciences. She has an extensive national
and international publication and conference record and is currently responsible for teaching
research at post graduate level. She supervises postgraduate students in social work research as
well as related courses. She previously served as a council member on the South African Council
for Social Service Professions SACSSP. With her expertise in mainly qualitative research she is
responsible for most of the qualitative phases of Afri.Yze projects.
PROJECT TEAM
The following consultants and assistants provided services specifically for this project:
Ms. Shirley Ngomane (Project manager). Shirley is a social worker in private practice and is
currently directing a small and successful EAP service company in Johannesburg. She holds a
Clinical MA degree from the University of Johannesburg.
Dr. Rika Swanzen (Project manager). Rika has a private practice and does contract work at
amongst other, Bethany House, a child care centre in Krugersdorp. She has developed the
ChildPie, a classification system for assessing children with social problems.
Dr. Marlet Tromp (Project manager). Marlet has obtained a D Litt. et. Phil from the University of
Johannesburg on the topic of Social Indicators of empowerment in the textile industry. She is a
trained life coach and businesswoman in Johannesburg.
Ms. Elizabeth van Schalkwyk (Project manager). Elizabeth has her roots in both social work and
law. She has extensive experience in the criminal justice system and has worked with children in
conflict with the law. She currently teaches in the honours programme for probation services at
UJ.
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INTRODUCTION
Services to children in conflict with the law have changed extensively over the past ten years.
New legislation and an emphasis on the rights of the child have contributed to the need for
change in the intervention system to children who offend. In accordance to local and
international direction, service has changed since 1995. Currently the South-African child in
conflict with the law needs to be treated within the context of micro-, mezzo- and macro-level
systems. The Gauteng Department of Social Development had a need to conduct research on
the extent to which services have changed and how children perceived these services. The
research company, Afri.Yze Consult was contracted to research the unique circumstances of the
child in conflict with the law. This report will focus on a comprehensive research study that
focused on the perceptions of children and service providers regarding services and the
contributing factors of crime in Gauteng. The research is cross-sectional in nature and aims to
provide evidence of a specific social phenomenon (child in conflict with the law) at a specific
time interval. Cross-sectional studies typically involve qualitative and quantitative observations
of a sample of a specific population - all at the same time. This study took place in the time
period between October 2007 and May 2008. According to authors such as Rubbin and Babbie
(2008) and Neuman (2007), a cross-sectional study takes a “slice” of the target group and base
the overall results and interpretations of the sample on the whole population. It implies that
specific assumptions which are deducted from the data are considered as representative of the
whole population (children in conflict with the law) of Gauteng.
Omar (1997) indicated that developing a new juvenile justice system and appropriate legislation
in South-Africa are important elements of law reform. Although a new juvenile justice system is
currently in place, the effective implementation of such a new law of juvenile justice is one of
the challenges facing South-Africa at present. Now that the current juvenile justice system has
been transformed there is an ongoing need for the development of a comprehensive knowledge
base related to youth crime activities and to assess the relevance and effectiveness of new
services. In addition the research aims to add new and relevant evidence to an existing
knowledge base.
The research report outlines the underlying conceptual framework, the research plan consisting
of three phases, the methodologies used, the results of the various phases, the interpretation of
the results and recommendations towards practice.
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PROBLEM FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH
“The ultimate objective of the Law Commission's investigation is to create a legislative
framework for a separate juvenile justice system for South Africa that will give effect to the spirit
underlying our Constitution and the international guidelines in regard to young people in conflict
with the law.” - The South African Law Commission on Juvenile Justice (1997).
The treatment of youth offending in South-Africa has been identified as a priority function.
However in order to understand the treatment necessities a comprehensive understanding is
necessary. A general perception is observed which implies that in many developing countries
including South-Africa, the youth justice systems are weak and poorly-resources and in some
cases under-prioritized. However the Department of Social Development has identified the
treatment of youth offending as a high priority area.
In order to treat the youth offender as a high priority client system it has become imperative to
build on existing knowledge regarding the factors contributing to youth offending in SouthAfrica. Although much as been written about youth offending on an international level (Abrams,
Kyoungho & Anderson-Nathe: 2005; Dembo, Wareham, Poythress, Cook, Schmeidler: 2006;
Mandisa: 2007; Vanfraechem & Walgrave: 2004 and Western, Lopoo and McLanahan: 2002) –
it is important to observe and describe the factors unique to South-Africa and specifically to
Gauteng.
The White Paper on Social Welfare (1997) and the White Paper on Corrections in South-Africa
(2005) both emphasize the importance of understanding youth offending in order to develop
services which are streamlined and aimed to alleviate the problem within the community.
Why a study of this nature? National policy provides guidelines towards the development of
effective services. In addition a better understanding of the problem will not only enhance the
application of these guidelines but will also act as a prevention mechanism.
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RESEARCH QUESTIONS, AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE
RESEARCH PROCESS
Based on the charge formulated by the Department of Social Development a set of research
questions, aims and objectives of the research process were developed. The research questions
informed the aim and the objectives of the study and also guided the selection of research
methodologies.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
RESEARCH QUESTION 1
When compared, what differences can be found between historical data sets dated 1995 and
2006/7?
RESEARCH QUESTION 2
What are the current contributing factors to youth offending in Gauteng?
RESEARCH QUESTION 3
How effective is the services provided by the Department of Social Development to youth
offenders in Gauteng?
RESEARCH QUESTION 4
Based on the evidence, what recommendations can be made to enhance service delivery by the
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Department of Social Development in Gauteng?
These research questions were used to develop the aim and objectives for the study.
AIM
The aim of the research is to:
Develop a profile of the child in conflict with the law in Gauteng
Evaluate the services of the Department of Social Development in Gauteng and its NGO
sector regarding children in conflict with the law
Recommend strategies to improve gaps in service delivery based on empirical evidence.
OBJECTIVES
The objectives of the research are:
Development of a basic conceptual framework to inform and validate the research
project
Design of a research plan to integrate qualitative and quantitative methodologies
Compare historical documents dated 1995 and 2006/7 by means of an analysis
framework
Develop data collection instruments based on a historical analysis, policy document
analysis and literature
Implementation of a quantitative empirical study which will collect data to compile a
profile of the youth offender
Implementation of qualitative empirical study which will collect data to evaluate the
existing services
Interpret the results from refined qualitative and quantitative data
Formulate recommendations towards practice strategies related to children in conflict
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with the law.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: YOUTH OFFENDERS
The purpose of the literature review is to develop a conceptual framework for the research
study. The conceptual framework acts as a departure point and provides conceptual evidence
towards the validation of the research project. The researchers measured the evidence from the
empirical study against that from the literature study. It implies that throughout the research
project the researchers compared evidence using criteria of consistency, clarity, neutrality and
empirical validity.
Besides the trustworthy validation, the conceptual framework also provided concepts,
theoretical assumptions and theoretical principles used to enhance the data collection
instruments. The data collection instrument was scientifically informed by the conceptual
framework. It implies that the data collection instrument is empirically sound and based on
scientific evidence from research and practice.
There are four focus areas for the conceptual framework:
1. Concepts specific to youth offending
2. International and national policy related to youth offending
3. Contributing factors as it relates to the child in conflict with the law
4. Services as it relates to the child in conflict with the law
CONCEPTS SPECIFIC TO YOUTH OFFENDING
The following concepts as taken from the related policy set the parameters of the conceptual
framework:
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CARE
A range of security care strategies available to the child in conflict the law. Firstly, alternative
care, i.e. to placements of the child outside the family or extended family for some clear and
agreed purpose, and secondly to the safeguarding and promotion of the child’s physical, social
and emotional safety and development at all times. (IMC, 1996: 4)
CHILD AND YOUTH CARE SYSTEM
The range of services providing alternative care, education and therapeutic development of
children and youth, providing care as described above. (IMC, 1996: 4)
CONTINUUM OF CARE
Young people at risk and their families should have access to a range of differentiated services
on a continuum of care, ensuring access to the most empowering and least restrictive
programmes appropriate to their individual needs. (IMC, 1996: 16)
EFFECTIVE SERVICE DELIVERY
Developmental and therapeutic goals of the young person and his/her family are successfully
achieved. This will enable him/her to function appropriately and effectively within society, the
community and the family.
(IMC, 1996: 5)
INEFFECTIVE SERVICE DELIVERY
The main indicators of ineffective service delivery are: failure to achieve developmental and
therapeutic goals as a result of poor resources, a lack of appropriate knowledge and skill, or
poor support and supervision – or because of late or inappropriate referral to the service.
(IMC, 1996: 5). In this study effectiveness is reflected in whether the services have had an
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impact on youth, contributed to behavioural changes, development of insight and perceptions
regarding services.
RESTORATIVE JUSTICE
A conflict resolution model which focuses on healing and accountability rather than punishment,
and which involves the participation of the community surrounding an incident, including a
young person and his or her family as well as the victim where appropriate.
(IMC, 1996: 5)
SECURE CARE
Residential programmes and/or programmes of intervention which ensures the appropriate
physical, behavioural and emotional containment of young people who are charged with crimes
and who are awaiting trial or are sentenced. Such a facility provides an environment milieu and
programme conducive to the care, safety and healthy development of each young person while
at the same time ensuring the protection of communities
(IMC, 1996: 6)
YOUTH OFFENDER
In terms of the Constitution, a child is a person under the age of 18 years. The Department
regards a person between the ages of 14 and 25 years as a youth. The Department is
responsible for the detention, treatment and development of sentenced juveniles.
Un-sentenced children/juveniles and youths between the ages of 14 and 25
Sentenced children/juveniles and youths between the ages of 14 and 25.
INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL POLICY RELATED TO THE CHILD IN CONFLICT WITH
THE LAW
The Inter-Ministerial Committee on Young People at Risk (1996) provides policy
recommendations and practice principles related to prevention, early intervention, statutory
processes and continuum of care. Although the document provides information on the child in a
broader sense, minimum standards are set for services towards the child in conflict with the law.
The White Paper on Social Welfare (1997) provides policy guidelines on the prevention,
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treatment and after care of youth in conflict with the law. In addition, the White Paper on
Corrections in South-Africa (2005) makes special provision for the treatment of youth offenders
while incarcerated. It aims to create a safe environment for the child in conflict with the law –
whether the child is awaiting trail or incarcerated. The United Nations Convention on the Rights
of the Child - as ratified in June 1995 with specific regard to juvenile justice system in developing
countries - acts as a main policy guideline towards effective service delivery. In particular it
requires responsible governments to promote the establishment of laws and procedures
specifically applicable to children charged with offences. (Article 40(3)). The National
Programme of Action for Children in South-Africa provides general guidelines for working with
children. Although not focused on the child at risk, the programme provides service delivery
information on responsible actions and tasks, measurable targets of achievement, resource
allocations and monitoring of effectiveness.
Section 7(2)(c) of the Correctional Services Act, 1998 (Act 111 of 1998) stipulates that children
must be kept separate from adult offenders and in accommodation appropriate to their age, as
young offenders are pre-disposed to negative influence. The aim of this separation is the
provision of distinctive custodial, development and treatment programmes, as well as religious
care, in an environment conducive to the care, development and motivation of youths to
participate and to develop their potential. This important part of legislation allows for the
separate and specialized treatment of the child in conflict with the law.
By June 2003, there were about 26 000 young people between the ages of 14 and 21 in the
system, and about 49 000 between the ages of 21 and 25. The nature of serious offences
committed or allegedly committed by about 4 500 children under the age of 18 who were
awaiting trial or sentenced was alarming. There were 2 000 economic-related offenders under
18; 1 800 aggressive crime offenders; 500 sexually related offenders under the age of 18; and
200 for drug-related and other types of offences. (White Paper on Corrections in South-Africa:
2005).
CONTRIBUTING FACTORS RELATED TO YOUTH OFFENDING IN SOUTH-AFRICA
Youth crime is both nationally and internationally a dilemma impacting on the social
environment of a country. Although much information exists on the problem, there is still a
limited amount of information available as it relates to South-Africa.
1. Contributing factors towards youth offending can be identified on macro-, mezzo and
micro-levels of social functioning. The child in conflict with the law experiences circular
patterns of contributing factors on all three levels of functioning.
2. On a micro-level contributing factors such as behaviour problems, mental health and
substance abuse can be identified. According to Wasserman, Keenan, Tramblay, Cole,
Herrenkohl and Loeber (2003) children in conflict with the law experience behaviour
problems which manifests in aggression, attention deficiency and frustration.
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McClelland, Elkington, Teplin and Abram (2004) are of the opinion that substance
abuse is one of the major contributing factors on an individual level. The authors studied
the prevalence of multiple substance use disorders (SUDs) in a random sample of
adolescents in juvenile detention. Using a Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children
(DISC) a sample consisted of 1,774 male (64.4%) and female (35.6%) between ages 10
and 18 (mean age = 14.9 years) were drawn. In the study both substance abuse and
dependence for alcohol, marijuana and other drugs were identified as major
contributing factors to the criminal involvement. Author authors such as Clay (2008)
confirm the fact that there is a correlation between substance abuse and youth
offending: “There’s a real strong correlation between drugs and crime, one that has
been established in study after study for about 40 years now ”
In addition to behaviour problems and substance abuse, posttraumatic stress has also
been identified as a major contributing factor. Abram, Teplin, Charles, Longworth,
McClelland and Dulcan (2004) studied posttraumatic stress amongst children in conflict
with the law. The authors clearly indicate that psychiatric conditions, and in particular
posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) plays a prominent role in juvenile detention.
According to Abram, Teplin, Charles, Longworth, McClelland and Dulcan (2004) the
precise extent of this, remains undetermined, largely because most studies in this area
are too small, too unique (hampering attempts to generalize), or they lack standardized
diagnostic assessments. In their study the authors interviewed participants who were
exposed to different kinds of trauma namely sexual abuse, suffering a threat of violence
or enduring a natural disaster.
In another study by Abram, Teplin, McClelland and Dulcan (2003) emphasize the fact
that mental health disorders in combination with substance abuse result in so-call
comorbidities which again result in conflict with the law. These comorbidities manifest
in a combination of substance abuse such as the intake of dagga as well as depression or
mental health disorders such as anti-social behaviour.
In South-Africa, children do not only observe activities resulting in post-traumatic stress,
but also become the victim of violence and political unrest.
3. On a mezzo-level, contributing factors include family related problems, peer group
pressure and problems related to social relations such as teacher-pupil relations.
Dysfunctional families create a social environment in which family symptoms are
maintained. Offending behaviour amongst youth is one of the symptoms often
described in literature. Ryan and Lane (1998), Oliphant (1994, 2001), Wolmarans and
Jacobs (1994), Western, Lopoo and McLanahan (2002) are some authors who
emphasize that dysfunctional patterns are transferred from one generation to another.
These systemic assumptions imply that children who are in conflict with the law have
learned certain behaviour from their parent(s) and are mimicking this behaviour.
According to Hanson and Self-Brown (2006), youth offenders often have another
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family member (often a parent) in their family systems that have experienced conflict
with the law. This implies that emotional and physical circumstances are created within
the family system which enables the child to mimic the destructive behaviour of the
adult.
Mandisa (2007) studied the family patterns of South-African children who are in conflict
with the law. The author found that youth who experience emotional deprivation,
family violence, lack of support from parents, and unhealthy nurturing are more likely to
become youth offenders. According to this study certain households (example poverty
and single parents) produce a stressful living environment which ultimately determines
the negative choices a young person makes.
Behaviour in a family system is circular in nature and children will react to the
destructive communication and behaviour they experience. Mandisa (2007) refers to
single parenting as one of the contributing factors contributing to crime. Within
dysfunctional single parent families, children actually become angry because he or she
believes that they are missing out on a positive relationship as well as a role model.
Single parents are responsible for all household duties as well as the financial support of
the family system. This may result in feelings of “overwhelm ness” and a lack of
adequate attention towards children. Emotional needs are not always met and children
find emotional support in substitute families such as gangs. Children whose parents do
not provide them with the emotional affection that children need will eventually look
elsewhere for this affection, such as a gang (Mandisa, 2007, p. 68)
These authors suggest that the age of the parent can also have a direct effect on a
youth’s involvement in crime. In South-Africa many children are raised by their
grandparents or even one grandparent, this resulting in a lack of adequate supervision.
Furthermore the lack of supervision is enhanced by lack of communication which
enables the child towards negative decision-making (Oliphant: 2001 and Ryals: 2004).
The age and developmental phase of the parent can also have a direct effect on how a
youth deals with the temptations to participate in criminal activity. Younger parents in
South-Africa are is some cases just children themselves and struggle with the
responsibilities that come with raising children. In order for children to stay away from
criminal activity the child must be taught right from wrong. Parents do not take the
time to teach their children right from wrong, expecting someone else to take care for
teaching their children right from wrong. In some instances the responsibility of
teaching is that of the teacher or community leaders. Youth offenders often come from
poverty stricken homes or communities (Comp. Talaimanu (2006) Currie & Covell (1998)
and Abrams, Kim & Anderson-Nathe (2005)). There are multiple reasons why
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researchers believe that poverty has a direct effect on whether a youth becomes an
offender or not. These reasons refer to children who are raised in poverty, have
parents’ who are too busy trying to make ends meet that these parents’ do not have the
time to spend with their children and teach them right from wrong. Other researchers
such as St. Gerard (2002) and Ayland & West (2006) believe that a child who comes
from poverty feels that he or she is entitled to what he or she wants and therefore
should be able to take it or participate in a criminal activity, because he or she wants to
(Mandisa, 2007, p. 66).
Besides dysfunctional family systems, peer group pressure has been described as one of
the most apparent contributing factors in the social environment. According to Sheidow
(2001), peer group pressure plays an important motivational role in the initiating and
maintenance of criminal activities. Ryan and Lane (1997) refer to peer group pressure as
external motivation towards crime. In a social context where family systems are broken
down, peer groups and gangs become substitute family members. These substitute
families provide destructive models of behaviour often encouraging young children to
become involved in crime.
4. On a macro-level, the immediate environment (community) as well as the larger
environment (country) is considered as contributing factors. The negative influences of a
community and society has been well described by various authors (Flores (2003), Currie
& Covell (1998), Abrams, Kim & Anderson-Nathe (2005), Lattimore, Macdonald, Piquero,
Linster, & Visher (2004) and Carr & Vandiver (2001)). Children in South-Africa who were
marginalized and impoverished suffered severely under the struggle and transformation
within an apartheid government. According to Omar (1997) initial efforts in the juvenile
justice system focused on children involved in political activity, but throughout the
apartheid and transformation period and beyond it there were many children who were
also in custody on charges which were not related to direct political activity. The vast
majority of the children committing "ordinary" crimes were, however, living in poor
economic circumstances linked to apartheid. Omar (1997) further states that in the
early 1980s, as the political crisis moved slowly towards a negotiated settlement, fewer
children were detained for political reasons. The socio-economic circumstances which
are part of the legacy of apartheid did not change, however, and many children
remained caught up in the criminal justice system. These economic circumstances
unique to South-Africa include poverty and unemployment. The perception that urban
issues such as economic difficulties contributes to the problem is supported by
literature. Ryan and Lane (1997), Peterson, Esbensen, Taylor and Freng (2008) suggest
that the community plays an important role and that children in larger cities are
exposed to urban influences. McGarrell ( 2001), Flores (2003), Currie & Covell (1998),
Abrams, Kim & Anderson-Nathe (2005), Lattimore, Macdonald, Piquero, Linster, &
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Visher (2004), Carr & Vandiver (2001), Ryals (2004), and Mandisa (2007) all suggest the
importance of considering the community as a major contributing factor. These studies
indicate that the community provides limited support to a youth who is in conflict with
the law. In fact certain elements of the community such as the media contribute to the
problem. (Compare Peterson, Esbensen, Taylor and Freng (2008).
Circumstances unique to the South-African context contribute to the break down of
social moral. The presence of poverty, unemployment, HIV/AIDS and crime in the
country creates a negative environment which again results in negative individual
behaviour. Ryan and Lane (1997) suggest that there are 18 major factors contributing to
youth offending. These factors range from micro-level factors to macro-level factors.
According to the authors these factors are mostly identified in combination and one
single factor does not necessarily result in conflict with the law. Ryan and Lane (1997)
and Ryan (1999) suggest that there are specific internal and external factors which
motivate the child in conflict with the law towards offending and re-offending. On a
macro-level the authors identify access to any kind of situation where crime can take
place as well as accessories to the crime. For instance, the availability of weapons when
turns a break-in or theft into an armed robbery. Or access to small children who can
become potential victims of sexual offenses. The authors identify poverty and
unemployment as major factors motivating youth towards crime.
The reality of HIV/AIDS should be acknowledged when youth offending is considered. Some
authors suggest that HIV/AIDS either contributes to or is a result of criminal activity. According
to Dosio and Boer (2007) many young offenders in South-Africa have HIV/AIDS. Andersson, HoFoster, Matthis, Marokoane, Mashiane, Mhatre, Mitchell, Mokoena, Monasta, Ngxowa, Salcedo
and Sonnekus (2004) also studied the prevalence of HIV/AIDS amongst children in conflict with
the law in South-Africa. According to these authors HIV/AIDS found it to be one of the major
contributing factors towards criminal involvement.
EVALUATION OF SERVICES
This section of the conceptual framework focuses on effective services towards the child in
conflict with the law. It explores the realities of services as well as the criteria for effective
service delivery. Though not necessarily observable in practice, these realities provide an
effective set of criteria for program evaluation. This study does not aim to be an in-depth
evaluation project since comprehensive evaluation requires greater depth and the mapping out
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of specific evaluation focus areas. However, this section provides a theoretical background to
evaluation aspects.
In addition it is important to acknowledge that South-Africa’s diverse social environment is
characterized by cultural diversity. Effective service delivery can only take place once the
cultural background of individuals is understood, respected and integrated into treatment
objectives.
Treatment strategies should be based on a significant balance between punishment on the one
hand and rehabilitation on the other. The levels of intervention as set out by the IMC (1996)
provide ample opportunity for balancing these two priorities. This implies that the child in
conflict with the law should have a clear path of intervention not only when incarcerated but
when re-connected with his/her family and the community. Compare with Ayland and West
(2006); Bourduin & Schaeffer, (2002); Henggeler, Schoenwald, Bourduin, Rowland &
Cunningham, (1998) and Ward (2002).
An interface between different kinds of services towards the child in conflict with the law as well
as the child at risk should provide networking opportunity for professionals. Such a network
opportunity does not only enhance services, but enables professionals to track the at risk child.
Driven by international policy such as the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Children
(2005), services should be streamlined towards effective re-integration. Fir this purpose
diversion, advocacy, restorative justice and victim empowerment are considered as priorities of
treatment. Some youth offenders have special needs, including those with mental health and
developmental problems. These children need to be treated in respect to the special need. For
instance, Shelton (2005) argues that when a child in conflict with the law suffers from a mental
health disorder, the focus of treatment should be on the disorder in the first place.
The development and support of youth offenders form an essential part of their
incarceration. The aim of rendering professional services (education, re-skilling, learning
a trade, moral and spiritual enlightenment, and personal development) is to rehabilitate
youth offenders, contribute towards their behavioural change, and prepare them for
their reintegration into the community. Effective service delivery should include the
following general objectives:
Children in conflict with the law should be motivated to actively participate in their
own development and the realization of their potential
A culture and atmosphere of development should prevail within the correctional
facility
Sound discipline and cooperation between personnel and offenders, and among
offenders, should be fostered and maintained.
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Treatment outcomes are defined by various actions plans and policy guidelines such as the IMC
(1996). These treatment plans are specific and aimed to provide guidelines for the four levels of
care namely prevention, early intervention, statutory intervention and continuum of care.
Letourneau, Chapman and Schoenwald (2008), Agnew (2003), Vanfraechem & Walgrave (2004)
and Ryals (2004) support the notion that treatment of incarcerated youth should aim at focusing
on strengths within the individual and community, contexts of functioning and the person’s
adaption to the environment.
The IMC (1996) provided important principles for treatment linked to the developmental
approach. It is important to consider these principles as it creates the basis for evaluation
criteria in this specific research project. These principles have been adapted and changed for the
evaluation purpose of the study:
Focusing on strengths rather than pathology
Building competency rather than attempting cure
Encouragement of trail-and error learning
Importance of context as system of functioning
Appropriate responding to the development needs of the youth
Acknowledgement of the potential within each child and family
Emphasis on treatment within the living environment of the child (in this case the
correctional care facility such as secure care)
Multi-disciplinary team approaches towards treatment and recovery of the child.
The different service delivery levels as depicted by the IMC (1996) are considered as the
main intervention strategies for the purpose of this study.
A) PREVENTION SERVICES AND PROGRAMMES
At the first level of intervention the aim is to ensure that communities, families and groups of
children who are broadly identified as being vulnerable to risk factors receive services which
strengthen existing capacity and develop new capacities that will promote resilience and
increase their ability to benefit from developmental opportunities. Typical services that fall
under this level is youth development, leadership training, conflict management, early
childhood care and education, after-care programmes, school-based programmes, and parental
skills training. The same prevention programmes could be used for re-integration and aftercare.
Prevention should be aimed at the widest possible range of young people and from the earliest
age possible, with special attention to be given to children living in disadvantaged families and
communities. In five to eight years from 1996 prevention strategies had to be phased in. If
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services are effective and resources are adequate at this level there will be no need for the
young person and family to engage with the early intervention services (IMC, 1996: 20, 26)
B) EARLY INTERVENTION SERVICES AND PROGRAMMES
Vulnerable young people and their families who are unable or unwilling to access prevention
programmes, and/or effectively make use of such services, are likely to need early intervention.
These young people may be at risk of placement away from home and the strategies at this level
is to divert young people and their families to prevent them from moving deeper into the
criminal justice system and/or the child and youth care system. This level of intervention
includes the processes of arrest, reception, assessment, and referral into programmes such as
diversion, family conferencing, intensive family support and capacity building, family grants,
home-based development and therapeutic programmes for children and youth (IMC, 1996: 20,
30).
C) STATUTORY PROCESS
Statutory process focuses on children in conflict with the law and/or children in need of care
and protection and thus includes both the Criminal Courts and the Children’s Court proceedings.
The processes should be child-centred and allow for meaningful participation by the young
person, the family and where suitable, members of the broader community. The processes
should take place in a child-friendly atmosphere and within time frames appropriate to young
people. An important aim is ensuring the most appropriate placement for the young person and
for developmental and/or therapeutic programmes that are in the best interest of the child and
the family. The principle of using the most empowering and least restrictive option applies.
Assessment processes should be undertaken by a multi-disciplinary team. Age of criminal
capacity and alternative sentencing options are important considerations (IMC, 1996: 21, 51,
54).
D) CONTINUUM OF CARE SERVICES
It is recognised that there will always be a need for residential care programmes for a
percentage of children and it is intended that this service will be used effectively and carefully.
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It shall in itself be transformed to reflect all levels of intervention and the practice principles
outlined before. Transformed residential care should provide a quality service to the
surrounding community through a range of programmes such as parent skills training, day care,
after school care, and the length of stay, unnecessary movement and institutionalisation should
be minimised. The children needing future residential care are likely to be those who are
orphaned; those with serious emotional and behavioural problems, and those who are seriously
disabled. The continuum of care thus refers to a range of alternative care interventions which
offer differentiated programmes compatible with the varying degrees of the young person’s
need for protection and/or containment as well as treatment needs. From least restrictive to
most restrictive on the continuum of care on finds adoption, foster care, shelter / group care,
residential care and treatment, secure care, and youth correctional services. Some very specific
principles and guidelines were introduced for continuum of care services to young persons to be
adhered to (IMC, 1996: 22, 23, 59-65).
“For many young offenders, moving up from the juvenile justice system to the full-fledged prison
system is a rite of passage” Clay (2008). This strong statement emphasizes the circular nature of
youth offending as well as the dilemma service providers face when developing strategies of
treatment. The author further promotes the importance of streamlined services and specifically
a continuum of care, rather than young people receiving treatment in prison and then being
released into the community and needing to find their own way to be screened, assessed, and
placed into treatment.
Research shows that treatment must comprise a broad spectrum of efforts to be able to deal
with the young offenders different and multi-faceted problems. This assumption is supported
by authors such as Henggeler, Blaske and Stein (1990) who emphasize the importance of a
multi-systemic treatment program for children in conflict with the law.
Individualized treatment based on the strengths perspective, behaviour modification and family
re-integration is highlighted by literature (Shepherd, Green & Omobien (2005) and Bradshaw,
Brown & Hamilton (2006)) as priority in intervention. Psychological treatment based on
cognitive-behavioural principles, and with a high level of integrity, effectively reduces
reconvictions. It is as effective for those in prison as it is for those serving community-based
sentences. It might be more efficient to deliver treatment to prisons, given their higher levels of
consent and adherence to treatment, and better opportunities to establish and maintain group
therapy. Better data and more sophisticated analyses are required, however, before reaching a
firm decision.
In their 1990/1 reconviction study, Bakker and Riley (1994) found young offenders (aged 24 or
less) did not respond as well to psychological treatment as older offenders. Nevertheless, there
was a significant reduction in re-convictions. Studies show that programmes based on
cognitive-behavioural principles with high levels of integrity can reduce reconvictions in young
offenders by up to 50 percent, compared with control subjects (Ross et al 1988, Raynor &
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Vanstone 1996, Goldstein & Glick 1996, Leeman et al 1993, Henggeler et al 1992, Borduin et al
1995). Dosio and Boer (2007) mention the importance of delivering effective multi agency
services in South-Africa. The authors suggest a treatment programme which is integrative in
nature and which incorporate proven treatment modalities. There are a variety of Multi-Agency
Programmes (MAPs) and related effectiveness studies in the literature. One of the most
rigorously studied is the Multisystemic Therapy (MST) model by Henggeler, Schoenwald,
Borduin, Rowlands and Cunningham (1998). MST has been shown to be effective in reducing
recidivism and other indicators of antisocial behaviour amongst various subgroups of serious
young offenders. Some of the subgroups examined in clinical trials have included young sexual
offenders (e.g., Bourduin & Schaeffer, 2002), and drug-using violent young offenders (e.g.,
Henggeler, Clingempeel, Brondino, & Pickrel, 2002).
Importantly, follow-up studies of young offenders show the most effective treatments involve
people significant to the young offender — family, educational institutions, employers, peers
and all the offender’s social networks. Institutional programmes needs to involve significant
others, and be extended into the community on release (Raynor & Vanstone 1996, Guerra &
Slaby 1990, Goldstein 1986, Goldstein & Glick 1996, Leeman et al 1993, Henggeler et al 1992).
It is evident from the literature that current policy provides effective guidelines for the
treatment of the child in conflict with the law as well as his/her family.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
OVERVIEW OF METHODOLOGY
A combined qualitative-quantitative strategy was selected. Combined methodology can also be
described as mixed methodology. Authors such as Creswell (2008), and Guba & Lincoln (1992)
suggest the importance of using a mixed methodology to enhance the trustworthiness of a
study. The purpose of such a combined strategy is to utilize a variety of research actions.
Through using both qualitative and quantitative actions the researchers were able to collect
different kinds of data. The different strategies were complementary to each other resulting in
rich data. This resulted in three different sets of data. Three different independent sets enhance
the trustworthiness (triangulation) of the process.
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The research project consisted of three phases namely:
Phase 1: Historical Analysis: Qualitative and Quantitative sections
Phase 2: Focus group assessments with
service providers
Phase 3: Current profile of crime and
service perceptions
The research strategy was based on the
principles of evidence-based research.
These principles include that the
research in this specific project is used
to inform practice and the enhance
strategies towards the child in conflict
with the law. Furthermore, evidence
Figure 1 Layout of the study
based research informs decision-making
and provides evidence to transform services where necessary. By using a mixed methodology
the researchers were able to compare data sets, develop assumptions and collect evidence to
strengthen these assumptions.
SAMPLING
The research was conducted in Gauteng five (5) regions namely Johannesburg, North Rand,
Sedibeng, Ekurhuleni and Mogale.
The researchers made use of simple random sampling where possible, except in the qualitative
study where purposive sampling was preferred.
HISTORICAL ANALYSIS: QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE SECTIONS
Data was collected from client files at the different assessment centers. An assessment was
made of the number of files per district and from these figures a representative sample was
randomly drawn at each center. This was achieved by randomly drawing names from a name list
at the office. The following sample was realized.
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Department of
Social Development
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84 (1995 period)
532 (2006/7 period)
FOCUS GROUP ASSESSMENTS WITH SERVICE PROVIDERS
14 focus groups with a total of 115 participants were drawn based on a purposive
sampling technique. Participants in the focus groups were selected on an availability
basis and for the knowledge and experience that they would be able to bring into the
situation. This type of sampling was considered most appropriate for the nature of this
study.
CURRENT PROFILE OF CRIME AND SERVICE PERCEPTIONS
In this study the sample was drawn from children in various stages of intervention and at
different service delivery points. In each case the sample was based on availability of children
and willingness to participate. The following sample was realized.
309 participants in youth survey
60 participant in family survey
The youth sample was based on a proportion of the average population size as estimated by 3
sources: Afri.Yze, Social Development and RAR centre estimates. The sample was calculated to
be of sufficient size according to two standards: Sample percentage as set by De Vos et al (2006)
and sample confidence level set at 95%. The sample met both these criteria and ensured
representativeness. The sample was found to be significantly proportionate to the population
estimates, except in two areas where slight under-sampling was observed.
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
Each phase of the study was characterized by its own limitations.
In the historical study data about the 1995 period was difficult to obtain. It transpired
that files for that period were stored in places that were not accessible to the research
team. The impact of this was that the sample was much smaller than originally
anticipated. This problem was mostly solved by utilizing percentages in all frequency
distributions. This made a comparative analysis possible. A second limitation was that
the files for the two periods were vastly different in content. This problem was largely
solved by using a unified coding system that was applicable for both file types. The
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coding system used was expanded as the study progressed. Another problem concerned
the lack of data from client files. Files were generally found to be superficial and lacked
commentary. Internal inconsistencies were also identified.
In the focus group phase the researchers were mostly dependent on the NGO’s for
allowing the team to make appointments. Generally excellent cooperation was
experienced. It was difficult to collect data at government departments and at the
courts, as children avoided these places as far as possible. Some government
assessment centers provided excellent cooperation and others did not cooperate.
In the survey phase problems were experienced regarding accessing of children. It was
not possible to conduct home visits simply because such visits would be logistically
impossible to conduct within the time constraints of the project. Children could not be
interviewed at the courts as most of the arrangements with the courts or the
assessment centers did not materialize. Many children who were scheduled to come for
interviews did not come for appointments. Attempts to gather more data than the
sample required failed because it was not possible to interview children.
Responses where children had to name the programme they attended were found to be
inconsistent. It appeared from the data that respondents found it difficult to identify the
specific programme they had attended.
Another limitation may be the fact that a large percentage of the sample consisted of
children currently in the system. Although the researchers wanted to have more
respondents who had already completed the process, such individuals were difficult to
locate.
It was even more difficult to get parents and care givers to participate in the study. Since
participation was voluntary, the researchers had to rely on parents who responded to
an invitation to attend a session. In most cases parents who attended data collection
sessions were either unemployed or happened to be home at the time of the survey.
The sample of parents thus appears to be biased towards unemployed caregiver
perceptions and could not be regarded as representative of the general group of
parents. The results from this part of the study should therefore be interpreted with
caution.
PHASES IN RESEARCH PROJECT
In order to provide a comprehensive research study the research took place over a period of
eight months. The research was conducted in three major phases as illustrated in Figure 1. The
third phase was expanded to include a sample of parents.
TRUSTWORTHINESS IN THE PROJECT
Throughout the planning and implementation of the study, the researchers ensured that all
measures where in place to enhance trustworthiness of both process and product. When results
of any research are presented to audiences, questions regarding the trustworthiness of the
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process as well ad the product are always raised. Certainly such questions are valid and should
always be asked to ensure accountability in research and practice. In order to ensure
trustworthiness the researchers identified the following critical elements throughout project
planning and implementation.
Validity and Reliability
Internal validity
Neutrality
Credibility
Consistency
VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
Validity and reliability was ensures during the process if the development of the data collection
instruments. The researchers ensured that all items were valid. This implies that the items
tested what it was suppose to test. Validity was obtained through ensuring that concepts were
well defined and that items related to the true meaning of these concepts. Reliability relates to
ensuring that the items measure the same item consistently. For this purpose the literature
review played an important role in setting parameters, clarifying concepts and identifying items.
INTERNAL VALIDITY
Internal validity is mainly concerned with the “truth value” of the inquiry. The question to be
asked throughout the process – do the results reflect the state of affairs as specified in the
problem formulation, aims and objectives and purpose of the study.
NEUTRALITY
Neutrality refers to the researcher’s ability to implement the research in a neutral and objective
manner. Due to the very nature of research procedures, qualitative research tends to be less
objective than quantitative methodology. However, the researchers used specific ways to
ensure neutrality, while using both qualitative and quantitative methods. Neutrality is most
relevant during the data collection process.
Neutrality was enhanced by:
Developing a data collection protocol which ensured that all field workers were
collecting data in the same standardized manner (Qualitative and quantitative
methods);
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Training the field workers to ensure that they understood the importance of objectivity
during the data collection process (Qualitative and quantitative methods);
Developing the questionnaire based on the information derived from the literature
review and qualitative methodology (Quantitative method);
Using up to date technology to statistically analyze data (Quantitative method);
Identifying a sample which is representative in nature. A representative sample ensures
that the researchers will provide a neutral and balanced view of the data (Quantitative
method);
CREDIBILITY
Credibility is concerned with the world of the participants. The questions to be asked here is –
are the research participants able to reflect views that are real and can these views be
recognized as credible. This is an important part of ensuring trustworthiness of the study. The
researcher had to ask themselves the question if the participants who were selected could really
provide answers which would generate true results. In order to ensure credibility youth
offenders themselves where involved in the first place. Since they are the consumers of the
services, they would be able to give a true picture of how they perceive the services. However
this argument in itself raises questions. Most importantly, the one of will the youth offenders be
honest in their answers or will they be influenced by realities which the researchers could not
control? In order to address this dilemma, the researchers included a set of validity measures
within the data collection instrument used to collect data from the children in conflict with the
law.
In another attempt to ensure that the data was credible, the researchers included the
professionals who actually deliver services to children in conflict with the law. Though their
responses could be considered as “constructs of their own realities” it was important for the
researchers to respect those realities and to include all varying responses. The responses of the
professionals working with children in conflict with the law are considered as their individual
and collective perceptions of the situation.
Finally, data collected from the files could be considered as credible as it represents specific
responses at a given time. Although some of these files contained incomplete responses these
certainly reflect the realities of children in conflict with the law as identified by service
providers.
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CONSISTENCY
Consistency deals with the application of the research process. The researchers ensured that the
process was standardized and that all members of the project team applied the process in the
same manner. The project team was trained and continuous follow-up and discussion enhanced
consistency in application. In order to enhance the consistency, manuals were used to ensure a
standardized process. These manuals are included as Appendix1 (Facilitators’ manual), Appendix
2 (Faciliitator’s Information Sheet), Appendix 5 (Qualitative work protocol). According to Lincoln
and Guba (1985) the training of the research team is one of the most important priorities in
ensuring consistency.
By identifying these criteria the researchers attempted to apply specific research standards by
which the project could be judged and used to develop valuable assumptions for practice. These
standards are in line with those suggested by well-known research authors. (Comp. Rubin &
Babbie (2008), Neuman and Dreuger (2003) and Kerlinger (1991))
PHASE 1: HISTORICAL ANALYSIS
This section of the report provides information regarding findings for the historical study.
OVERVIEW OF HISTORICAL ANALYSIS:
Phase 1 comprised of specific structured steps in order to enhance the scientific validity of the
study. It was important to first complete phase 1 since the results were used to strategize phase
2 of the research. The first phase was valuable in the orientation and sensitization of the
researchers regarding the research population and the design to be used in the second phase of
the study.
The information in the first phase also enabled the researchers to develop a contextual
understanding. Since this phase focussed on the information available in the assessment
reports, the researchers were also able to immediately develop an understanding of practice
realities1. An historical analysis is also known as a document analysis. A historical analysis is
based on interpretation of documents and reports by means of specific criteria. The analysis is
1
Practice realities included the fact that assessment reports were not completed, data was unclear and responses
limited.
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done by developing a specific step-by-step plan to ensure that analysis takes place in a
structured format. The aim of the structured plan is to provide a standardized format to
interpret the various documents. In this case the researchers used existing reports and collected
data which was entered on assessment reports during 1995 and 2006/7. Although information
was available the researchers experienced difficulties with gaps in reports, incomplete reports
and unreadable responses.
The historical study attempted to answer the first research question and ultimately also tried to
answer the question namely: When compared what differences can be found between
historical data sets dated 1995 and 2006/7?
The historical comparison aimed to incorporate multiple variables of possible changes, mainly
categorized into two sections namely programme variables and crime variables (client
demographics).2
The historical analysis provided information on the changes in crime patterns. These changes
refer to causality factors in crime as well as the transformation in service structuring. Although
the report reflected historical trends, the focus is on how this could add value to the current
strategizing of services. 3
PHASE 1 METHOD FOR HISTORICAL ANALYSIS:
Historical analysis is based on the concepts of document analysis and data mining4. Current as
well as historical case files were analyzed. The files represented 11 offices and/or courts from 5
different regions. An instrument in the form of an analysis framework was developed to capture
and refine the existing data. A sample of 84 (1995 period) and 532 (2006/7 period) was drawn
2
These variables are discussed as part of the results. Attempt were made to account for side variables that may have
impacted on the possible change
3
Although impact evaluation was intended, this was not possible due to the lack of information in the historical
documents.
4
Rubin & Babbie (2008).
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from the files. The sample for the first period was small compared to the current period due to
the fact that limited information was available for the 1995 period and some files were
unsuitable for document analysis. The quantitative data was obtained by means of a
quantitative data collection instrument that was compiled after initial study of file contents.
After capturing the data, the analysis was done by means quantitative and qualitative
methodology. SPSS Version 16.0 was used to analyze the quantitative data and structured open
and comparative coding was used to analyze the qualitative data.
The following table provides information on the offices and the amount of files in each of the
five (5) Gauteng regions:
Table 1 Sample for historical study
Region
Offices
Files:
1995
56
0
0
0
0
Files:
2006/7
60
83
53
55
124
Sediberg offices
Germistion office
2
0
18
17
Benoni office
Springs office
Nigel office
Mogale office
0
0
0
26
74
16
5
28
Johannesburg
Johannesburg court
Protea Court
Randburg Court
Wynburg Court
Rand Protea court
North
region
Sedibeng region
Ekurhuleni
region
Mogale region
The files also included some qualitative responses in the form of single words. Categories
namely mastery, independence, generosity and belonging provided main coding systems for the
assessments. The qualitative data was recorded in a data analysis schedule and was analyzed
through open and comparative coding strategies. The data was twice-coded (by two
independent coders) in order to enhance trustworthiness of the data (Strauss and Corbin: 1990
and Denzin and Lincoln: 2000).
The following steps were used in the historical analysis phase:
Step 1:
Work through the data in order to identify categories other than those identified by the initial
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investigation (belonging, mastery, independence and generosity5)
Step 2:
Implement meta-analysis to develop an understanding of the data
Step 3:
Implement open coding strategies for each of the data sets
Step 4:
Compare the data set as identified by open coding
Step 5:
Implement comparative coding strategies (developed by second coder)
Step 6:
Compare open and comparative coding strategies
Step 7:
Formulate themes which reflects the data of each data set
PHASE 2: METHOD FOR FOCUS GROUPS WITH SERVICE PROVIDERS
OVERVIEW OF FOCUS GROUP ASSESSMENTS
The second phase of the study aimed to collect in-depth data on the experiences and
perceptions6 of service providers as it relates to service delivery towards youth. Again the levels
5
6
These themes were part of the documents available for historical analysis
Since the focus groups aimed at collecting data about the perceptions of the service providers , their responses should
not be viewed as facts but rather as practice realities they experience.
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of service delivery included all four levels of service. The data was collected by means of
qualitative procedures in the form of focus groups. Focus groups provided in-depth information
and aimed to collect data on the following:
The effectiveness of the transformation in the past 10 years
The current challenges faced with regard to services delivered to youth offenders
The contributors to crime, and
The current youth profile
This phase aims to partially answer the third research question namely: How effective is the
services provided by the Department of Social Development to youth offenders in Gauteng?
METHOD OF THE FOCUS GROUP ASSESSMENTS
Focus group discussions took place with the service providers to determine whether service
transformation took place and to explore what the current youth crime situation is in their
opinion. A letter explaining the intent of the research from the Research Unit of the Department
of Social Development was given to accompany invitations to the service providers. Preparations
for the focus group interviewing commenced towards the end of September 2007. The
structuring of focus group meetings with the service providers was done during October 2007
and was scheduled for November. The task of transcript development, analyses and reporting
was implemented in December 2007 and January 2008.
The sample was drawn from a list of the known service providers who are responsible for
service delivery to youth offenders. The sizes of the organisations depended on the number of
regions served. The total number of focus groups was 14 with a total of 115 participants. The
sample was drawn from professionals working in Government, Non-Governmental
Organisations and Community Based Organisations on a purposive basis. The five (5) Gauteng
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regions of North Rand, West Rand, Ekurhuleni, Sedibeng, and Johannesburg were represented in
the sample.
A facilitator’s manual7 was developed to ensure trustworthiness of the process of data
collection. The manual was made available to all fieldworkers who were involved in the data
collection process and it enabled them to apply the procedures in a structured and scientific
manner.
An interview schedule was developed to ensure standardized application of focus group
structure for all of the 14 groups. This interview schedule was based on the results of the
historical study and literature. The focus groups were structured by means of the interview
schedule. Project managers and field workers 8conducted the focus groups enhancing the
trustworthiness of the process. A process of triangulation was used to enhance the validity and
trustworthiness of the data collection. The triangulation process consisted out of (1) field notes
by project managers (2) field notes by field workers and (3) transcripts. Data were collected by
means of tap recorders.
Data analysis took place by means of a comprehensive coding process9. The data was analysed
by means of the Nud.Ist software for qualitative data analysis (Weitzman and Miles: 1995). The
programme enabled the researchers to implement open coding and comparative coding
strategies which is an important part of qualitative analysis (Rubin and Babbie: 2008; Denzin &
Lincoln: 1994 and Neuman: 2006). In general, the aim of analysis is to look for trends and
patterns that reappear within a single focus group or among various focus groups (Greeff, 2006:
311). The data analysis took place by means of a structured process namely:
a) Development of a work protocol and facilitator manual
b) Organise and mine the data
7
The Afri.yze facilitator‟s manual is available from the researchers on request. The facilitator manual consisted of the
guidelines for qualitative data collection, work protocols available to field workers and the data collection instrument.
8
Field workers acted as assistants during the interviews; handling the recording and the administrative tasks, while taking
supplementary notes
9
Miles and Huberman. (1994)
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c) Structuring and refining transcriptions
d) Combine transcriptions with focus group sample information
e) Reflect on the data gathering process as a team
f)
Develop summary sheets
g) Data coding and analysis
h) Listen and read through transcriptions
i)
Note repetition and contradiction in data
j)
Identify categories, themes and patterns
k) Computer coding
l)
Draw up mind maps of interconnectedness of data
m) Data verification (Coder and External coder)
n) Cross check accuracy of information with service providers and to obtain missing
information
o) Test emergent understandings and search for alternative explanations
p) Comparison with analysis structure
q) Comparison with general statistics
The refined data is presented as independent themes which represent the raw data. This set of
data was also twice-coded (by two independent coders) in order to enhance trustworthiness of
the data (Strauss and Corbin: 1990 and Denzin and Lincoln: 2000).
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PHASE 3: METHOD FOR CURRENT PROFILE OF CRIME AND SERVICE
PERCEPTIONS
METHODOLOGY USED IN THE PHASE
The objective of this phase was to describe the perceptions of youth who have been through the
intervention process. Secondly the researchers wanted to establish a profile of factors
contributing to the crime phenomenon.
A quantitative instrument was used towards implementing a survey, providing information to
inform a youth offender profile, explore family relations, perceptions of children in conflict with
the law and evaluate services related to the youth offender. This questionnaire was developed
from information gained from all the previous phases as well as literature.
The survey was based mainly on quantitative methodology in the form of a cross-sectional
study. A cross-sectional study provides data on multiple variables necessary for profile
development.
This phase aims to answer the second and third research questions namely:
What are the current contributing factors to youth offending in Gauteng?
How effective is the services provided by the Department of Social Development to youth
offenders in Gauteng?
DATA COLLECTION (INSTRUMENT DEVELOPMENT)
A data collection instrument was developed to answer the two research questions related to (1)
the contributing factors and (2) the evaluation of services. A second data collection instrument
was developed with the purpose to be administered to the family members or significant others
of children who are in conflict with the law. Both these instruments were quantitative in nature.
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Department of
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These instruments aimed to provide statistical information which could be compared to the sets
of qualitative data.
It is important to understand that the item pool for both instruments was derived from various
sources of information. These include:
Data obtained from the historical analysis
Literature obtained for the conceptual framework
Data collected from focus groups with service providers
The questionnaire related to the youth profile and evaluation of services10 consisted of items
related to contributing factors of offending, systemic dynamic related to offending, individual
and family relations, perceptions and experiences of service delivery and types of treatment
experienced. The first questionnaire was administered to the child in conflict with the law.
Youth at different phases of treatment including waiting trail, incarceration, diversion and
community integration were included. Different service centers were approached and children
were sampled at these centers on an availability basis.
The questionnaire related to the perceptions of families 11was administered to the family or
significant others of the child in conflict with the law. The focus was on the same information as
in Instrument one, but from the perspective of the family member or significant other.
Data was collected by means of direct electronic methods. In this case a computerized
questionnaire format was used and a laptop was used to key in data directly into an Excel
spreadsheet. In some cases where computers could not be used, fieldworkers collected data by
means of paper format questionnaires. The data was later transferred to electronic format. In
both modes of data collection a structured interview was used to collect data. This ensured
consistency in the data set. This ensured that no data was lost and that data was immediately
transferred for analysis purposes. It also rescinded the possibility of multiple handling of the
data leading to errors in the data input.
10
The questionnaire related to the youth profile and evaluation of services is attached as
Appendix 6
11
The questionnaire related to the perceptions of families is attached as Appendix 7
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DATA INTERPRETATION
The data was analyzed by means of SPSS Version 16.0. Specifically the techniques of frequency
distributions, Descriptive statistics, Factor analysis, Reliability analysis and one-way ANOVA were
used to guide the analysis. Specifically Factor analysis and Reliability analysis by means of the
Alpha coefficient were used to determine factorial validity and reliability in the primary
measurement instrument.
The research study enabled the researchers to collect three different sets of data which will be
presented. Working with three different data sets enabled the researchers to validate and
enhance the trustworthiness of the research results. In the forthcoming section the results are
discussed as separate entities, after which a holistic interpretation is presented.
RESULTS OF THE DIFFERENT STUDIES
PHASE 1: HISTORICAL ANALYSIS: QUANTITATIVE THEMES
The following quantitative historical analysis aims to compare data between time-periods 1995
and 2005/6.
DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLING ASPECTS
In a study of this nature it would be important to determine if the samples for each time period
are largely similar in terms of a few key variables. Such similarity would be helpful in order to
compare apples with apples. Readers should also be aware of any differences and variations in
order to assess the validity of data and findings. The central question thus is: Are the time
period samples equal? The following section illustrates the extent to which the two samples are
equal.
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1995 PERIOD
2006 – 2007 PERIOD
Broad survey area
Broad survey area
Period in which file was opened: 1995 period
Period in which file was opened: 2006 - 2007 period
50
60
Percent
Percent
40
40
30
20
20
10
0
0
Johannesburg region
Sedibeng region
Johannesburg
region
Mogale region
Northrand region
Broad survey area
Sedibeng region
Ekurhuleni region
Mogale region
Broad survey area
Survey area into office areas
Survey area into office areas
Period in which file was opened: 1995 period
Period in which file was opened: 2006 - 2007 period
Nigel office
Mogale unspecified
Survey area into office areas
Survey area into office areas
Mogale unspecified
Sebokeng office
Johannesburg court
Springs office
Benonie office
Germiston office
Sebokeng office
Pretoria court
Wynberg court
Randburg court
Protea court
Johannesburg court
0
20
40
Percent
60
0
5
10
15
Percent
Figure 2 Survey area comparison: 1995/2007
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20
25
LANGUAGE
Language distribution differed markedly between the two periods. The 1995 period shows a
service predominantly servicing Afrikaans speaking respondents. 2006-2007 services are
predominantly reaching Zulu speakers, followed by Sesotho and then Afrikaans speaking
respondents. In terms of this finding services appear to have transformed from a
predominantly Afrikaans focussed service to an inclusive service involving many different
cultural groups.
Languagea
Languagea
Valid
Missing
Total
English
Afrikaans
Xhos a
Zulu
Zulu
Tsw ana
Sesotho
Sisw ati
Other
Total
System
Frequency
8
28
1
13
1
6
3
1
18
79
5
84
Percent
9.5
33.3
1.2
15.5
1.2
7.1
3.6
1.2
21.4
94.0
6.0
100.0
Valid Percent
10.1
35.4
1.3
16.5
1.3
7.6
3.8
1.3
22.8
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
10.1
45.6
46.8
63.3
64.6
72.2
75.9
77.2
100.0
a. Period in w hich file w as opened = 1995 period
Valid
English
Af rikaans
Tsonga
Xhos a
Zulu
Zulu
Tsw ana
Sesotho
Sisw ati
Sepedi
Venda
Portuguese
Other
Total
Frequency
50
74
22
41
140
9
42
83
8
46
8
1
8
532
Percent
9.4
13.9
4.1
7.7
26.3
1.7
7.9
15.6
1.5
8.6
1.5
.2
1.5
100.0
Valid Percent
9.4
13.9
4.1
7.7
26.3
1.7
7.9
15.6
1.5
8.6
1.5
.2
1.5
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
9.4
23.3
27.4
35.2
61.5
63.2
71.1
86.7
88.2
96.8
98.3
98.5
100.0
a. Period in w hich f ile w as opened = 2006 - 2007 period
Figure 3 Language comparison: 1995/ 2007
GENDER
a
Ge nde r of re spondent
a
Ge nde r of re spondent
Valid
Missing
Total
Male
Female
Total
System
Frequency
72
11
83
1
84
Percent
85.7
13.1
98.8
1.2
100.0
Valid Percent
86.7
13.3
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
86.7
100.0
Valid
Male
Female
Total
Frequency
430
102
532
Percent
80.8
19.2
100.0
Valid Percent
80.8
19.2
100.0
a. Period in w hich f ile w as opened = 2006 - 2007 period
a. Period in w hich f ile w as opened = 1995 period
Figure 4 Gender comparison: 1995/2007
The gender profile of both periods largely corresponds, indicating that in respect of this variable
the two samples are more or less equal. In both cases approximately 80% of youth are male.
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Cumulative
Percent
80.8
100.0
AGE
The following tables illustrate that the age distribution is largely equal for both periods. This is
remarkable in that it shows that the age profile has changed little over time.
Agea
Agea
Valid
Missing
Total
Age 14 - 15
Age 16 - 17
Total
System
Frequency
32
50
82
2
84
Percent
38.1
59.5
97.6
2.4
100.0
Valid Percent
39.0
61.0
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
39.0
100.0
Valid
Missing
Total
Age 14 - 15
Age 16 - 17
Total
System
Frequency
153
377
530
2
532
Percent
28.8
70.9
99.6
.4
100.0
Valid Percent
28.9
71.1
100.0
a. Period in w hich file w as opened = 2006 - 2007 period
a. Period in w hich file w as opened = 1995 period
Figure 5 Age comparison: 1995/2007
This result also shows that in both periods older youth, 17 – 17 years of age dominate the
sample
FAMILY TYPE DESCRIPTION
The family type profile of both periods was found to be largely similar. Approximately 40% of
youth are living within a nuclear family, 30% within single parented households and the
remainder in incomplete families or alternative care arrangements.
a
Fam ily type des cription
a
Family type des cription
Valid
Missing
Total
Nuclear family
Extended family
Single parent family
Inc omplete family
Total
System
Frequency
14
3
10
3
30
54
84
Percent
16.7
3.6
11.9
3.6
35.7
64.3
100.0
Valid Percent
46.7
10.0
33.3
10.0
100.0
a. Period in w hich file w as opened = 1995 period
Cumulative
Percent
46.7
56.7
90.0
100.0
Valid
Nuclear family
Extended family
Single parent family
Inc omplete family
Child-headed household
Foster family
Other
Total
Frequency
192
85
171
62
4
6
12
532
Percent
36.1
16.0
32.1
11.7
.8
1.1
2.3
100.0
Valid Percent
36.1
16.0
32.1
11.7
.8
1.1
2.3
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
36.1
52.1
84.2
95.9
96.6
97.7
100.0
a. Period in w hich file w as opened = 2006 - 2007 period
Figure 6 Family Type comparison: 1995/2007
52
Department of
Social Development
Together, creating jobs, fighting poverty
Cumulative
Percent
28.9
100.0
Family type description
Family type description
Period in which file was opened: 1995 period
Period in which file was opened: 2006 - 2007 period
Other
Family type description
Family type description
Incomplete family
Single parent family
Extended family
Foster family
Child-headed
household
Incomplete family
Single parent family
Extended family
Nuclear family
Nuclear family
0
10
20
30
40
0
50
10
20
30
40
Percent
Percent
Figure 7 Family type comparison: Graph: 1995/2007
PLACE OF RESIDENCE
Approximately 70% of respondents in both periods of study appear to be living predominantly
with their families. Only about 2 – 4% lives on the streets, whilst 6 – 20% lives with other family
members. From this result it appears that youth involved in conflict with the law live
predominantly with their parents.
a
Where does the re spondent live?
a
Where does the re spondent live?
Valid
Missing
Total
With ow n parents
With a relative
On the street
Other
Total
System
Frequency
40
3
2
4
49
35
84
Percent
47.6
3.6
2.4
4.8
58.3
41.7
100.0
Valid Percent
81.6
6.1
4.1
8.2
100.0
a. Period in w hich f ile w as opened = 1995 period
Cumulative
Percent
81.6
87.8
91.8
100.0
Valid
Missing
Total
With ow n parents
With a relative
On the street
In an institution
Other
Total
System
Frequency
393
110
2
8
17
530
2
532
Percent
73.9
20.7
.4
1.5
3.2
99.6
.4
100.0
Valid Percent
74.2
20.8
.4
1.5
3.2
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
74.2
94.9
95.3
96.8
100.0
a. Period in w hich f ile w as opened = 2006 - 2007 period
Figure 8 Place of residence comparison: 1995/2007
53
Department of
Social Development
Together, creating jobs, fighting poverty
PRIMARY CARE GIVER
The following figure indicates that during the 1995 period a higher percentage of youth
offenders lived with their parents compared to the 2006/2007 period. In this case about 40%
lived predominantly with their mothers. From this result it may be possible that family
composition and the care giving situation may have changed over time.
a
Who is the respondent's prim ary care giver?
a
Who is the responde nt's prim ary care giver?
Valid
Missing
Total
Self care
Predominently father
Predominently mother
Both parents
Grandparents
Other
Total
System
Frequency
1
3
14
27
1
5
51
33
84
Percent
1.2
3.6
16.7
32.1
1.2
6.0
60.7
39.3
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
2.0
7.8
35.3
88.2
90.2
100.0
Valid Percent
2.0
5.9
27.5
52.9
2.0
9.8
100.0
a. Period in w hich f ile w as opened = 1995 period
Valid
Self care
Predominently father
Predominently mother
Both parents
Grandparents
Foster parents
Sibling care
Other
Total
Frequency
13
73
213
102
42
5
34
50
532
Percent
2.4
13.7
40.0
19.2
7.9
.9
6.4
9.4
100.0
Valid Percent
2.4
13.7
40.0
19.2
7.9
.9
6.4
9.4
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
2.4
16.2
56.2
75.4
83.3
84.2
90.6
100.0
a. Period in w hich f ile w as opened = 2006 - 2007 period
Figure 9 Primary care giver comparison: 1995/2007
Period in which file was opened: 1995 period
Period in which file was opened: 2006 - 2007 period
Other
Grandparents
Both parents
Who is the respondent's primary care giver?
Who is the respondent's primary care giver?
Who is the respondent's primary care giver?
Who is the respondent's primary care
giver?
The following graphs
indicate changes in
care-giving
patterns
over time
Other
Sibling care
EMPLOYMENT
CAREGIVER
OF
Foster parents
The following figure
indicates that for both
Predominently
Both parents
mother
periods it appears that
Predominently mother
Predominently
father
primary
caregivers
Predominently father
were mostly employed
Self care
Self care
full time. This result
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0
10
20
30
40
50
confirms that youth
Percent
Percent
who are in conflict with
the law come from
average working class families. The graphs demonstrate the
Figure 10 Primary care situation: 1995/2007
employment situation of parents. In both periods only small
percentages (10%) of parents have their own enterprises.
Grandparents
54
Department of
Social Development
Together, creating jobs, fighting poverty
a
Prim ary care giver's w ork situation?
a
Prim ary care giver's w ork s ituation?
Valid
Employed
Self-employed
Other
Total
System
Missing
Total
Frequency
25
1
2
28
56
84
Percent
29.8
1.2
2.4
33.3
66.7
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
89.3
92.9
100.0
Valid Percent
89.3
3.6
7.1
100.0
Valid
Missing
Total
a. Period in w hich f ile w as opened = 1995 period
Employed
Unemploy ed
Self-employed
Other
Grant recipient
Total
System
Frequency
332
54
44
62
34
526
6
532
Percent
62.4
10.2
8.3
11.7
6.4
98.9
1.1
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
63.1
73.4
81.7
93.5
100.0
Valid Percent
63.1
10.3
8.4
11.8
6.5
100.0
a. Period in w hich f ile w as opened = 2006 - 2007 period
Figure 11 Employment profile: 1995/2007
Primary care giver's work situation?
Period in which file was opened: 1995 period
Period in which file was opened: 2006 - 2007 period
Primary care giver's work situation?
Primary care giver's work situation?
SCHOOL GRADE
Primary care giver's work situation?
Other
Self-employed
Employed
Grant recipient
Other
Self-employed
Unemployed
Statistics
for
both
periods indicate that
the highest percentage
of youth (+-65%) were
in grade 8 - 10 when
they committed an
offence.
Employed
This indicates that
Percent
youth are their most
vulnerable at the age
group 14 – 17 when they are likely to be in grade 8 – 10. This result is also confirmed by the
age statistic presented earlier on. A smaller percentage (25%) of youth was in grade 1 – 7 at
the time of their offence.
0
20
40
60
80
100
0
20
40
60
Percent
Figure 12 Work situation of care-giver: 1995/2007
a
Grade of res pondent at tim e of as ses sm ent?
a
Grade of res pondent at tim e of as ses sm ent?
Valid
Missing
Total
Grade 1 - 4
Grade 5 - 7
Grade 8 - 10
Grade 11 - 12
Total
System
Frequency
2
8
20
2
32
52
84
Percent
2.4
9.5
23.8
2.4
38.1
61.9
100.0
Valid Percent
6.3
25.0
62.5
6.3
100.0
a. Period in w hich file w as opened = 1995 period
Cumulative
Percent
6.3
31.3
93.8
100.0
Valid
Missing
Total
Grade 1 - 4
Grade 5 - 7
Grade 8 - 10
Grade 11 - 12
Total
System
Frequency
6
65
322
74
467
65
532
Percent
1.1
12.2
60.5
13.9
87.8
12.2
100.0
Valid Percent
1.3
13.9
69.0
15.8
100.0
a. Period in w hich f ile w as opened = 2006 - 2007 period
Figure 13 Grade at time of offence: 1995/2007
The following graphs confirm the above result. Once again it appears that the two periods
55
Department of
Social Development
Together, creating jobs, fighting poverty
Cumulative
Percent
1.3
15.2
84.2
100.0
largely correspond.
Grade of respondent at time of assessment?
Grade of respondent at time of assessment?
Period in which file was opened: 2006 - 2007 period
Period in which file was opened: 1995 period
60
40
Percent
Percent
60
40
20
20
0
Grade 1 - 4
Grade 5 - 7
Grade 8 - 10
Grade 11 - 12
0
Grade of respondent at time of assessment?
Grade 1 - 4
Grade 5 - 7
Grade 8 - 10
Grade 11 - 12
Grade of respondent at time of assessment?
Figure 14 Graphs illustrating grade at time of offence: 1995/2007
CURRENT OFFENCE PROFILE
The following section provides information regarding the offence profile of youth in the
corresponding time periods.
BEHAVIOUR AT SCHOOL
According to the case records it appears that respondents in both periods displayed mainly good
behavior at school. It appears that disruptive behavior was indicated in about 5% of cases. Drug
and alcohol related behavior was reported in about 5% of cases. About 45% of cases did not
display any behavioural problems at school.
Be haviour at schoola
Be haviour at schoola
Valid
Missing
Total
Missing classes
Disruptive behaviour
Drug/alcohol related
behaviour
Violent incidents
Change in ac ademic
results
Other
Good behaviour at school
Total
System
Cumulative
Percent
Valid
10.8
16.2
Frequency
4
2
Percent
4.8
2.4
Valid Percent
10.8
5.4
2
2.4
5.4
21.6
2
2.4
5.4
27.0
3
3.6
8.1
35.1
10
14
37
47
84
11.9
16.7
44.0
56.0
100.0
27.0
37.8
100.0
62.2
100.0
a. Period in w hich file w as opened = 1995 period
Missing
Total
Missing classes
Disruptive behaviour
Criminal ac tiv ities
Drug/alcohol related
behaviour
Violent incidents
Being bullied
Change in ac ademic
results
No friends in school
Other
Good behaviour at school
Total
System
Frequency
33
24
1
Percent
6.2
4.5
.2
Valid Percent
7.3
5.3
.2
Cumulative
Percent
7.3
12.5
12.7
26
4.9
5.7
18.5
2
1
.4
.2
.4
.2
18.9
19.1
14
2.6
3.1
22.2
1
105
248
455
77
532
.2
19.7
46.6
85.5
14.5
100.0
.2
23.1
54.5
100.0
22.4
45.5
100.0
a. Period in w hich file w as opened = 2006 - 2007 period
Figure 15 Behaviour at school: 1995/2007
56
Department of
Social Development
Together, creating jobs, fighting poverty
Youth were predominantly attending school regularly when the offence was committed. It is
significant to note that children were mostly not involved in what can be described as obvious
criminal behavior such as criminality and violence. It needs to be noted that the reporting rate in
this case is highly dependent upon assessment skills of probation officers. This aspect may have
influenced the way in which assessments were done. It is also likely that reporting errors such as
would be caused by weak assessment, if there were any, were consistently done, which is
unlikely.
Behaviour at school
Behaviour at school
Period in which file was opened: 1995 period
Period in which file was opened: 2006 - 2007 period
Good behaviour at school
Good behaviour at school
Behaviour at school
Other
Behaviour at school
Other
Change in academic results
Violent incidents
Drug/alcohol related behaviour
No friends in school
Change in academic results
Being bullied
Violent incidents
Drug/alcohol related behaviour
Disruptive behaviour
Criminal activities
Disruptive behaviour
Missing classes
Missing classes
0
0
10
20
30
10
20
40
30
40
50
60
Percent
Percent
Figure 16 Behaviour at school: 1995/2007
In the next analysis the categories of school behaviour assessment have been reduced to two
basic categories in order to provide a more categorical answer to the question if respondents
displayed behavioural problems or not. The graphs indicate that more behavioural problems
were noted in the 2006/7 period.
a
Cate gorical statem ent regarding behavioural problem
Valid
Missing
Total
Behavioural problem
No behavioural
problem observed
Total
System
Frequency
23
Percent
27.4
Valid Percent
62.2
14
16.7
37.8
37
47
84
44.0
56.0
100.0
100.0
a
Cate gorical statement regarding behavioural problem
Cumulative
Percent
62.2 Valid
100.0
Missing
Total
Behavioural problem
No behavioural
problem observed
Total
System
Valid Percent
45.5
Cumulative
Percent
45.5
46.6
54.5
100.0
85.5
14.5
100.0
100.0
Frequency
207
Percent
38.9
248
455
77
532
a. Period in w hich file w as opened = 2006 - 2007 period
a. Period in w hich f ile w as opened = 1995 period
Figure 17 Categorical behavioural problem indication: 1995/2007
57
Department of
Social Development
Together, creating jobs, fighting poverty
CURRENT HEALTH STATUS
It appears that in both periods youth were reported to be in good health at the time of the
incident.
NATURE OF CURRENT OFFENCE
The statistics for both periods indicates a variety of offences with very little distinction between
categories. It needs to be noted that rape was not reported in the 1995 period and only 2% of
cases reported their offence as being rape. Robbery related offences accounted for about 10%
of cases.
a
Nature of current offence
Valid
Missing
Total
Housebreaking
Housebreaking w ith thef t
Shoplif ting
Robbery
Thef t of vehicle
Thef t out of vehicle
As sault
Other
Thef t
Total
System
Frequency
12
10
12
5
7
10
6
11
5
78
6
84
a. Period in w hich f ile w as opened = 1995 period
Percent
14.3
11.9
14.3
6.0
8.3
11.9
7.1
13.1
6.0
92.9
7.1
100.0
a
Nature of current offence
Valid Percent
15.4
12.8
15.4
6.4
9.0
12.8
7.7
14.1
6.4
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
15.4
28.2
43.6
50.0
59.0
71.8
79.5
93.6
100.0
Valid
Missing
Total
Housebreaking
Housebreaking w ith thef t
Shoplif ting
Robbery
Thef t of vehicle
Thef t out of vehicle
Murder
As sault
Other
Rape
Thef t
Total
System
Frequency
18
41
98
56
5
4
11
108
119
11
60
531
1
532
Percent
3.4
7.7
18.4
10.5
.9
.8
2.1
20.3
22.4
2.1
11.3
99.8
.2
100.0
Valid Percent
3.4
7.7
18.5
10.5
.9
.8
2.1
20.3
22.4
2.1
11.3
100.0
a. Period in w hich f ile w as opened = 2006 - 2007 period
Figure 18 Types of crime: 1995/2007
It should be noted that a high percentage of crimes in 2007 are described as ‘other’, which is
uncommon and suggests that assessment personnel were not clear on the type of offence
committed.
58
Department of
Social Development
Together, creating jobs, fighting poverty
Cumulative
Percent
3.4
11.1
29.6
40.1
41.1
41.8
43.9
64.2
86.6
88.7
100.0
Nature of current offence
Nature of current offence
Period in which file was opened: 1995 period
Period in which file was opened: 2006 - 2007 period
20
25
20
Percent
Percent
15
10
15
10
5
5
0
Housebreaking Housebreaking
with theft
0
Housebreaking Housebreaking
with theft
Shoplifting
Robbery
Theft of vehicle
Theft out of
vehicle
Assault
Other
Shoplifting
Theft
Robbery
Theft of vehicle Theft out of
vehicle
Murder
Assault
Other
Rape
Theft
Nature of current offence
Nature of current offence
Figure 19 Illustrated types of crimes: 1995/2007
OTHER PARTY INVOLVEMENT
The data indicates that incidents in the 2006/7 period were mostly committed by children alone.
This is in contrast to the 1995 period where it appears that about 50% of children were
accompanied by someone else.
Were there other parties involved in the crima e
Valid
Missing
Total
Yes
No
Total
System
Frequency
16
16
32
52
84
Percent
19.0
19.0
38.1
61.9
100.0
Were there other parties involved in the crima e
Cumulative
Percent
50.0
100.0
Valid Percent
50.0
50.0
100.0
Valid
Missing
Total
Yes
No
Total
System
Frequency
171
358
529
3
532
Percent
32.1
67.3
99.4
.6
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
32.3
100.0
Valid Percent
32.3
67.7
100.0
a. Period in w hich f ile w as opened = 2006 - 2007 period
a. Period in w hich f ile w as opened = 1995 period
Figure 20 Other party involvements in the incident: 1995/2007
PERSON ACCOMPANYING OFFENDER
In both periods friends and peers were likely to have accompanied the youth offender. This
finding suggests that youth offenders often commit offences when they are in groups of peers
and respond to peer-group influence. This is the case in about 85% of both samples. Adults were
involved n only about 6% of cases and family members in 9%.
59
Department of
Social Development
Together, creating jobs, fighting poverty
If yes, who was with respondent?
If yes, who was with respondent?
Period in which file was opened: 1995 period
Period in which file was opened: 2006 - 2007 period
If yes, who was with respondent?
If yes, who was with respondent?
Other
Other
Friends/peers
Adults
Stranger
Family members
Friends/peers
Adults
Gang members
0
20
40
60
80
0
100
20
40
60
80
100
Percent
Percent
Figure 21 Person accompanying child: 1995/2007
WEAPON USED DURING OFFENCE
Were any weapons used during the
incident?
Were any weapons used during the
incident?
Period in which file was opened: 1995 period
Period in which file was opened: 2006 - 2007 period
Were any weapons used during the incident?
Were any weapons used during the incident?
Data indicates that for both periods most youth offenders did not use weapons when
committing the crime. It is possible that those who accompanied the child had a weapon or that
physical force was used to commit the crime.
No
Yes
0
20
40
Percent
60
80
No
Yes
0
20
40
60
80
Percent
Figure 22 Were weapons used during the incident?
60
Department of
Social Development
Together, creating jobs, fighting poverty
100
It is not clear what type of weapon is indicated in the file. The percentage that did not use a
weapon ranges between 72 – 86%.
TYPE OF WEAPON USED
The data is not clear about the specific type of weapon that was used. It appears that of those
who used a weapon, about 19 – 28 % used a gun and 26 – 42% a knife.
RECOMMENDED INTERVENTION
It appears that diversion programmes are favored recommendation options as indicated in the
Table below (58%). In 1995 placement was most favored.
Period in which file was opened: 1995 period
Period in which file was opened: 2006 - 2007 period
What is the recommendation of assessment
officer in current offence?
What is the recommendation of assessment officer
in current offence?
What is the recommendation of assessment
officer in current offence?
What is the recommendation of assessment officer in
current offence?
Placement
Trial
Diversion
0
10
20
30
40
Percent
50
60
Placement
Trial
Diversion
0
10
20
30
40
Percent
Figure 23 Recommended intervention: 1995/2007
DURATION OF DETENTION
During 1995 it was not always clear how long youth offenders were detained for. It appears
as if youth were detained form longer periods during the 1995 period, as compared to the
2006/7 period where youth tend to stay for 1 – 3 days at the most.
61
Department of
Social Development
Together, creating jobs, fighting poverty
50
60
a
How long has respondent been de tained before appearing in court?
a
How long has respondent been de tained before appearing in court?
Valid
Up to one day
One to tw o days
Up to one w eek
Tw o w eeks - one month
Other
Total
System
Missing
Total
Frequency
3
4
8
2
11
28
56
84
Percent
3.6
4.8
9.5
2.4
13.1
33.3
66.7
100.0
Valid Percent
10.7
14.3
28.6
7.1
39.3
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
10.7
25.0
53.6
60.7
100.0
Valid
Up to one day
One to tw o days
Up to one w eek
Tw o w eeks - one month
Up to one year
Other
Total
System
Missing
Total
a. Period in w hich f ile w as opened = 1995 period
Frequency
185
120
84
85
3
51
528
4
532
Percent
34.8
22.6
15.8
16.0
.6
9.6
99.2
.8
100.0
Valid Percent
35.0
22.7
15.9
16.1
.6
9.7
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
35.0
57.8
73.7
89.8
90.3
100.0
a. Period in w hich f ile w as opened = 2006 - 2007 period
Figure 24 Number of days in detention: 1995/2007
RESPONSIBILITY ACCEPTANCE
Data indicates that 82% of youth tended to accept responsibility for their behaviour. This
percentage is exactly similar for both periods, indicating that this trend has remained
unchanged.
a
Did re spondent accept responsibility for curent incident?
Valid
Missing
Total
Yes
No
Total
System
Frequency
24
5
29
55
84
Percent
28.6
6.0
34.5
65.5
100.0
Valid Percent
82.8
17.2
100.0
a. Period in w hich f ile w as opened = 1995 period
a
Did re spondent accept responsibility for curent incident?
Cumulative
Percent
82.8
100.0
Valid
Missing
Total
Yes
No
Total
System
Frequency
433
91
524
8
532
Percent
81.4
17.1
98.5
1.5
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
82.6
100.0
Valid Percent
82.6
17.4
100.0
a. Period in w hich f ile w as opened = 2006 - 2007 period
Figure 25 Accepting responsibility: 1995/2007
CONTRIBUTING FACTORS
The data indicates that family factors such as lack of parental supervision were cited most often
as reason for committing an offence. During the 2006/7 period socio-economic factors are cited
62
Department of
Social Development
Together, creating jobs, fighting poverty
as most common reason along with an ‘other’ category, suggesting lack of certainty about the
reason.
a
What caused res pondent to com m it current crim inal act?
a
What caused res pondent to com m it current crim inal act?
Frequency
Valid
Missing
Total
Lack of parental
supervis ion
Drug related
Socio-economic f actors
Boredom
Peer-pressure
Other
Total
System
Percent
7
Valid Percent
8.3
5
3
1
9
5
30
54
84
Cumulative
Percent
23.3
6.0
3.6
1.2
10.7
6.0
35.7
64.3
100.0
Frequency
Valid
Lack of parental
supervis ion
Family conf lict
Inv olvement w ith gangs
Drug related
Socio-economic f actors
Boredom
Peer-pressure
Other
Total
System
23.3
16.7
10.0
3.3
30.0
16.7
100.0
40.0
50.0
53.3
83.3
100.0
Missing
Total
a. Period in w hich f ile w as opened = 1995 period
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
40
7.5
7.5
7.5
27
3
38
133
33
117
140
531
1
532
5.1
.6
7.1
25.0
6.2
22.0
26.3
99.8
.2
100.0
5.1
.6
7.2
25.0
6.2
22.0
26.4
100.0
12.6
13.2
20.3
45.4
51.6
73.6
100.0
a. Period in w hich f ile w as opened = 2006 - 2007 period
Figure 26 Causes for offensive behaviour: 1995/2007
VICTIM PROFILE
The data suggests that the involvement of a victim has decreased since 1995 to 2007. In the
former case victims were involved in 71% of cases compared to 54% of cases in 2006/7.
AGE OF VICTIM
A significant amount of data was missing for this variable. This is probably due to the fact that
not all offences committed were committed against persons. From both sets of data it appears
that victims were mostly peers or people a little older than the offender themselves. In both
samples the age of the victim appears largely the same.
a
What is the age of the victim in the current incide nt?
a
What is the age of the victim in the current incide nt?
Valid
Missing
Total
10 - 16 years
16 - 18 years
Older than 18 years
Total
System
Frequency
1
2
4
7
77
84
Percent
1.2
2.4
4.8
8.3
91.7
100.0
a. Period in w hich file w as opened = 1995 period
Valid Percent
14.3
28.6
57.1
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
14.3
42.9
100.0
Valid
Missing
Total
0 - 6 years
6 - 10 years
10 - 16 years
16 - 18 years
Older than 18 years
Total
System
Frequency
5
11
29
20
155
220
312
532
Percent
.9
2.1
5.5
3.8
29.1
41.4
58.6
100.0
Valid Percent
2.3
5.0
13.2
9.1
70.5
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
2.3
7.3
20.5
29.5
100.0
a. Period in w hich file w as opened = 2006 - 2007 period
Figure 27 Age of victim: 1995/2007
63
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TYPE OF DIVERSION PROGRAMME ATTENDED
No data available for 1995
a
Which dive rsion programme did the re spondent atte nd?
Missing
Total
Life skills programme
Alcohol management
Anger management
Drug management
Homecare s upervision
Pre-trial community
service
Family conferences
Other
I can programme
Youth empow erment
scheme
"Journey" programme
SPARC programme for
child sex offenders
Total
System
Percent
25.2
.4
1.5
3.8
7.3
Valid Percent
38.2
.6
2.3
5.7
11.1
Cumulative
Percent
38.2
38.7
41.0
46.7
57.8
2
.4
.6
58.4
1
112
1
.2
21.1
.2
.3
31.9
.3
58.7
90.6
90.9
28
5.3
8.0
98.9
1
.2
.3
99.1
3
.6
.9
351
181
532
66.0
34.0
100.0
100.0
a. Period in w hich file w as opened = 2006 - 2007 period
100.0
Which diversion programme did the respondent attend?
Period in which file was opened: 2006 - 2007 period
Which diversion programme did the …
Valid
Frequency
134
2
8
20
39
SPARC programme for child sex
offenders
"Journey" programme
Youth empowerment scheme
I can programme
Other
Family conferences
Pre-trial community service
Homecare supervision
Drug management
Anger management
Alcohol management
Life skills programme
0
10
20
30
40
Percent
Figure 28 Types of programmes attended: 2006/7
The different diversion programmes were not always indicated in client files. In some cases the
classification in the file was vague and non-specific.
It appears from the limited data that is available for 1005 that most children mostly attended a
diversion programme or a skills development programme.
PREVIOUS ARRESTS
Both time periods indicate that most youth offenders are first time offenders. In both cases the
percentage first time offences is between 65 and 85%.
64
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How many times has respondent been arrested in the
past?
How many times has respondent been arrested in the
past?
Period in which file was opened: 2006 - 2007 period
How many times has respondent been …
How many times has respondent been …
Period in which file was opened: 1995 period
More than three previous
offences
Three previous offences
Two previous offences
First time offence
0
20
40
Percent
60
More than three previous
offences
Three previous offences
Two previous offences
First time offence
0
20
40
60
80
100
Percent
Figure 29 Number of previous offences: 1995/2007
In 25% of cases the child has committed a second offence. Only a small percentage (2-6%) can
be classified as multiple offenders.
65
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PREVIOUS OFFENCE TYPE
Previous offence
Previous offence
Period in which file was opened: 1995 period
Period in which file was opened: 2006 - 2007 period
Theft
Theft
Rape
Robbery
Theft of vehicle
Previous offence
Previous offence
Other
Shoplifting
Housebreaking with theft
Other
Assault
Murder
Shoplifting
Housebreaking with
theft
Housebreaking
Housebreaking
0
10
20
30
40
Percent
0
5
10
15
20
25
Percent
Figure 30 Previous offence type: 1995/2007
Previous offence type is indicated in the following graphs.
It appears that the previous offences are similar to the first offence committed. The patterns for
both periods appear largely similar.
It also appears that the ‘other’ category is very large, indicating a gap in the file content that can
either be attributed to lack of knowledge of the assessor, or another reason.
INSTITUTIONALIZATION FOR PREVIOUS OFFENCE
It appears that youth in both periods were likely to be first offenders. In both time periods the
percentage re-offending is about 7% as illustrated by the graphs.
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Was respondent institutionalised for a criminal offense
before?
Was respondent institutionalised for a criminal offense
before?
Period in which file was opened: 2006 - 2007 period
No
Yes
20
40
60
80
100
Percent
Data in this case
is rather sketchy.
It appears that
besides using a
correctional
facility or a place
of safety very
little existed in
Percent
terms of places of
detention.
It
needs to be noted that several places of safety existed at
that time, which were probably used. It is not possible to
Was respondent institutionalised for a criminal
offense before?
Was respondent institutionalised for a criminal
offense before?
Period in which file was opened: 1995 period
0
PLACE
OF
DETENTION
No
Yes
0
Figure 31 Institutionalization type: 1995/2007
20
40
60
80
100
assess placements.
ASSESSMENTS DURING PREVIOUS OFFENCES
It appears that assessments were less likely during the first period (1995) compared to the
2006/7 period. By the latter period some 98% of respondents were assessed.
During the first incident, w as an ass essme nt
a done before responde nt
appeared in court?
Valid
Missing
Total
Yes
System
Frequency
29
55
84
Percent
34.5
65.5
100.0
Valid Percent
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
100.0
During the first incident, w as an ass essm e nt
a done before responde nt
appeared in court?
Valid
Missing
Total
a. Period in w hich file w as opened = 1995 period
Yes
No
Total
System
Frequency
523
7
530
2
532
Percent
98.3
1.3
99.6
.4
100.0
Valid Percent
98.7
1.3
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
98.7
100.0
a. Period in w hich f ile w as opened = 2006 - 2007 period
Figure 32 Likelihood of assessments being done: 1995/2007
RECOMMENDED INTERVENTION
It would be important to take note of the recommended service intervention for both periods.
67
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a
What w as the recom m endation after the firs t incident?
Frequency
Valid
Missing
Total
Placement in place of
saf ety
Diversion Programme
Home-based supervision
Correctional f acility
Other
Total
System
Percent
a
What w as the recom m endation after the firs t incident?
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
6
7.1
14.0
14.0
12
10
7
8
43
41
84
14.3
11.9
8.3
9.5
51.2
48.8
100.0
27.9
23.3
16.3
18.6
100.0
41.9
65.1
81.4
100.0
Frequency
Valid
Missing
Total
Placement in place of
safety
Diversion Programme
Home-based supervision
Correctional facility
Other
Total
System
Percent
Valid Percent
77
14.5
14.8
14.8
319
61
29
35
521
11
532
60.0
11.5
5.5
6.6
97.9
2.1
100.0
61.2
11.7
5.6
6.7
100.0
76.0
87.7
93.3
100.0
a. Period in w hich file w as opened = 2006 - 2007 period
a. Period in w hich f ile w as opened = 1995 period
Figure 33 Distribution for recommended programme: 1995/2007
What was the recommendation after the first
incident?
What was the recommendation after the first incident?
Period in which file was opened: 1995 period
Period in which file was opened: 2006 - 2007 period
What was the recommendation after the first…
What was the recommendation after the first…
It
appears
that
the
correctional
facility option
was
still
available in
the
1995
period. The
above result
indicates that
youths had a
Percent
Percent
greater
chance
to
be
placed
in
a
diversion
programme
Figure 34 Recommendation after first incident: 1995/2007
during the 2006-2007 period than the earlier
period. It appears that the diversion option was already available during the earlier period.
Other
Correctional facility
Home-based
supervision
Diversion Programme
Placement in place of
safety
0
10
20
Other
Correctional facility
Home-based supervision
Diversion Programme
Placement in place of safety
30
0
20
40
60
ATTENDANCE OF DIVERSION PROGRAMMES
During 1995 fewer children attended diversion programmes than in 2006/2007. This can
indicate an improved availability of diversion options in the latter time frame.
68
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a
Did the re spondent attend a diversion program me for previous incident?
a
Did the re spondent attend a diversion program me for previous incident?
Valid
Missing
Total
Frequency
8
20
28
56
84
Yes
No
Total
System
Percent
9.5
23.8
33.3
66.7
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
28.6
100.0
Valid Percent
28.6
71.4
100.0
Valid
Missing
Total
a. Period in w hich f ile w as opened = 1995 period
Yes
No
Total
System
Frequency
375
141
516
16
532
Percent
70.5
26.5
97.0
3.0
100.0
Valid Percent
72.7
27.3
100.0
a. Period in w hich f ile w as opened = 2006 - 2007 period
Figure 35 Attendance of diversion programmes: 1995/2007
It is clear that diversion programmes did not exist in the 1995 period. It was unlikely that
respondents would be sent to a diversion programme during the 1995 period.
Period in which file was opened: 1995 period
Period in which file was opened: 2006 - 2007 period
Did the respondent attend a diversion
programme for previous incident?
Did the respondent attend a diversion programme
for previous incident?
Did the respondent attend a diversion
programme for previous incident?
Did the respondent attend a diversion programme for
previous incident?
No
Yes
0
20
40
60
80
No
Yes
0
20
40
60
80
Percent
Percent
Figure 36 Graphical illustration of diversion programme attendance: 1995/2007
SERVICE PROVIDER PROFILE
Nicro appears to be the most frequently used service provider for both periods. This also
explains why life skills are the programme most frequently utilized, seeing that Nicro provides
this diversion programme. This result can likely be contributed to the fact the NICRO has a long
service history.
69
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Cumulative
Percent
72.7
100.0
Figure 37 Service profile statistics: 1995/2007
a
If yes, at w hich s ervice provider?
If yes, at w hich s ervice
Valid
Missing
Total
NICRO
Other
Total
System
Frequency
6
6
12
72
84
a
provide r?
Percent
7.1
7.1
14.3
85.7
100.0
Valid Percent
50.0
50.0
100.0
Valid
Cumulative
Percent
50.0
100.0
a. Period in w hich file w as opened = 1995 period
Missing
Total
Khulisa
NICRO
Bee Court Wise
Teddy Bear clinic
SANCA
Conquest for Life
Othandw eni outreach
Restorative Justice
Bosasa
Other
Total
System
Frequency
49
172
3
2
19
6
3
9
22
100
385
147
532
Percent
9.2
32.3
.6
.4
3.6
1.1
.6
1.7
4.1
18.8
72.4
27.6
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
12.7
57.4
58.2
58.7
63.6
65.2
66.0
68.3
74.0
100.0
Valid Percent
12.7
44.7
.8
.5
4.9
1.6
.8
2.3
5.7
26.0
100.0
a. Period in w hich file w as opened = 2006 - 2007 period
If yes, at which service provider?
If yes, at which service provider?
Period in which file was opened: 2006 - 2007 period
Period in which file was opened: 1995 period
Derived from Percent
10
20
30
40
Other
50
If yes, at which service provider?
If yes, at which service provider?
0
Other
NICRO
Bosasa
Restorative Justice
Othandweni outreach
Conquest for Life
SANCA
Teddy Bear clinic
Bee Court Wise
NICRO
Khulisa
0
10
20
30
Percent
40
50
0
10
20
30
40
50
Percent
Figure 38 Service provider profile: 1995/2007
70
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HISTORICAL ANALYSIS: QUALITATIVE THEMES
This specific section aims to analyze and describe specific patterns observed in the data. These
patterns highlight trends and consistent themes, which are used for a comparative purpose. The
categories of mastery, independence, belonging and generosity are consistent with the
categories in the assessment report. The data supports the need for various sub categories in
order to develop a better understanding of the content of existing assessment reports. It is
possible that the data from each category repeats existing data in other categories specifically
those of belonging and independence.
There are no significant difference in 1995 and 2006/7 data in the categories of mastery,
independence and generosity. The category of belonging however shows significant difference
specifically related to the structure of the family system.
RESULT 1: MASTERY
The concept mastery can be defined in terms of the life skills of the child in conflict with the law.
These skills are influenced by the child’s behaviour as well as his/her ability and level of
confidence. 12
The concept mastery relates to the activities such as academic abilities, technical skills, progress
in school and sport activities. According to the assessment form mastery refers to education,
specific skills or interests in activities or hobbies.
Positive as well as negative application of skills was reported by means of the qualitative data.
Negative behaviour includes dropping out of school and unsatisfactory academic results.
Positive behaviour manifests in the form of sports, art and community development. Sports
related activities include music, soccer, volleyball, netball, and swimming. Soccer is a theme
evident throughout the responses. Other activities include junior counselor, technical skills
development, dancing, and drawing.
12
The definition of mastery was not defined in the original files and the researchers conceptualized the concept for the
purpose of clarity
71
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Mastery clearly provides evidence of the youth’s ability to make progress and to development
academic and sport/extra-curricular skills and confidence. Academic involvement seems to be a
central theme and responses mainly include academic progress.
RESULT 2: INDEPENDENCE
INDEPENDENCE
The concept independence refers to the ability to take responsibility as it relates to
developmental levels, to make informed decisions, respond to peer pressure influences and
relationships with friends, a sense of inner control, self discipline, feeling of freedom or being
controlled, respect, decisions, peer pressure, gang involvement and substance abuse. 13
The data links the concept of independence with the maturity level of the child in conflict with
the law. Maturity relates to the self, the reflection of confidence and peer pressure. Maturity
levels are further described in terms of the child’s involvement in household activities.
Responsibilities relate to household duties such as cooking and gardening and actions towards
seeking outside employment. These maturity levels are not linked to specific developmental
tasks.
Independence is further described in terms of ability to cope with influence from the
environment and specifically that of peers. It is evident that in most cases respondents are
influenced by peer pressure. The type of influence (positive or negative) is not clearly identified.
Although generally considered as a negative influence, no indication is given of the positive or
negative nature of the influence.
13
The definition of independence was not defined clearly in the original files and the researchers conceptualized the
concept for the purpose of clarity. There are indications that the concept is not interpreted in a consistent manner by
professionals who completed the assessments during the given time periods. The definition provided in the assessment
reports provides a wide variety of concepts, of which some of them are not compatible.
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The data provides evidence of behaviour and environmental patterns related to criminal
behaviour including abuse of substances, exposure to family imprisonment, uncontrollable
behaviour, rebellion and truancy. In the assessment reports the sense of remorse and
responsibility of the crime is also assessed. According to the data there is a general sense of
responsibility and remorse with a limited amount of a small amount of exceptions who did not
verbalize any responsibility for the crime.
RESULT 3: GENEROSITY
The category generosity14 provides evidence of a wide variety of reactions including general and
specific behaviour related to crime, living arrangements, assistance with activities within the
household, working outside of the household, relationships with friends, sharing in activities
within the family system, taking of responsibility, assistance towards the parental systems and
feelings & reactions towards crime.
The wide variety of responses is an indication of a concept not clearly defined (relevant on a
meta-analysis level only). In order to address the inconsistency of this specific category, the data
was deducted into specific subcategories. These subcategories present the general trends in the
data sets.
1) Maternal single parent families
2) Strong influenced by peer pressure
3) Assisting with household chores
4) Positive school attendance
5) Participate in extra mural activities
6) Responsibility for crime
14
The term generosity is closely linked to the term independence.
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RESULT 4: BELONGING
Strong evidence of the category belonging15 is observed throughout the data. The category
refers to family relationships, friendships, significant others and community roots. This category
shows a difference in the data between the two time periods. The difference is observed in the
family system, specifically the structure and dynamics. In 1996, family systems were nuclear in
nature, characterized by two parents living together in the same dwelling. Both parents were
responsible for the financial maintenance of the family system.
In 2006/7 the family composition was not nuclear in nature anymore but rather and extended
system. The hierarchy changed to that of a single parent. In addition significant others and
family members also live in the same family home. The maternal single parent family seems to
be the most prevalent. The theme of a single mother taking responsibility for an extended family
is evident throughout the qualitative data.
In general, the typical family system is either positive (stability within the family life) or negative.
The data reflects both. The themes of distance vs. closeness are evident. The patterns of strong
identification with a role model are repeated throughout the data. The closeness of the family
system stands in contrast with problems related to financial difficulties, death in the family and
divorce. Some sub—central themes include:
1. Closest relationships are found with family
2. A variety of arrangements related to the home (divorce, singe parenting and financial
difficulties)
3. Friends play an important role in terms of negative and positive impact
4. Church activities and memberships (Muslim as well as Christian) plays an important role
in the sense of belonging
5. Living with family members include (sister, mom, dad)
6. Unemployment is a repetitive theme in the category of belonging
15
The concept belonging is conceptualized in terms of systems within the micro-, mezzo- and macro- environment.
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7. Nuclear families are limited in terms of specific identification
There is definite evidence of instability in the parental household. This instability results in
circular patterns of parental withdrawal, emotional and physical distance between family
members and inconsistent parental responsibilities. In addition, social problems add to the
destructive circular pattern. Social problems such as alcoholism, other forms of substance
abuse, domestic violence and abuse of children are part of these patterns.
Positive and negative friendships were indicated through peer pressure and sharing. Sharing is a
vital part of the daily functioning of the child in conflict with the law. The sharing includes their
food, clothes and money. The sharing is specifically targeted at friends and implies that
personal space is intruded either voluntary or involuntary.
At the same time peer pressure is a prominent theme. The qualitative data suggested that peer
pressure is a negative force that impacts on children. The dynamics of peer pressure is not
specifically identified and described. 16In terms of community belonging, the importance of
religion and church involvement is emphasized. The significance of religion in the life of the child
in conflict with the law as not indicated. An understanding of culture could be established
through the children’s language group, but no significant interpretation could be made.
The ability to relate well to another person strongly influences the child in conflict with the law’s
sense of belonging. If significant others played and important role in the life of the respondent
youth it is clear that that youth experiences the sense of belonging in a positive manner.
16
This is due to a lack of information in the historical files and limited responses in the assessment reports.
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HISTORICAL ANALYSIS: DISCUSSION OF QUALITATIVE THEMES AND
QUANTITATIVE RESULTS:
The discussion aims to provide information on the difference of the youth profile and services
between 1995 and 2006/7. The following discussion is based on comparisons between
qualitative and quantitative data. The first research question is answered through the
qualitative and quantitative observations namely: When compared, what differences can be
found between historical data sets dated 1995 and 2006/7?
Data obtained from the 1995 files and 2006/2007 reflects differences as it relates to family
structure and care giving. Variables such as gender issues, age difference and school grade level
does not show considerable differences.
Table 2 Differences between 1995/2007 biographical variables
Demographic
Gender
Age
Grade level
Primary caregiver
Family structure
Year 1995
Male
16-17
8-10
Both parents
nuclear family type with their
own parents
Year(s) 2005/6
Male
16-17
8-10
Single parent (mother)
single parent family type
where the mother is the
primary
caregiver
and
employed
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LANGUAGE
The language distribution between the two time periods (1995 and 2006/7) indicates
significant differences. The 1995 periods showed predominantly Afrikaans speaking
respondents, where the 2006/7 period showed Zulu speaking, followed by Sesotho and
Afrikaans speaking. This information provides evidence that the services has shifted to a
more well-presented representation of the population. It also provides evidence that,
those children in conflict with the law receive services in their own language, thus
contributing to more effective service delivery. It is further evident that current service
delivery respects the cultural background of individual client systems. The assumption is
made that language represents culture and racial group. It then implies that a shift has
been made in the population receiving the services.
FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS
Data from both the 1995 and 2006/7 period provides evidence that the youth live in the
home with a parent or both their parents. The 1995 data indicates that the youths lived
within a family system where both parents were still living in the house. The 2006/7
data however, clearly shows that more of the youth now live with a family where the
mother is the parent in home.
The data reflects that the respondent youth experience strong family relationships, peer
pressure, a sense of belonging and the self-esteem related to mastering certain agedrelated activities.
PRIMARY CARE-GIVER
This change is also evident from the data which relates to primary care-giver. In 1995
both parents were reported to be the care-givers. In 2006/7 the mother is reported to
be the significant parent. There is also a significant difference in the presence of the
grandparents as caregivers.
77
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CONTRIBUTING FACTORS TO THE YOUTH OFFENDING
The same contributing factors were identified in both periods. These factors include
irregular attendance patterns in school, individual behaviour problems, mental health
and mental status, boredom, socio-economic stress (otherwise defined as poverty),
substance related issues and lack of parental supervision
Two contributing factors showed significant difference between the two periods namely
involvement of peers/friends in crime and the lack of parental supervision. Both peergroup pressure and the lack of parental supervision are also less relevant as a
contributing factor in 2006/7 than 1995.
Although contributing factors are acknowledged as individual entities, it is also
important to understand the cyclic nature of these factors. Typical circular patterns can
be identified such as a lack of parental supervision, uncontrollable behaviour, sense of
belonging with peer-group; substance abuse and crime-related activities;
Sense of belonging
with peer group
Criminal Activities
Lack of parental
supervision,
Uncontrollable
behavior
Substance abuse
Figure 39 Circular nature of behaviour patterns
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Information related to school activities is inconsistent and provides evidence of a high
interest in school activities.17 Files from the 1995 and 2006/2007 reported that the child
in conflict with the law was positive about attending school and involvement in school.
While this is important information the context of interpretation should be considered.
The data in the files only focus on the involvement in school and evoke responses of
‘good’ or ‘not good’. There were no specific measures in the assessment reports to
identity issues such as truancy and school drop-out as well as its impact on the child in
conflict with the law.
SERVICE DELIVERY
Significant transformation was evident from the 1995 and 2005/6 data. The
transformation refers specifically to the detainment of children in conflict with the law.
In 1995 children in conflict with the law were detained for periods of a week and longer
before first appearing in court. In 2006/7 this time period has changed significantly and
most of the awaiting-trails are detained for one day before appearing in court. This
result provides valuable evidence that positive change transformation has taken place.18
CRIMES AND RELATED BEHAVIOUR
The data from both time periods indicate that assault, housebreaking and shoplifting are
the most frequent crimes. The children in conflict with the law in 1995 were mostly
arrested for theft and those in the 2006/2007 time period mostly for assault. It is also
evident that these crimes take place on an individual basis, rather than in a group. The
evidence on peer group pressure as a motivation for involvement in crime is
inconclusive.
The majority of children in conflict with the law had not previous offenses. This
information pertains to both periods of time.
Although there is not evidence of the effect of peer pressure, it seems that the children
in conflict with the law blame peer pressure as an external motivation for the crime.
17
The information in the assessment reports contained responses of positive high school involvement. This information is
not consistent with literature.
18
Results from the focus group assessments indicate that this is indeed not consistent with the perceptions of
professionals working with children who are awaiting trail. There responses indicated information to the contrary. .
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The role and importance of weapons in the crime is not clearly described for both
periods1995 and 2006/2007
The 2006/2007 files provided evidence of an increase in the number of victims from
1995. It is also evident that for both time periods the victims were mostly older than 18
years.
INTERVENTIONS
The transformation in treatment service is
interpreted against the background of the IMC
(1996) which was only developed and implemented
after 1996. In 1995, children in conflict the law
were warned or incarcerated while the 2006/7 files
indicated an allocation to diversion programmes as
well as specific treatment programmes such as
sexual offender programmes. NICRO is the service
provider most frequently used and life skills are the
diversion programme most frequently completed.
On awaiting trial and the way
they are treated in the cells…
‘Before they get the 3 days in
the cells they are first beaten
up, tortured in all kinds of
ways and then thrown in the
cells, not with their own peers,
but with guys who are older
than what they are in the
same cell.’
The recommended intervention for youths during
1995 was statutory placement (such as substitute
placement). They were in most of these cases
detained in places of safety During 2006/2007 the
most frequent recommendation was diversion including specialized programmes.
FOCUS GROUP ASSESSMENTS: QUALITATIVE THEMES
During phase 2, a comprehensive set of qualitative data was collected. These results provide
valuable information regarding the evaluation of services. As indicated in the methodology the
data was collected from a sample of NGO’s represented by professionals in smaller focus
groups. Evidence regarding the evaluation of the service delivery is presented in the form of
qualitative themes. This discussion on the results reflects the perceptions of service providers on
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the transformation of services as well as the current situation19 of the services. The qualitative
themes are aimed towards evaluation.
The following are perceptions verbalized by respondents during the focus groups.
‘Parents defend their child and feel that you [professional] attach them.’
ON THE TRANSFORMATION OF SERVICES…
‘… it was wonderful that they made recommendations in 1996 and then worked on the Child
Justice Bill and we all believed that it was to be implemented more in 2003 maybe but we’re near
2007, finished and it doesn’t even look if it is going to go through in 2008’.
ON THE CIRCULAR NATURE OF CRIME…
‘[schools] you will find that the child has been chased away from the school without a letter,
without nothing you’’ find that the parent keep the child at home because he don’t know where
to go or what to do, you’ll find later that this matter should have gone to the Department of
Social Development to address the issue. Parents/the community doesn’t know their rights or
what to do….’
ON DEVELOPMENTAL ASSESSMENTS…
‘We’ve got developmental assessment where all the needs
of the child are identified, all the risk areas are identifies… so
the developmental assessment will direct you [professional]
to which programme the child must go.’
ON MONITORING OF PROGRAMMES…
‘We are tightly monitored because we give monthly stats,
progress report and the officials come and do site visits…’
Policy
The
policy
guidelines
regarding treatment are
quite clearly described.
They do not feel involved in
the
decision
making
process. They feel decisions
are influenced by politics
19
Evaluation of transformation can best be done by means of pre-and post testing. Focus groups ideally focus on the
current and any referrals to transformation is based on recollection.
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1. Policy regarding services (as outlined by the IMC policy recommendations of 1996) provides
specific guidelines towards treatment. Professionals are
not only aware of these strategies but are able to use
these guidelines to inform practice. Specific strategies
Re-offending
including treatment within correctional facilities, followup services, implementation of a restorative approach,
Problem communities
consideration of victims, and alternative sentencing have
all been clearly described and macro-level inter-sectoral
Conflicting opinions about rerelationship guidelines have been provided. Although
offending
participants experience an awareness of these guidelines
and integration within practice, some aspects have been
Main age group 14 – 18 years
neglected. Examples mentioned by research participants
include strategies to involve all parties in all decisionMales – violent crimes
making processes and the necessary legislative support
to enforce new approaches. The research participants
Females – social crimes
were of the opinion that there are subtle and indirect
political forces at play in the child and youth care sector.
2. Research participants identified specific challenges
towards service delivery centers. These challenges are:
No programmes for more
serious crimes
New move towards sexual
service providers have limited influence
programmes
have on court decisions
insufficient knowledge of available
Too much concern
programmes that affect referral processes
late or no payment for services
an unequal partnership with the Department
short time span in which to create change through specialized programmes
shortage of facilities
poor information given during assessments that adversely affects the
placements in programmes
negative attitude of youth offenders towards a second chance
illiteracy amongst children in conflict with the law and their significant
others
diverse cultural backgrounds
Based on the evidence these challenges are categorized into those that deal with logistic issues
and those related to professional resources.
3. Maltreatment of children who have been sentenced is a serious condition within the facility.
According to the research participants, this poor treatment involves that children are on
occasion kept in cells for longer than 48 hours and there is direct exposure to adults who
have been sentenced. The maltreatment contributes to the lack of emotional safety of the
child in conflict with the law
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4. Within the community, the lack of emotional safety
is worsened by the lack of physical safety.
Community members take the law in their own
hands when they assume the child is not being
punished, name calling by police officers occurs and
inconsistent orientation towards their rights is
observed. The dangerous conditions in the
community forces youth towards a cycle of crime.
In order to live a safe life, re-committing to return
to secure care facilities where they get food, shelter
and training occurs. Clearly youth offenders
experience difficulties within the correctional
facilities as well as in the community and these
conditions maintain the circular nature of offending
Main concerns:
The safety and care of
children
Danger in communities
Unequal partnership with
department
NGO’s don’t have sufficient
money to provide services
5. The lack of adequate resources affects the
maintenance of important logistical arrangements
Inadequate tracking system
such as effective after-care service and positive
identification of a specific child in conflict with the
law. The inadequacies include a limited or
dysfunctional tracking system of children resulting
in them staying in one place for a long time 20and also allowing them to lie about their ages
and names to avoid adult sentencing.
6. Professionals working with children who are in conflict with the law are in an ideal position
to observe the contributing factors of crime. According to the research participants, young
people seem to be a need for having what one wants immediately (not working for it), a
decline in strong societal values, poor decision-making abilities, a need for acceptance by
peers, a shortage of positive role models, withdrawal from substances, the responsibility to
look after one’s family, nearly non-existent opportunities for healthy recreation,
psychological reasons such as anger, poor self-esteem, dealing with health concerns, and a
futuristic outlook, child abuse and poor parental supervision and –skill, and some indication
of a link with limited educational opportunities available to these youth.
7. Research participants report an increase in the violent nature of crime being committed by
children and youth in general. Parallel assumptions are made between the increase in
violent crimes and the confusion related to the diversion of more serious crimes and second
offences. In addition to this confusion a lack of clarity exists on the concepts “secondary
prevention” which implies the prevention of re-offending. Some participants acknowledged
a high re-offending rate, while others were not sure since they receive no further
information on children who went through their programmes. Other focus group
participants were aware of a low re-offending rate, which influenced their opinion that
20
The long term refers to the impact on the data system of the secure care facility as well as in the community after
release.
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Main problems
Insufficient skills of staff
programmes have a high success rate. The most
prominent reason for re-offending seem to be the
fact that children in conflict with the law are send
back to an environment that had not received any
intervention and that offered the same contributors
that lead to criminal behaviour in the first place.
Weak assessments
8. According to the focus group participants
children, as young as 821 years old are allocated to
Inability to pay
diversion programmes. The fast majority of youth
who are diverted are in the age range of 14 to 18.
Too much emphasis on
The participants are of the opinion boys mostly
children’s rights
commit armed robbery, high jacking, possession of a
fire arm and house break-ins, while girls are guilty of
shoplifting and “Social crimes”22. Concern exist that
there are not enough specialized programmes to fit the different crimes and different
reasons for crime. Also that no programmes exist for the diversion of more serious crimes.
The focus group participants are of the opinion that there is a move towards the
enhancement of treatment programmes for youth sex offenders.
9. Service providers mentioned the concern that a high priority has been given to children’s
rights resulting in an imbalance with regard to their
sense of responsibility. Children in conflict with the
law demand their rights without taking up the
accompanying responsibilities.
This focus on
Factors of crime:
children’s rights also results in parents to withdraw
from their responsibility as well as an uncertainty as
Need for fancy goods
to what role they should play in disciplining their
children
Weak societal values
Peer-group acceptance
Looking after one’s family
Lack
of
facilities
recreational
Way to solve a problem
10. The service providers are of the opinion that
facilitators or mentors are not qualified
professionals. The focus group participants however
verbalized that the mentors seem passionate about
working with youth offenders and that they have a
positive attitude towards restorative justice
11. According to the focus group participants there
is a variety of factors influencing effective service
delivery. The most important factors are the
shortage of probation officers, insufficient skill of
role players, insufficient prevention programmes,
21
These age categories should not be considered as statistically correct, but rather as the ages perceived by the service
providers.
22
The definition of social crimes is not clear from the data.
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safety and ambivalence of facilitators, poor salaries, and role clarity.
The following table provides a cross-sectional “slide” of the qualitative data as represented in
the different focus groups:
Table 3 Service provider perceptions regarding causes and types of crimes
Types of Treatment
Restorative justice
Retributive system
Inconsistent
interventions
Causes of Juvenile
Crime
“Poverty is on the
rise”
Youth and young
adults grow up in
violent
environments
The media
influences youth to
commit crimes
Incarceration
Single parenting at a
young age
Make the punishment fit
the crime
Alternatives to the
ruthless actions
Single parent
households
Single parenting
Removing the youth from
their environment and
placing them in a more
nurturing one
Promoting positive
attitudes
Drug and substance
abuse
Mental disabilities
Perceptions about
treatment
Caseworkers need to
understand applicable
legislation
“Treat every case
differently”
Assess the youth’s
environment before
making
recommendations on
treatment
Difference between
interventions and
punishments
Expect negative results
Crimes
Housebreak
Assault
Burglary
Sexual assault
Theft
Parents should not be
afraid to seek help for
their child
Parents can seek
education on parenting
skills
Housebreaking
Interventions towards
restorative justice
Assualt
Theft
“The causes for crime by young people seem to be a need for having what one wants
immediately (not working for it), a decline in strong societal values, poor decision-making
abilities, a need for acceptance by peers, a shortage of positive role models, withdrawal from
substances, the responsibility to look after one’s family, nearly non-existent opportunities for
healthy recreation, psychological reasons such as anger, poor self-esteem, dealing with health
concerns, and a futuristic outlook, child abuse and poor parental supervision and –skill, and some
indication of a link with limited educational opportunities available to these youth”
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Focus group participants
RESULTS: CURRENT PROFILE OF CRIME AND SERVICE
PERCEPTIONS
The first section reports on the demographic statistics for the sample. This section can be
compared with the profile of the historical study.
SECTION 1 PROFILE OF CRIME
AGE AND GENDER
The majority of respondents (90%) are between
the ages of 15 – 18 years as indicated in Figure 1.
Small proportions of younger children were
observed (11 – 12 years). It is significant to note
that respondents older than the qualifying age
category appear to be in the service system as
well (0.7%). Only 0.3% of respondents are in the
age group 11 – 12 years. As far as gender is
concerned it is clear that the majority of respondents
are male (88%), whilst females are 12% of the sample.
Figure 40 Age distribution of sample
Table 4 Gender distribution of the sample
What gender are you?
LANGUAGE
Valid Cumulative Languages most often spoken are
Frequency Percent Percent Percent
outlined in the following range of
Valid Male
Female
Total
271
87.7
87.7
38
12.3
12.3
309
100.0
100.0
87.7 figures
100.0
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Figure 43 First choice of language
Figure 42 Second choice of language
Figure 41 Third choice of language
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The most commonly spoken language is English, followed by Zulu, Xhosa, Sesotho and Afrikaans.
FAMILY DEMOGRAPHICS
89% live with their
The majority of respondents are currently staying with their
families
families (274, 89%). 6% do not live with their families of
89% have never been
origin and 1.3% sometimes leave home to stay somewhere
homeless
else. This indicates that respondents are not homeless and
80% own the houses
tend to live with their families. This statistic corresponds
they live in
with the question whether the respondent has ever been
58% have lived in
homeless, to which 89% (274) have indicated that they have
their current area for
never been homeless, versus 11.3% that have been homeless
more than five years
before. From this it can be deducted that although the
majority appears to come from stable families, about 11%
come from families that have unstable living conditions. Reasons for being homeless were
provided. The most common reason was that the child ran away from home because of a family
conflict, change in family composition due to parent who died, or of a parent who migrated to
another area to find work. Further indications of stability are the duration of stay in a specific
geographical area and home ownership. In 80% of cases families own the house they currently
live in, whilst in 58% of cases families had been staying in the same geographical area for more
than five years. These statistics all indicate that the sample population of children comes from
structurally stable families.
FAMILY COMPOSITION
In 39% of cases both parents take care of the respondent. This is followed by the mother who
takes primary responsibility of the child (25%); Grandparents in 14% of cases and foster care in
9% of cases. This distribution makes out 88% of the total sample indicating that approximately
46% of children come from incomplete or single parent families.
Table 5 Rank ordering of primary person responsible for taking care of respondent
Who takes care of you?
Valid
My mother and father
Frequency Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
98
31.9
31.9
31.7
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Who takes care of you?
Frequency Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
78
25.2
25.4
57.3
44
14.2
14.3
71.7
A family or person who took
29
me into foster care
9.4
9.4
81.1
My brother(s) and/or sister(s) 24
7.8
7.8
88.9
Only my father
18
5.8
5.9
94.8
Nobody, I take care of myself 12
3.9
3.9
98.7
People at shelter
2
.6
.7
99.3
Children's home/institution
1
.3
.3
99.7
The court placed met into
1
someone's foster care
.3
.3
100.0
Total
307
99.4
100.0
Missing System
2
.6
Total
309
100.0
Only my mother
A grandparent
grandparents
or
both
To further examine family composition respondents were asked to count the number of people
living with them. They could mark as many members as they wished. An interesting pattern of
family composition emerged, as indicated in the following series of graphs.
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As indicated in the graphs it is clear that the
nuclear family is the most common family
composition in the sample. However in a
substantial number of cases children live with step
parents, or have extended family members such as
grand mothers, aunts, uncles and cousins living
with them.
It was observed as fairly common for
grandmothers to be living with the family. In a few
cases other people who cannot be regarded as
family were also living with the family
Figure 44 Illustration of family composition
MARITAL STATUS OF CAREGIVERS
Figure 45 Educational qualification
Figure 46 Marital status of parents
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As indicated it is clear that a
“complete” marital situation where
parents are married and together is
only found in 34% of cases. In 8% of
cases parents are divorced and in 11%
parents are living together but are not
married. From the above observations
regarding family composition it can be
deducted that in approximately 33% of
cases a complete family composition is
to be expected. Various forms of
incomplete family constellations is to
be expected in the remaining two
thirds of cases. A further variable to be examined
is the ability of caregivers to provide sustainable
livelihood for the family. In this case the
educational level and income source of the primary caregiver were examined. As indicated in
Figure 48 the majority (55%) have an educational level lower than grade 10. In about a third of
Figure 48 Primary source of caregiver's income
Reasons
for
not
attending school
29 have family problems
16 have behavior problems
at school
13 do not know why
7 have attitude problems
cases a grade 11-12 education is found
and in 12% of cases a tertiary
Figure 47 Reason for not attending school
qualification. The source of income for
the family indicates that 63% of cases
rely primarily on the caregiver’s salary. 12.5% rely on social grants and 9.6% on income derived
from the caregiver’s business.8.6% receive help from someone else and 6% live from the
caregiver’s pension. It should be clear that in about 76% of cases the family relies on salary or
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business income whilst in 26% of cases the family relies on social grants, pension or others to
survive.
WHERE WAS THE RESPONDENT LIVING AT THE TIME OF THE OFFENCE? In 82% of
cases the respondent was living at home when the offence was committed. It should be noted
that in 7% of cases the child was living on the streets, in 3.6% the child lived with friends, in a
shelter (2.3%) or didn’t know in 3 cases. What is the family’s relationship to value-oriented
activities such as religion and alcohol and drug usage? In response to the question whether
family member’s alcohol consumption had increased during the past five years 84% responded
negatively. Regarding participation in religious activities 81% of respondents indicated that they
belong to a religious group or church. 71% of respondents participate in a Christian religion, 10%
in the Zionist church, 5% to Islam and 2 respondents participate in the Hindu religion. 13% do
not participate in any religion or in a religion not mentioned.
CRIME AND DRUG USAGE
In 46% of cases the respondent had used drugs before and has knowledge of drugs. As far as
alcohol is concerned 65% had used alcohol in the past, indicating a relatively high rate of
previous experience with mood altering chemicals. Respondents were asked if they were under
the influence of drugs and or alcohol at the time of the offence and 73% indicated that this was
not the case. Drugs and/or alcohol only played a role in 27% of cases.
INVOLVEMENT WITH SCHOOL
Majority of respondents 218 (72%) attend school regularly. The remaining 28% do not attend
school. What is the main reason for not attending school? Of those who indicated that they do
not attend school the following reasons were provided. 15% could not provide a specific reason
for dropping out of school.
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Financial problems
School asked you to leave
Problems with teachers
The work was too difficult
Other
I had to leave school to
work
Q27.7
Q27.4
Q27.5
Q27.1
Q27.2
Q27.3
Q27.6
Q27.9
Q27.8
Yes
37
32
24
18
18
17
16
16
13
No
48
56
61
67
66
67
67
17
71
Missing
224
221
224
224
225
225
226
276
225
N
309
309
309
309
309
309
309
309
309
Response
rate %23
23.38
25.06
23.38
23.38
22.83
22.83
22.29
3.52
22.83
I couldn’t understand the
work
I got involved with dugs
and alcohol
Question
Problems with other
students
Drop out reason
Table 6Reasons for dropping out of school
The largest group 29 (32.95%) do not attend school because of family conditions. This
includes the following: Conflict with parents or caregiver; parent’s deceased or family
financial problems.
The second largest group of 16 (18.8%) do not attend because of behavioural problems
at school that either caused their suspension or refusal to be admitted at a school. In
only 2.2% of cases the drop out was caused by the respondent’s perceived learning
problem.
Drug abuse contributed to 7 (2.3%) of dropout reasons.
Immigration issues accounted for 6 drop outs;
Peer group influences for 5 drop outs;
Preference to go work accounted for 3 drop outs.
23
The response rate is an indicator of number of responses per question. More than one
question could have been answered.
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Respondents were specifically asked to indicate the main reasons for dropping out of school.
The above table indicates these reasons from most frequent to least frequent:
Reason for dropping out of school
80
70
30
67
66
71
67
48
50
40
61
56
60
67
37
32
24
18
20
18
17
16
1617
13
10
0
Yes
No
Linear (Yes)
Figure 49 Graph indicating reasons for dropping out of school
In this question the main reasons for dropping out of school appear to be Drug and alcohol
related, followed by financial problems (Family related), behavioural, social and learning
problems and to a small extent, leaving to work.
This result largely confirms that found in Question 26.
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Table 7 Age at school dropout
If you dropped out of school, how old were you at the time?
Frequency
Valid
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
15
26
8.4
30.2
30.2
14
21
6.8
24.4
54.7
16
21
6.8
24.4
79.1
12
5
1.6
5.8
84.9
17
5
1.6
5.8
90.7
13
4
1.3
4.7
95.3
11
3
1.0
3.5
98.8
10
1
.3
1.2
100.0
86
27.8
100.0
22324
72.2
309
100.0
Total
Missing System
Total
It was found
that 30% of
those
who
dropped
out
were 15 at the
time they left
school.
The
majority
of
respondents
(79%)
were
between 14 and
16 when they
dropped out of
school.
5.8%
were 17 years
of
age. On
average
respondents
were 14.6 years
old at the time
they dropped
out of school.
What was the
highest grade passed by the respondent at the time he/she dropped out from school?
24
Note that figure reflects only respondents who indicated having left school.
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Figure 50 Grade at school dropout
dropout
Figure 51 Highest grade passed at time of school
Majority of respondents are in the Grade 7 – 9 categories. This corresponds with the age at
school dropout which on average is 15 years. Most critical age for committing offences is 15
years of age and being in grade 7-9.
Table 8 Grade repetition
Whilst at school, did you have to repeat a
grade?
Valid
Yes
Frequency
163
No
Total
146
Almost half of respondents have had to
repeat a grade during their school
career. This indicates that respondents
tend to have learning and/or
behavioural problems in the school
system.
309
Having learning problems should not
necessarily contribute to dropping out
of school if adequate services or
Valid Percent
52.8
47.2
100.0
strategies are available to identify and
Cumulative Percent
52.8
100.0
47.2 manage learning or behavior problems.
Respondents were asked if they had
utilized such extra assistance from a variety of sources in the school system.
Percent
52.8
47.2
100.0
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Respondents were specifically asked if they had learning problems. The following table indicates
that the majority of respondents did not indicate that they had learning problems in the school
system.
Table 9 Indication of learning problem
Did you find it difficult to learn in school?
It
can
be
deducted that
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
respondents
either did not
Valid
No
229
74.1
74.4
74.4
perceive
or
recognize their
Yes
79
25.6
25.6
100.0
problem to be
of a learning
Total
308
99.7
100.0
nature, or they
presented with
Missing System
1
.3
behavior
Total
309
100.0
problems that
could not be managed in the school system or contributed to their decision to leave school.
Cumulative
Percent
Table 10 Extra help in the school system
In 60% of cases
respondents did
receive
extra
help
with
Cumulative
schoolwork
Percent
indicating that
59.1 the school did
identify
their
100.0 problem as a
learning
problem.
Whilst at school, did you get extra help (teachers, parents, tutors)
with your work?
Frequency
Valid
Percent
Valid Percent
Yes
182
58.9
59.1
No
126
40.8
40.9
Total
308
99.7
100.0
1
.3
309
100.0
Missing System
Total
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CHARACTERISTICS OF T HE OFFENCE TYPE
TYPE OF CRIME COMMITTED
Respondents were given a choice of 21 different types of offences. In most cases only a single
type of offence was indicated. In some cases two or more offences were listed. The following
table indicates the types of offences committed.
Table 11 Type of crime/offence committed
What was the crime/offence that you were arrested for?
Valid
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
House breaking
34
11.0
11.3
11.3
Rape
34
11.0
11.3
22.6
Assault
33
10.7
11.0
33.6
Theft
31
10.0
10.3
43.9
Shoplifting
30
9.7
10.0
53.8
Robbery
25
8.1
8.3
62.1
Prefers description25
21
6.8
7.0
69.1
Armed robbery
20
6.5
6.6
75.7
Murder
16
5.2
5.3
81.1
Two or more of the above
list26
16
5.2
5.3
86.4
Assault with the intent to
cause grievous bodily harm
11
3.6
3.7
90.0
25
Descriptions provided in interpretation
26
See discussion for interpretation
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What was the crime/offence that you were arrested for?
Frequency
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
7
2.3
2.3
92.4
7
2.3
2.3
94.7
Grievous bodily harm
5
1.6
1.7
96.3
Illegal possession of fire-arm
4
1.3
1.3
97.7
Hijacking
2
.6
.7
98.3
2
.6
.7
99.0
Sexual assault (of a minor)
2
.6
.7
99.7
Attempted rape
1
.3
.3
100.0
301
97.4
100.0
8
2.6
309
100.0
Illegal possession of drugs
Malicious
property
damage
Robbery with
circumstances
Total
Missing System
Total
to
aggravating
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The following graph provides a graphical representation of the range of crimes committed.
It was important
to determine if
respondents had
committed
offences before
the
current
offence and if
the
listed
offence was the
only
offence
committed. The
following table
indicates
that
the majority of
respondents had
committed one
offence only.
Figure 52 Bar-graph of type of crime/offence committed
Table 12Number of offences committed
Number of crimes/offences committed
Frequency
Valid
One type of offence only
Two types of offence
Three and more types of
offence
Total
Percent
Valid Percent
Cumulative
Percent
292
94.5
94.5
94.5
14
4.5
4.5
99.0
3
1.0
1.0
100.0
309
100.0
100.0
In cases where two or more offences were committed an analysis was done of the different
combinations. The following combinations were observed.
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Table 13 Combined types of crimes/offences
Case analysis of combined types of offences committed
In two (2) cases armed robbery was combined with theft of items
In five (5) cases Assault was combined with either housebreaking, assault with the
intent to cause bodily harm, indecent assault and robbery
In two (2) cases serious assault was combined with attempted murder, housebreaking
and damage to property or theft.
In one (1) case assault was combined with murder
In two (2) cases hijacking resulted in either murder or sexual assault of an adult
In one (1) case shoplifting was associated with housebreaking
In one (1) case theft and possession of drugs were combined
In one (1) case murder and rape were combined.
Separate descriptions were obtained where options in the list did not exist.
Table 14 Other types of crime/offence
Case analysis of respondent descriptions
In six (6) cases money was counterfeited and an attempt was made to buy goods with
such money
In one (1) case respondent laid a false charge at police station
In one (1) case respondent caused bodily harm as a result of a car accident
In one case (1) respondent was accused of “train-surfing”
In two (2) cases behavior problems were cited as main reason.
NUMBER OF ARRESTS
Another indicator of number of crimes committed is the question relating to number of arrests.
75% of respondents have only been arrested once. 20% have been arrested between 2-3 times.
9 respondents have been arrested 4 -5 times and 5 for more than 6 times. It is clear that the
majority of respondents are first time offenders, but that about 1% can be regarded as frequent
offenders.
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SENTENCE OPTIONS
Respondents were asked to
provide answers regarding the
type of sentence given for the
offence committed.
37 % of respondents did not
answer this question. In
addition, 23% could not choose
an option from the list provided.
Only 50% of the sample
answered this question reliably.
36% attended a diversion
programme;
21%
were
imprisoned and 11% were placed
in supervision of parents. It
appears that respondents did
not know which programme they
attended or could not determine
Figure 53 Type of sentence given
the type of programme from the
list provided. To ensure or confirm identification of programme a second descriptive question
was asked from respondent. The following graph indicates categorized responses to this open
ended question.
According to this graph 72% of respondents
did not provide an answer to the question.
Of the remaining 28%, 33 (11%)
respondents indicated that they were
awaiting trial, 23 (7.4%) were in place of
safety, 15 (4.9%) were awaiting sentencing
and the remaining 16 were involved in a
variety of other arrangements as indicated
in the above Figure.
Respondents were also asked to indicate
where they saw themselves in the
intervention process. The majority of
respondents (70%) saw themselves as
awaiting trial. 22% were in diversion
programmes, 3.7% in home based
supervision programme.
Figure 54 Own description of programme
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Table 15 Position in intervention
Position in intervention
Valid
Frequency Percent Percent
Valid
Cumulative
Percent
Awaiting trial
211
68.3
70.1
70.1
In diversion programme
66
21.4
21.9
92.0
On suspended sentence
11
3.6
3.7
95.7
Home based supervision
programme
8
2.6
2.7
98.3
Waiting for assessment
5
1.6
1.7
100.0
Total
301
97.4
100.0
System
8
2.6
309
100.0
Missing
Total
What were the main reasons for committing an offence?
A range of possible options was provided from which respondent could choose.
Responses to this question were rank ordered from most to least frequent response. The
following table lists reasons and supporting data.
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249
243
249
242
250
243
241
240
241
309
309
309
309
309
309
309
309
309
240
241
309
309
244
309
238
242
309
309
208
309
242
246
309
309
243
309
248
309
244
242
309
309
Valid
N
Based on this table it should be clear that the most frequently cited reason for committing an
offence can be attributed to lack of self control (impulsivity, ignorance and being drawn into a
situation that went out of control, not knowing what he/she did at the time). The second most
frequently cited reason is related to money and greed (Not having money, wanting to survive,
wanting things others have). The third most frequently reason is social pressure (Being with a
group, being under the influence and doing things under pressure from peers). Fourthly is a
category described as survival issues (wanting to help family, not having food and being
105
69
71
67
68
69
68
66
59
67
60
66
60
68
65
67
101
63
66
65
61
67
Missing
232
209
208
200
191
183
181
178
162
168
161
167
148
146
141
100
136
125
93
76
60
No
8
29
34
41
49
58
62
72
80
81
82
82
93
98
101
108
110
118
151
172
182
Yes
Q36.4
Q36.15
Q36.12
Q36.13
Q36.8
Q36.17
Q36.7
Q36.14
Q36.11
Q36.6
Q36.10
Q36.3
Q36.16
Q36.9
Q36.2
Q36.21
Q36.1
Q36.5
Q36.18
Q36.19
I was involved in prostitution
I saw it on TV as a solution
I wanted to take revenge on someone
I was hungry
I needed to help my family to survive
It was part of a gang initiation
I was bored
Somebody put pressure on me
I felt angry towards someone
Other people made me do it
I wanted to feel part of a group
I used alcohol and/or drugs
I wanted nice things
I wanted to have things that other people have
I had to find a way to survive
I do not know
I did not have any money
I got drawn in because of circumstances
I did not know at the time what I was doing
I got involved by mistake
Question
Reasons
nr.
Q36.20
Things just went out of control
Table 16 Reasons for committing and offence
frustrated with someone else). The last category is reasons due to ideation such as prostitution
and following TV shows.
SECTION 2 MEASURING CHILDREN’S
VARIOUS ASPECTS OF PROGRAMMES
PERCEPTIONS
REGARDING
In order to examine specific trends from the data it is
necessary to first determine the primary measures that will
be utilized in this analysis. Measures are composed from the
different perceptual sections in the study. These perceptual
An index is a measurement
sections consist of attitudinal/perceptual questions of a
tool that is made up of
subjective nature that ask about the respondent’s views on
questions
from
a
matters. In this study these items have been designed from
questionnaire. The number
two sources: Local and international literature and focus
of questions in an index is
group results. It is usually impossible to analyze responses to
determined by means of
individual questions as this would make it very difficult to
statistical analysis. This
establish trends in the study and draw conclusions. In stead a
analysis
shows
those
procedure of factor analysis is generally used to identify
questions that logically
measurement dimensions and reduce current items to only
should
be
grouped
those that are effective measures. These are groups of
together. The resulting
similar items that measure a specific construct/theme or
index is usually highly
aspect. It is far easier to use such empirically determined
reliable and provides a
dimensions as primary measure of trends. Six such primary
handy way to identify
measurement dimensions have been established. The details
trends in research.
regarding how these dimensions were obtained will not be
Indexes allow one to
discussed here. Statistical procedures are used to determine
analyze average scores
factors. What is provided here is the different factors and the
which is a far more
items that each factor is composed of. It needs to be
effective
way
recognized that establishing primary measures involves establishment
of validity
of to
thedetermine
measure
trends
as well as reliability. Factor analysis is used as primary method for establishing
validity and the
Alpha coefficient is used as method for establishing reliability. Once a measure has achieved
sufficient validity and reliability it can be used in trends analysis.
FACTOR 1 FAMILY RISK BEHAVIOUR INDEX (FRB) (ALPHA = .859 FOR N = 22 ITEMS).
This index measures a variety of aspects, mostly related to the risk factors in the child’s own
functioning in the family system, school system and personal functioning. The index consists of
the following questions from the questionnaire that was used in the study:
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Table 17 Items in the Family Risk Behaviour Index (FRB)
Items in Family Risk Behaviour Index (FRB)
Q40.5 Some people in my own family drink so much it makes me uncomfortable
Q40.6 Some members of my family constantly hurt others in the family
Q40.7 Adults in my family are physically hurting children
Q40.8 I feel that nobody takes care of my feelings
Q40.9 I feel nobody takes care of me when I am hungry and/or cold
Q40.10 I have seen my brothers and/or sisters being hurt by someone in my family
Q40.11 The person who took care of me couldn’t look after me
Q40.12 It rests on my shoulders to bring in money for my family
Q40.13 I have to beg to bring in money for my family
Q40.18 As a child I have been hurt by a family member
Q40.19 As a child I have been hurt by person from outside my family
Q40.21 I have been abandoned as a child
Q40.22 As a child I had to flea from home to be safe
Q40.23 Whilst at school I had problems with my teachers
Q40.26 I am forced to share my personal belongings with other people
Q40.29 I am likely to show violence against other people
Q40.30 I tend hurt myself physically
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Items in Family Risk Behaviour Index (FRB)
Q40.32 I belong nowhere
Q40.33 I like it when friends dare me to do things
Q40.35 I use alcohol and/or drugs to cope with physical pain in my body
Q40.36 I use alcohol and/or drugs to make me cope with the difficulties in life
FACTOR 2 SERVICE PERCEPTIONS INDEX (SP) (ALPHA = .796 FOR N = 11 ITEMS)
This index consists of items derived from Question 45 in the questionnaire. The dimension
specifically asks questions regarding the court process during the initial phase of intervention.
Items in Factor 2: Service Perceptions Index (SP)
Q45.1 I regard the people who worked with me as helpful
Q45.2 I had the opportunity to tell a probation officer everything I wanted about the offence
Q45.3 The information that was provided to me helped me choosing the right type of service
Q45.4 When the court case was concluded I new exactly what was being expected of me
Q45.5 I am satisfied with the help I received from the social worker/probation officer during my court case
Q45.6 During the whole process I felt that people wanted to help me
Q45.7 The recommendations made by the probation officer about myself were clearly communicated to me
Q45.8 I am satisfied that the court’s decision about me was appropriate for my offence
Q45.9 I understood clearly what happened during my court appearances
Q45.10 I understood the questions that I was asked during investigation
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Items in Factor 2: Service Perceptions Index (SP)
Q45.11 I am satisfied with the way the legal process was conducted
FACTOR 3 PROGRAMME IMPACT INDEX (PI) (ALPHA = .847 FOR N = 11 ITEMS)
This dimension is derived from items in Question 54 of the questionnaire. The dimension
measures various aspects related to how the programme has impacted on respondents.
Primarily issues such as communication, general understanding and how the respondent has
gained from the programme are measured.
Table 18 Items for Programme Impact dimension
Items for Factor 3: Programme Impact Index (PI)
Q54.1 I was able to follow clearly what was presented to me
Q54.2 I actively participated in the sessions of the programme
Q54.3 I gained a lot from my conversations with the people in the programme
Q54.4 I understand what they wanted to achieve with the programme
Q54.5 I understand what was expected from me in the programme
Q54.8 The programme met my expectations
Q54.9 The programme gave me information that I could use
Q54.10 I learnt skills I did not have before
Q54.11 The programme helped me to get a different view on life
Q54.12 The programme helped me understand how my behaviour contributed to the offence
Q54.15 The professionals were friendly towards me
FACTOR 4 POST PROGRAMME BEHAVIOUR INDEX (PPB) (ALPHA = .910 FOR N = 29
ITEMS)
This dimension was derived from items in Question 55 of the questionnaire. The dimension
measures perceptions regarding behavioural changes that the respondent makes as a result of
the intervention. Some items explore attitudinal changes and new insights gained. This is a
general index. The following items are included:
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Table 19 Items for Post programme Behaviour Index (PPB)
Items for Post Programme Behaviour Index (PPB)
Q55.1 I realize there are people who are willing to help me
Q55.3 I know which situations in life I need to avoid
Q55.4 I realize that I have family members who can support me
Q55.5 I know what to do not to get in trouble again
Q55.14 I know I am responsible for my own actions
Q55.21 I understand that crime is not a solution to a problem
Q55.22 I know I can change my life
Q55.23 I am now able to plan my future
Q55.25 The programme has made me see life differently.
Q55.26 I am trying to be more positive in life
Q55.32 I have a dream which I would like to come true
Q55.36 I realize that if I get into trouble again, I might be less fortunate
Q55.12I realize that I have hurt some people
Q55.15 I will be able to face the people I have offended by my behaviour
Q55.16 I can clearly see the consequences of my actions
Q55.17 I have learned that my behaviour violated someone else’s rights
Q55.19 I realize that my behaviour caused damage to someone else
Q55.24 I feel better about myself now than before I was arrested
Q55.9 I understand the reasons why I committed a crime/offence
Q55.2 Keeping contact with those who are trying to help me, may prevent me from getting into difficult situations
Q55.6 I have learned about the consequences of crime from others who are in the same position as me
Q55.7 I understand the importance of knowing what things in my life contribute to crime
Q55.11 I understand that friends can have an influence on me
Q55.13I understand how it feels to be a victim
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Items for Post Programme Behaviour Index (PPB)
Q55.33 I understand that my emotions have a negative impact on my life
Q55.34 I need to be kept busy to keep me from becoming bored
Q55.35 The use of drugs may ruin my life
Q55.27 I hope that I can cope without drugs or alcohol
Q55.28 I do not have to be in a gang to feel better about myself
Q55.20 I am confident that I have skills that can help me not do crime/offence again
Q55.8 I understand that being in contact with people who are involved in activities will get me in trouble
FACTOR 5 POST PROGRAMME INSIGHT SUB-SCALE (PPI) (ALPHA = .865 FOR N = 12
ITEMS)
This dimension is derived from items in Question 55. Specifically in the second order factor
analysis a sub-dimension emerged that could be used as a separate measure. The dimension
specifically measures changes in insight regarding own behavior. This is a critical aspect and
objective of intervention as it is hoped that interventions promote insight and attitudinal
change. Although deep seated attitudinal change is difficult to measure, and prone to halo
effects or impression management, this dimension at least promotes measurement in the area
of attitudinal change. The following items are included:
Table 20 Items for Post-Programme Insight Sub-scale
Items for Post Programme Insight Sub-scale
Q55.1 I realize there are people who are willing to help me
Q55.3 I know which situations in life I need to avoid
Q55.4 I realize that I have family members who can support me
Q55.5 I know what to do not to get in trouble again
Q55.14 I know I am responsible for my own actions
Q55.21 I understand that crime is not a solution to a problem
Q55.22 I know I can change my life
Q55.23 I am now able to plan my future
Q55.25 The programme has made me see life differently.
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Items for Post Programme Insight Sub-scale
Q55.26 I am trying to be more positive in life
Q55.32 I have a dream which I would like to come true
Q55.36 I realize that if I get into trouble again, I might be less fortunate
FACTOR 6 POST-PROGRAMME REMORSE SUB-SCALE (PPR) (ALPHA = .765 FOR N = 6
ITEMS)
This index is derived from items in Question 55. These items specifically measure the extent of
remorse that children may have regarding the offence and behavior they committed. Taking
responsibility for own behavior, re-constructing one’s life and showing willingness to cooperate,
use resources and improve oneself in the face of the offence are indicators of remorse in this
study. The following items are included:
Table 21 Items for Post-Programme Remorse Sub-scale
Items for Post-Programme Remorse –Sub scale
Q55.1 I realize there are people who are willing to help me
Q55.3 I know which situations in life I need to avoid
Q55.4 I realize that I have family members who can support me
Q55.5 I know what to do not to get in trouble again
Q55.14 I know I am responsible for my own actions
Q55.21 I understand that crime is not a solution to a problem
Q55.22 I know I can change my life
Q55.23 I am now able to plan my future
Q55.25 The programme has made me see life differently.
Q55.26 I am trying to be more positive in life
Q55.32 I have a dream which I would like to come true
Q55.36 I realize that if I get into trouble again, I might be less fortunate
All of the above instruments have sufficient reliability to be used with confidence in the
following analysis.
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SECTION 3 PERCEPTIONS OF CHILDREN AND DEMOGRAPHIC
VARIABLES
The objective of data analysis is to identify trends or generalizations regarding respondent
opinions and perceptions about the issues being investigated. In social research this is done by
means of examining relationships between variables or groups of variables. In general masses of
data have to be reduced to key aspects that show conclusive results. In this section the results
of such analysis is provided. The technique of ANOVA and where applicable Post Hoc tests are
used to test the relationship between groups of data and the primary measures used in the
study. This procedure examines the relationship between average (Mean) responses on the
primary measures for different demographically derived variable groups. Sometimes it is equally
significant to examine non-significant relationships, as it is important to examine highly
significant findings. In this section the main trends in this regard are presented and discussed.
SIGNIFICANT FINDINGS REGARDING SCORES ON VARIOUS INDEXES
POSITION IN THE PROCESS (Q7) appeared to show significant differences. Differences were in
respect of the FRB (F = .3.233; P = .013) and SP Index scores (F = 14.728; P = .000). Examination
of the post hoc tests in both the case of the FRB and
SP Indexes revealed a significant difference between
Children awaiting trial are more negative
children awaiting trial (FRB mean = 3.930; SP mean =
about their families
2.671) and those in a diversion programme (FRB
Children in diversion more positive about
mean = 4.431; SP mean = 1.854). Examination of both
services
groups of means reveals a perceived higher risk in
Children in home-based supervision are
family behavior of those awaiting trial compared to
most worried about their families
those in diversion programmes. Those in diversion
Diversion programmes rated most
programmes were significantly more positive about
positive, home-based care most negative
services than those awaiting trial. These results can
be explained as follows: Children awaiting trial are far
more worried about family conditions since they are
at the apex of a personal and family crisis. Children in diversion may have resolved some of their
family issues and would be less worried. Similarly it can be accepted that children in diversion
have more experience of the “intervention system” and may therefore be more optimistic about
the services in general. These differences are displayed in the following graphs:
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Figure 55 Significant differences between positions in service provision
Visual inspection shows that Home-based supervised children are even more concerned about
family conditions than those awaiting trial. However, since this group is very small (8
respondents) this contrast did not show as significant. The graphs also show that diversion
programmes are most positively perceived, whilst of the services mentioned, home-based
supervision is perceived as most negative. This result does not indicate efficiency of the
programme or whether an intervention successfully acts as a deterrent. However, if contrasted
against family risk behavior it may be concluded that diversion programmes appear more
successful as mechanism to re-integrate children with society. Diversion programmes are
perceived as most positive.
There was no significant difference in perception
Having a child did not have any influence
of children who had children themselves
compared to those who did not have children of
Religious children had more insight in
their own behavior
their own. In this study the effects of unwanted
teenage pregnancies thus seem to have an impact
No differences between gender regarding
on offending behavior.
programmes
A significant difference was found between
Language groups experience programmes
children who were part of a religious group (Mean
in similar way
= 1.439) and those who are not part of such group
(Mean = 1.602) (F = 4.074; P = .045) in respect of
Aged does not play a role in how
programmes were perceived
the amount of insight they had developed in their
own behavior after completion of programme.
Religious children had significantly more insight
than non-religious children. Thus religion appears
to play a role in establishing values and guilt feelings.
Gender was found not to have any impact on the perceptions of respondents
There is no significant difference in responses of different language groups regarding
any of the aspects measured.
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Age did not have a significant influence on the perceptions of respondents. Different
age groups scored the same on all indexes.
Children in the care of complete/incomplete nuclear families (Mean = 2.403) are on
average more optimistic about services received than children who are in alternative
care arrangements (Mean = 2.732) (F = 7.962; P = .005)
Children in nuclear families (Mean = 1.555) are on average more optimistic about the
impact the programme has had on them than those in alternative care (Mean = 1.749)
(F = 4.733; P = .031)
Whether children were living with their families or not had a significant influence on the
impact the programme had on them (PI Index P = .002), whether their behavior changed
after completion of the programme (PPB Index P = .001) and whether they showed any
insight in their behavior afterwards (PPI sub-scale P = .000). The group differences were
not significant though, except in the case of the PPI sub-scale where a significant
difference (P = .026) was found between staying at home and not staying at home in
respect of how much insight was developed by means of the programme. The following
graphs for the three indexes explain these trends.
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Figure 56 Significant differences for living at home or not
Visual inspection confirms differences
between staying at home and not staying at
home. Specific differences could not be
confirmed due to small group sizes for the not
staying at home and sometimes staying at
home group. It is clear however that the not
staying at home group is at greater risk to
repeat previous behaviours than those staying
at home. The programme has had less impact
on the not staying at home group, they show
less insight and their behavior after
completion of programme is less likely to
change. This is probably due to the absence of
a family support system and the role a family
can play in development of values; internal
controls and a sense of right and wrong.
Significant differences were observed for having moved to the current residential area
during the past five years and the FRB Index (F = 4.201; P = .041) and SP Index scores (F
= 4.988; P = .026). Since there were only two groups the exact differences and their
significance could not be assessed by means of Post Hoc tests. However, the differences
are indicated in the following graphs.
Figure 57 Differences for having moved to current area of residence
Having moved into the current area of residence had a negative influence on family risk
behaviours (Mean = 3.884 for ‘yes’ versus 4.153 for the ‘no’ group). This finding
confirms a previous study by Roestenburg (1999) where stability of residential area over
a five year period was associated with family well being. Regarding Service perceptions
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is clear that stability (‘Yes’ Mean = 2.344 vs. ‘No’ Mean = 2.562) in residential status has
a positive influence on the way services are perceived.
Home ownership has a significant impact on the way services are perceived (F = 4.407; P
= .037). Children whose parents own the house they currently stay in are more positive
about services being provided to them than children whose parents do not own the
house they live in (‘Yes’ Mean = 2.425; ‘No’ Mean = 2.680).
Being homeless from time to time has a significant impact on family behavior risks (F =
5.837; P = .016) and perceptions regarding services provided (F = 4.007; P = .046).
Having been homeless can be associated with greater risk for family problems (‘Yes’
Mean = 3.614; ‘No’ Mean = 4.101), whilst not being homeless contributed to more
positive perceptions regarding services (‘Yes’ Mean = 2.748; ‘No’ Mean = 2.438). This
result is to be expected since children who run away from home often do so because of
distinct family problems and crisis. It follows that children from stable homes are more
likely to benefit from services provided to them.
The primary source of parent’s income significantly influences the impact the
programme (PI Index) has on children (F = 3.593; P = .007) as well as the extent of
remorse (PPR sub-scale) children feel about what they have done (F = 2.627; P = .035). It
is however not clear which groups differ from each other since the post hoc tests
indicating differences between groups all are insignificant. Inspection of comparative
means demonstrate differences between groups and it appears that children from
salaried parents found programmes to have more impact than children from families
receiving help from others. Similarly the former group is more likely to experience
remorse for what was done. In both cases the explanation might be related to stability
and sustainability of the family situation as contributing factor towards greater
receptivity of children to gain from programmes.
Figure 58 Family source of income and index scores
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Marital status was found to have
a significant influence on the perceptions
of children regarding services (SP Index)
(F = 3.378; P = .006). A significant
difference was found between service
perceptions (SP Index scores) of those
groups whose parents were divorced and
whose parents currently are not married.
In this study ‘not married’ implies single
parenthood or where parents are cohabitating but are not married (P = .010).
The following graph illustrates this
difference. ‘The not married’ group has
Figure 59 Means Plot for Marital status on Perceptions Index
scored significantly higher (Mean = 2.616) on
the Service Perceptions Index, thus indicating
a less positive response than the divorced
group (Mean = 1.873). This result appears to
be due to chance, although it is possible that
an un-married status may imply greater
instability and uncertainty than a known
status of ‘divorced’.
Educational status of parent had no influence
at all on the child’s scores on any of the
indexes.
Whether the child was at home during the
offence or not had a significant influence on
index scores for Family Risk Behaviour (FRB)
(F = 10.285; P = .001); Programme Impact (PI)
(F = 9.408; P = .002); Post Programme
behavior (PPB) (F = 5.335; P = .022) and PostProgramme Insight (PPI) (F = 9.881; P = .002).
On all the indexes mentioned children who
were at home during the incident indicated
less family risk behavior, were more in
agreement to the programme having an
impact, behaved better afterwards and
showed more insight in their behavior. It thus
can be seen that family stability plays a
significant role in a child’s risk of committing
an offence, as well as in the outcomes of
interventions. Considering the compounded
effect of these three trends it can be
concluded that children living elsewhere
were at greater risk of repeating an offence
than children staying at home with their
Department of
Social Development
Children in nuclear families were more
positive about services
Programmes had more impact on children
who lived at home, than on those in
alternative care. They showed more
insight in their own behavior
Living in an area for more than 5 years
had a positive impact on the way services
were perceived
Homeownership
impact
had
similar
positive
Children whose parents had a stable
income were more positive about
programme impact
Children whose parents were married
were more positive
Children who were at home during
incident were far more positive about
various aspects of programme
Children using drugs at time of incident
had less chance of success
School attending children had a much
better chance to improve in programme
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families.
In this study alcohol consumption increases or decreases in the family was not found to
have an impact on offending behavior of children.
The child’s own previous drug use patterns showed a significant difference in Post
Programme behavior (F = 3.444; P = .051). Those who did use drugs before were slightly
less positive (‘Yes’ Mean = 1.733) about changes in their own behavior after the
programme than those who did not use drugs before (‘No’ Mean = 1.607). The child’s
previous alcohol consumption patterns did not play any role in his/her perceptions.
Whether or not the child was under influence of drugs or alcohol during the offence did
not impact on his/her perceptions.
School attendance was found to have an impact on the child’s perceptions. Significant
differences were noted on the Programme Impact Index (PI) (F = 5.480; P = .020); the
Post Programme Behaviour index (F = 8.375; P = .004); Post-Programme Insight subscale (PPI) (F = 10.461; P = .001) and the Post Programme Remorse sub-scale (PPR) (F =
6.544; P = .011). Analysis of descriptive statistics revealed that school attending children
were on average more optimistic about the impact of the programme, likely to change
behavior after the programme, develop insight and show significant remorse. This trend
is illustrated in the following descriptive table.
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Maximum
95%
Confidence
Interval for
Mean
Minimum
Std. Deviation
Table 22Mean scores on Indexes regarding school attendance
N
Mean
213
2.4187
.81977 2.3080 2.5294
1.00
5.00
84
2.5874
.83803 2.4056 2.7693
1.00
4.73
297
2.4664
.82707 2.3720 2.5609
1.00
5.00
179
1.5416
.51305 1.4659 1.6173
1.00
3.64
64
1.7337
.68586 1.5623 1.9050
1.00
3.91
243
1.5922
.56855 1.5203 1.6640
1.00
3.91
191
1.6110
.44590 1.5474 1.6746
1.00
2.86
70
1.8189
.66684 1.6599 1.9779
1.00
4.34
261
1.6668
.52137 1.6032 1.7303
1.00
4.34
191
1.4132
.44019 1.3503 1.4760
1.00
2.67
70
1.6420
.65482 1.4859 1.7981
1.00
4.42
261
1.4745
.51547 1.4117 1.5374
1.00
4.42
191
1.8953
.74089 1.7895 2.0010
1.00
5.00
68
2.1873
.97411 1.9515 2.4230
1.00
5.00
Total
259 1.9719 .81684 1.8720 2.0719 1.00
Own defined reasons for dropping out of school did not influence the perceptions of
children on any of the primary measures.
The school grade of the child does not influence perceptions regarding any of the
dimensions of measurement as shown above.
5.00
Service Perceptions Attending school
Index (+SP)
Not
attending
school
Total
Programme Impact Attending school
Index (+PI)
Not
attending
school
Total
Post-Programme
Attending school
Behaviour
Index Not
attending
(+PPB)
school
Total
Post-Programme
Attending school
Insight
Sub-scale Not
attending
(+PPI)
school
Total
Post-Programme
Attending school
Remorse Sub scale Not
attending
(+PPR)
school
Lower Upper
Bound Bound
SECTION 4 FINDINGS REGARDING CRIMES COMMITTED
A significant relationship was found between the crimes committed and the (FRB) index
(F = 2.270; P = .048) as well as the Service Perceptions Index (SP) (F = 2.857; P = .016).
Inspection of the Post Hoc Tests indicate that there is a significant difference (P =
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Children who committed robbery were
more negative than children who
committed murder
Second time offenders more positive
about programme
Diversion programmes were rated as
most effective in promoting change in
behavior, insight and general impact,
above any of the other interventions
.009) between the armed robbery group and
attempted murder group regarding family risk
behavior. The descriptive table clearly indicates
that the armed robbery group has scored
significantly lower on the Family Behaviour Index
compared to the attempted murder and murder
group. This means that the robbery group tends
to have more serious family and behavioural
problem.
Parental supervision second highest rating
Table 23 Mean scores on Family Risk Behaviour index.
95% Confidence
Interval for
Mean
N
Family Risk Armed robbery,
Behaviour robbery,
Index
(- hijacking
FRB)
Attempted
Std.
Lower Upper
Mean Deviation Bound Bound Minimum Maximum
47
3.7447
1.26350 3.3737
4.1157
1.00
5.00
16
4.6250
.61914 4.2951
4.9549
3.00
5.00
Assault,damage
to body, harm
49
4.2143
1.05574 3.9110
4.5175
1.00
5.00
Attempted rape,
rape,
sexual
assault
37
4.2568
.91759 3.9508
4.5627
2.50
5.00
Arson,
housebreaking,
theft, shoplifting,
damage
to
property, illegal
possession
82
3.9878
1.20435 3.7232
4.2524
1.00
5.00
Unspecified
31
3.8226
1.24196 3.3670
4.2781
1.00
5.00
murder,murder
Total
262 4.0439 1.14344 3.9048 4.1830
1.00
5.00
The following graph demonstrates group differences for the above finding. From the graph it
further becomes clear that offences against another person such as murder, rape, assault are
associated with more positive family and own behavior ratings, whilst offences committed
against property and characterized by violence are associated with lower and thus more
negative ratings of own and family behavior. It is further noteworthy that cases where
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respondents were not able to indicate the crime they committed are associated with more
negative own and family behavior ratings. Possible explanations for this finding have to be
traced in literature. It is possible that if contrasted with other variables such as the reasons for
committing offences that more light will be shed on this finding.
A relationship is observed between the number of times arrested and the Programme
impact score (PI) (F = 4.002; P = .047). Second time offenders are more positive (Mean =
1.710) about the programme than first time offenders (Mean = 1.542). It does appear
that experience counts towards more positive ratings. Also that the programme has
made more impact on second time offenders.
Sentencing options – This aspect was managed as follows. In order to test for any
differences between groups
the sentencing options were
firstly recoded into four
groups. The first option was
parental
supervision;
secondly institutionalization
such as reform school,
imprisonment, attendance of
rehabilitation programmes;
third option was a diversion
programme and fourthly
none of the above option.
This facilitated comparison
as well as provide and
indication
if
diversion
programmes
made
a
significant difference. The
Figure 60 Type of Crime committed
results indicated differences on the Service
perceptions Index (F = 7.498; P = .000); the
Programme impact Index (F = 4.026; P = .009) and the Post-Programme Insight Sub-scale
(F = 3.191; P = .025). On the Service Perceptions Index the difference was noted
between institutionalization (Mean = 2.5475) and being in a Diversion programme
(Mean = 2.102) (P = .011). This difference was also found on the Programme Impact
Index (P = .022); institutionalization (Mean = 1.749) and Diversion group (Mean = 1.448).
Similar difference was found on the Post-Programme Insight Sub-scale (P = .031) and
institutionalization (Mean = 1.620) and Diversion (Mean = 1.360). If the mean scores in
these cases are studied it is clear that Diversion programmes were more effective in
having an impact on children, characterized by more efficient service delivery and able
to develop insight than institutional programmes. This does not state that children were
not thinking institutional programmes were not effective. To the contrary, these
programmes were also rated positively as the means indicate. The following Graph
illustrates these differences.
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Table 24 Mean scores for type of sentencing
It should be noted that in all cases Diversion
programmes were rated the highest; followed by
parental supervision. Institutionalization was rated
lowest in most cases. This finding indicates that
Diversion programmes appear to be most efficient
as alternatives to harsher measures such as
imprisonment. It is not clear which option is the
most effective crime deterrent however, as this
aspect did not show significance in the Remorse Subscale.
SECTION 4 EVENTS AFTER THE ARREST
Q 41.1 WERE YOUR RIGHTS READ TO YOU?
Significant differences were observed on the Service Perceptions Index (F = 7.011; P = .001) as
well as the Programme Impact Index (F = 3.842; P = .023). The Post Hoc Test indicated on the SP
Index a significant difference between the ‘Yes’ (Mean = 2.313) and ‘No’ (Mean = 2.665) group
and the ‘Unsure’ (Mean = 2.261) and ‘No’ (Mean = 2.665) group (P = .001) and (P = .023).
Similarly, on the PI Index a significant difference was noted between the ‘Yes’ (Mean = 1.502)
and ‘No’ (Mean = 1.707) group (P = .025). In both cases it is clear that if your rights were read to
you it made a difference on how you experienced services and the kind of impact the
programme makes on a child.
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Q41.2 DID YOU APPEAR IN COURT
WITHIN 48 HOURS?
A significant difference was observed for this
variable on the FRB Index (F = 2.943; P = .054).
The Post Hoc test showed a significant difference
between the group who did not appear within
48 hours (Mean = 3.806) and the group that did
appear within 48 hours (Mean = 4.145) (P =
.056). Although a boundary case it is clear that
those who did not appear within 48 hours were
significantly less optimistic about their own and
their family’s behaviour. The reason for this
finding is not exactly clear. It is possible that
more severe behavioural problem children were
kept in cells for longer. It may be that certain
Figure 61 FRB rating for appearing in court within 48 hours
children could not be placed back with their families
because they had left home and therefore stayed in cells longer. What is significant to note is
that children who were more optimistic about their family situations went to court sooner than
those who were not as optimistic. It must be kept in mind that this study was conducted post
facto for a large proportion of children. By the time the survey was conducted these children
had already gone through the initial stages and this may have contributed to a more positive
rating regarding their families.
Being informed has a positive impact on
child’s perceptions of family
Having a social worker attend to the child
had a positive impact on how family was
rated
Few children shared cells with adults. Not
sharing had a more positive impact on
service perceptions
32% of children were hurt by service
personnel
Q41.3 WERE YOU INFORMED ABOUT WHAT
YOU WERE BEING CHARGED WITH?
Being informed significantly influenced scores on the
FRB Index (P = .031). Interpreting the Post Hoc test
indicates a significant difference between the ‘Yes’
(Mean = 4.112) and ‘No’ (Mean = 3.673) group
regarding family risk behaviours. The ‘Yes’ group
scored significantly higher on the FRB, and this
indicates a more positive perception about their family
behavioural risk situation. It follows that being
informed about what is going to happen has a positive
influence on how a child views his/her own behavior
and the family.
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Q 41.4 WERE YOU TOLD THAT A SOCIAL WORKER/PROBATION OFFICER WOULD
ASSIST YOU?
A significant difference was observed in scores
on the FRB index for this variable (F = 3.507; P
= .031). The Post Hoc test indicates a
significant difference between those who
were not told (Mean = 3.673) (P = .038) and
those who were told (Mean = 4.112). This test
indicates that being informed of a social
worker contributed to more positive ratings
regarding one’s own and one’s family’s
behavior. This finding confirms that being
informed contributes to being more
constructively involved in problem solving.
Q 42.1 DID YOU HAVE TO SHARE A
CELL WITH AN ADULT?
A significant difference was observed in scores on Figure 62 Having to share a cell with an adult
the Post-Programme Insight sub-scale (PPI)
regarding this variable (F = 3.270; P = .040). Inspection of the Post Hoc test reveals that
differences between groups are insignificant. Inspection of the Means Plot shows differences
between the group that had to share a cell with an adult and those who did not have to share a
cell. It appears that not having to share a cell with an adult contributes to having more insight in
one’s problem than having to share a cell with an adult. This result appears to stress the
importance of children being managed separately from adults.
Q 42.2 WERE YOU PHYSICALLY HURT BY SOMEONE
WHO HAD TO WORK WITH YOU? (E.G. POLICE
OFFICER)
The ANOVA test shows a significant differences between groups
on the Service Perceptions Index (SP) regarding this variable (F
= 5.667; P = .004). Specifically the ‘Yes’ group (Mean = 2.704)
differs significantly from the ‘No’ group (Mean = 2.361). (P =
.004). This implies that in cases where a child was hurt by an
official their perceptions regarding services received were
significantly more negative than the group who did not get
hurt. It is observed that 32.4% of children reported that they
were physically hurt by staff members of the service system.
Only four children were not sure if they were hurt. This result is
noteworthy and stresses the importance of professional
management of children in the Criminal Justice System.
Children who were physically hurt rated
service more negative than others
Services rated more negatively where
children were shouted at by police officers
The longer children were kept in custody
the more negative they became about
services
Children who were told what to say in
their avadavat were more negative about
services, showed less remorse and insight
in own behaviour
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Q 42.3 WERE YOU HURT BY PEOPLE IN THE CELL?
It was important to know if
children got hurt in any way whilst
under arrest and if this influenced
the way in which they perceived
their situation. No significant
results were found that indicate a
significant difference in any
perceptions. This indicates that
either violence doesn’t occur or
that it is not an issue for children
going through the process. It is
expected that should it have been
a significant problem, respondents
would have mentioned it.
Figure 63 Means Plot for Service Perceptions
Q42.4 DID A POLICE OFFICER SHOUT AT YOU TO MAKE YOU ANSWER
QUESTIONS?
A significant difference was found regarding scores on the Service Perceptions Index (SP). (F =
8.912; P = .000). Those who experienced such behavior differed significantly (P = .002) in
perceptions about services from those who were unsure (P = 0.34) and those who did not
experience such behavior. On average the group experiencing police shouting were more
negative about service perceptions than those who did not experience shouting behavior.
(Mean = 2.659 and 2.310 and 3.128 for the unsure group). The difference is illustrated in the
following graph. This result shows that shouting and harsh treatment of children remains a
reality (although proportionately small) and that this is assessed more negatively by children
who are currently in the system. Whether this practice is entirely unacceptable is not the topic
of discussion here, it is merely stated that shouting behaviour has an impact on the way services
are perceived. Its existence is probably a systemically or contextually predicted behavior that is
characteristic of the police custody system.
Q42.5 WERE YOU HELD FOR LONGER THAN 48 HOURS? (TWO DAYS)
Being held for longer than two days has a significant impact on Family Behaviour Perceptions
(FBR) (F = 3.493; P = .032). Although a boundary case (P = .053) it appears that those held for
longer than two days (Mean = 3.797) were more negative about their own and their family’s
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behaviours, compared to those who were held for less than two days (Mean = 4.144). This result
provides a clear indication namely that the longer children stay in a custody situation, the more
negative they will rate their family situation. It is apparent that the crisis associated with being
arrested and being kept in custody leads to discomfort in family relations and specifically for the
child. It is not debated whether this is a negative trend or not, since personal discomfort may be
a significant future behavioural change indicator.
Q42.6 WERE YOU TOLD WHAT TO SAY IN YOUR AVADAVAT?
Significant differences were noted on Service
Perceptions (SP) (F = 9.021; P = .000);
Programme Impact (PI) (F = 4.800; P = .009); and
Post-Programme remorse Indexes (PPR) (F =
4.389; P = .013). Regarding Service perceptions
significant differences were noted between
‘Unsure’ and ‘yes’ (P = .005) and ‘no’ groups (P =
.000). Regarding impact differences are nonsignificant. Regarding remorse differences are
between being unsure and the ‘no’ group (P =
.015). The following graphs illustrate the
differences. It is clear that the majority of
respondents were not subjected to the behavior
indicated here. However, a significant proportion
of respondents were unsure about whether they
Figure 64 Were you told what to say in avadavat?
were told what to say (7.64%). It is clear that the
unsure group is significantly more negative about
services and less remorseful than the group that definitely was not subjected to the practice
outlined here. This finding once again emphasizes the importance of professionalism in the
management of child clients in the system.
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‘No’ Mean = 2.409
‘No’ Mean = 1.925
‘Unsure’ Mean = 3.164
‘Unsure’ Mean = 2.454
Figure 65 Mean scores for influences regarding avadavat
Q42.7 WERE YOU ALLOWED TO PHONE ANYONE?
This item did not have an influence on any of the children’s perceptions. This finding indicates
that probably children were able to communicate with appropriate people in their lives most of
the time.
Q 44.1 WERE YOU INTERVIEWED BY SOMEONE OTHER THAN THE POLICE
BEFORE GOING TO COURT?
It appears that this question had a significant influence on the family and behavior related
perceptions of children, as well as their service perceptions (F = 3.116; P = .046). In both cases
the significance lies between the ‘Yes’ and ‘No’ group (P = .047) and (P = .038). Examining the
means for these groups it is clear that those who were interviewed by someone other than the
police had more negative perceptions about their family behavior. Similarly, this group was
more positive about services than those who were interviewed by other people. It can be
concluded that the less different people are involved in the interviewing process, the more
positive the child appears to be. This does not imply that interviewing should be minimized as
much as possible. It is possible that the child does not want others to focus on the child’s
behavior at the time and would like to avoid people as far as possible.
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‘Yes’ Mean = 4.202
‘Yes’ Mean = 2.354
‘No’ Mean = 3.873
‘No’ Mean = 2.604
Figure 66 Means for being interviewed by someone other than police officer
Q44.2 WERE YOU BEING ASKED QUESTIONS ABOUT WHAT YOU HAD DONE?
Those who were not asked questions about what they had done were significantly more
optimistic about services than those who were not asked
questions about what they had done (SP Index) (F = 4.583; P =
.001). (‘Yes’ Mean = 2.376 and ‘No’ Mean = 2.795; P = .001).
Being exposed to a range of different
people during the initial process resulted
This finding indicates that children did not want to be
in more negative ratings of services
questioned about their offensive behavior and perhaps
Being asked many questions about
preferred nobody to know. Being questioned about behavior
behavior caused children to progressively
contributed to children questioning the quality of services,
rate services negatively
which in fact may not be entirely valid as indicated above.
Q44.3 WERE YOU GIVEN THE CHOICE TO PLEA
GUILTY?
The finding in this case indicated that respondents who were
not given the choice (‘No’ Mean = 2.663) to plea guilty were
significantly (P = .000) more negative about services than those
who were given a choice (‘Yes’ Mean = 2.276). (F = 8.198; P =
.000). This finding then confirms the notion that having a
choice contributes to feeling accommodated and more
optimistic about services.
Children who were given the choice to
plead guilty were far more positive about
services
Knowing the implications of a guilty plea
made children fell more positive about
services
Understanding exactly what was going to
happen assisted children in feeling more
remorse and helped them gain insight
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Q44.4 DID SOMEONE EXPLAIN TO YOU THE IMPLICATIONS OF A GUILTY PLEA?
The finding in this case indicated once more that if the implications of a guilty plea were not
explained to respondents, they were more likely to be negative about services compared to
those to whom the implications were explained to. The emphasis once more is on being
informed. (‘Yes’ Mean = 2.203; ‘No’ Mean = 2.635) (P = .000). The ANOVA data indicates an F
statistic = 9.366; P = .000).
Q44.5 WERE YOU GIVEN INFORMATION ABOUT ALTERNATIVE SENTENCES?
The finding once more indicates significant differences in Service Perceptions (SP) (F = 9.366; P =
.000). The ‘Yes’ group (Mean = 2.203) is more positive about services than the ‘No’ (Mean =
2.635) group (P = .000).
Q44.6 DID YOU UNDERSTAND WHAT WAS EXPECTED OF YOU IN COURT?
The responses to this question indicate significant differences on several indexes as indicated in
the following graph. (Service Perceptions (SP), Programme Impact (PI) and Post Programme
Remorse (PPR))
Table 25 ANOVA table for understanding court procedures
ANOVA
Sum of
Squares
Family Risk Behaviour Between Groups
Index (-FRB)
Within Groups
df
1.042
2
.521
387.097
295
1.312
388.138
297
25.872
2
178.279
292
204.151
294
2.690
2
Within Groups
71.806
236
Total
74.496
238
.335
2
.168
63.073
254
.248
63.409
256
.183
2
.092
59.498
254
.234
59.681
256
Total
Service
Perceptions Between Groups
Index (+SP)
Within Groups
Total
Programme
Index (+PI)
Mean
Square
Impact Between Groups
Post-Programme
Between Groups
Behaviour Index (+PPB) Within Groups
Total
Post-Programme Insight Between Groups
Sub-scale (+PPI)
Within Groups
Total
F
Sig.
.397
.673
12.936 21.187
.000
.611
1.345 4.420
.013
.304
.675
.510
.392
.676
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Post-Programme
Remorse Sub
(+PPR)
Between Groups
scale Within Groups
10.180
2
157.852
252
5.090 8.126
.000
.626
Total
168.032
254
Inspection of the Post Hoc Tests indicate significant differences between being definitely sure
and being unsure and definitely not knowing court procedure in respect of Service Perceptions
(P = .000 and .029). Regarding the impact of the programme a significant difference was found
between being completely sure and not knowing procedures at all (P = .035). Regarding Post
Programme Remorse the ‘yes’ and ‘No’ group differed significantly as well. Inspection of the
group Means are illustrated in the next graph.
‘Yes’ Mean = 2.234
‘Yes’ Mean = 1.519
‘No’ Mean = 2.845
‘No’ Mean = 1.745
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Inspection of these graphs indicates that:
Being informed about court procedures
contributes to more positive perceptions
regarding services.
Being informed contributes to greater
impact of services
Being informed contributes to more
remorse about the offence committed.
It is concluded that being explained what is
going to happen in court and understanding
the
implications
thereof
significantly
contributes to positive programme outcomes
in a variety of ways as indicated above.
‘Yes’ Mean = 1.8143
‘No’ Mean = 2.245
Figure 67 Mean Plots for knowing court procedure
Q 44.7 WERE YOUR PARENTS/CAREGIVER MADE PART OF THE PROCESS?
In this question respondents had to indicate the extent to which their parents were involved in
the court process after the child’s arrest. Significant differences were observed between the
group whose parents were involved and the group whose parents were not involved. These
differences occurred in respect of the way children regarded their own and family behavior
problems as well as their ratings about services that were provided to them (FRB F statistic =
3.787; P = .024) (SP F Statistic = 7.871; P = .000). The following Means Plots explain this
difference:
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‘Yes’ Mean = 4.143
‘Yes’ Mean = 2.376
‘No’ Mean = 3.725
‘No’ Mean = 2.813
P = .039
P = .007
Where parents were involved children were Where parents/caregivers were involved children
significantly more negative about their families. were more positive about services.
Figure 68 Means Plots for parental involvement
This finding indicates to a highly significant trend. The result
indicates that children do not want their parents to be involved
in their court case and subsequent intervention. Parental
involvement probably brings out the underlying problems in
the family and children appear not willing to be confronted by
these problems. On the other hand the result shows that
children tend to appreciate services more if there parents are
involved right from the start. Thus it can be concluded that
parental involvement is and should be a critical element of the
complete intervention process, although children will tend to
avoid confrontation with family problems.
Children don’t like it if their parents are
involved in the process from the start
If parents are involved children are likely
to rate services more positively
Children who could discuss their situation
with someone were more positive about
services
Q44.8 WERE YOU ABLE TO DISCUSS YOUR OPTIONS WITH SOMEONE OF YOUR
CHOICE?
This question reflects service aspects and the ability or opportunity to discuss the situation with
a professional person. Once again a significant difference is observed in respect of Service
Perceptions. (SP) (F Statistic = 11.249; P = .000). Children who were able to discuss their options
with someone (‘Yes’ Mean = 2.248) were generally more optimistic about services than those
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who were not able to do so (‘No’ Mean = 2.701) (P = .000). Access to professional people with
whom one can discuss options would be important soon after arrest, it appears.
This concludes the section on events after the arrest and subsequent court procedures.
SECTION 5 PROGRAMMES ATTENDED
In this section the main objective is to determine to what extent the following three variables
had an impact on the perceptions of children.
Detention versus diversion programmes (Q48)
The duration of the programme (Q52)
How long ago
the programme was
attended (Q53)
SERVICES RECEIVED
Caution: The reader
should note that the
data for this section may
be subject to reliability
problems.
Inconsistencies
were
found specifically for
Question 50 of the
questionnaire.
Some
respondents
had
answered 10 out of 11
choices to this question,
which clearly appears to be unreliable. As a general rule the first three responses were
recorded. In order to
Figure 69 Place of safety
double check responses
respondents had to indicate the name of the programme they attended and the fieldworker had
to record this in a separate window. Low levels of correlation were found between these
answers and the answer to Question 50 where they had to choose an option. Thus it can be
assumed that respondents did not answer Question 50 and 51 with great reliability. This may be
indicative of a lack of knowledge in that most respondents did not know which programme they
attended. It is doubted that respondents could attend several programmes or even all
programmes listed (11). 33% of respondents did not indicate the place of safety they stayed in.
It appears that the majority of respondents had stayed in Mogale Youth Center (43%). Only
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small percentages of youth had indicated that they stayed in Van Rhyn, Protem, Norman House,
Tutela or Jabulani.
Respondents had to indicate which secure care center they stayed in during their court process.
The following results were obtained
Q 48 PLEASE INDICATE IN WHICH TYPE OF PROGRAMME YOU WERE
Figure 70 Distribution for type of programme attended
Respondents were asked to
indicate whether they were
attending
a
diversion
programme or a detention
programme. The former
programme is conducted in
the community by an NGO
where the child continues
with school and stays in the
family, but regularly attends
a programme at the
organization. In the case of
detention programmes the
child remains for a period in
a detention center and
attends a programme within
the facility. The following
graph indicates the distribution in the sample
regarding the two types of programmes.
Significant differences were noted on all dimensions except the Post Programme Behavioural
Index. The Means Plots explain the direction of differences.
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Children in diversion programmes are more
optimistic about services rendered than
Children in Diversion programmes are more
children in detention programmes
optimistic about their family and behavioural
situation than children in detention
Children in diversion programmes are more
Children in diversion programmes are more optimistic about the insight they developed
optimistic about the impact of the programme than
than children in detention programmes
children in detention programmes
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In general it appears that diversion
programmes are rated more effective than
detention
programmes.
Diversion
programmes are regarded as more effective
for dealing with family problems, having an
impact on the child, gaining insight in own
behavior and promoting remorse about own
behavior. Children in diversion programmes
are more optimistic about their own levels of
remorse than children in detention
programmes
Figure 71 Means Plot for type of programme
Q 52 DURATION OF PROGRAMME
In this question various time periods of programmes were stipulated as indicated in the
following frequency table. The objective is to see if the duration of the programme has any
influence on any of the dimensions being measured.
Table 26 Frequency table for duration of programme
It appears that the
Post
Programme
Valid Cumulative
Remorse
(PPR)
Frequency Percent Percent
Percent
dimension is the only
Valid still busy - 2
of
124
40.1
49.6
49.6 dimension
weeks
measurement being
influenced by the
3 weeks - 2
81
26.2
32.4
82.0
duration
of
the
months
programme (F = ; P = ).
3 months more than 5
45
14.6
18.0
100.0 In this regard it is clear
that the longer the
months
programme takes the
Total
250
80.9
100.0
more likely a child will
Missin System
understand the full
59
19.1
g
consequences
of
his/her behavior and
Total
309
100.0
experience remorse
about what was done (P = .052). Differences were noted between currently busy with
programme and long term programmes as indicated in the following graph. Mean scores on
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the PPR Index show that for 5 months or more the Mean = 1.736 and for short term
programmes = 2.082. Longer term programmes are thus preferred.
Another aspect to be
assessed is how long ago the
child
attended
the
programme (Q53). In this
regard the time period that
lapsed between the time the
child was in the programme
and the time of the survey is
assessed. It appears that
significant differences are
noted
for
the
Post
Programme Behavior Index
(PPB) (F = 3.325; P = .021) and
the Post Programme Insight
Index (PPI) (F = 3.551; P =
.016). Regarding behavioural
changes it appears there is a
significant difference between having attended the
Figure 72 Means plot for duration of programme
programme 1 – 2 months ago and more than five months
ago. Regarding post programme insight the same trend is
found. The following graph explains the trend. Specifically it appears that programme impacts
diminish after time has lapsed. Children who have attended more than 5 months ago appear to
be less able to change their behavior and have less insight in the consequences of their
behaviour. This phenomenon is not uncommon and occurs in most learning situations. This
phenomenon of fading is often dealt with by means of aftercare programmes where continued
reinforcement can occur.
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‘More than 5 months ago’ Mean = 1.489
‘More than 5 months ago’ Mean = 1.281
‘1 – 2 months ago’ Mean = 1.805
‘1 – 2 months ago’ Mean = 1.617
P = .041
P = .024
Figure 73 Means Plots - How long ago programme was attended
CONCLUSION
The above section indicates to several findings of significance
regarding programmes. It was found that longer term
programmes appear to be more effective than short term
programmes. This can be understood as longer term
programmes provide more opportunity to service providers for
effectively intervening and achieving behavioural change.
Programme effects appear to be diminishing over time and this
supports the notion of longer term programmes being used.
Longer term programmes are perceived to
be more effective
The more time has lapsed after
completing the programme, the more
likely the child will forget what was learnt
Level of insight is likely to diminish over
time
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PERCEPTIONS OF CARE GIVERS
INTRODUCTION
The care giver study is in the form of a cross- sectional survey in which care giver perceptions
were obtained regarding the same issues as the child, but from an ‘outsider’ perspective. This
does not imply that the care giver is assumed not to be involved with the child, but that the care
giver is regarded as an observer of events that occurred to his/her child. We wanted to
determine the extent to which parents or primary care givers were made part of the process;
the extent to which they were informed of the processes their child would go through; the
extent to which they would be part of the process and what they thought about the
intervention or programme their child was subjected to. Since a study of this nature would rely
on the parent’s willingness to participate as much as this was required from the child, additional
challenges would have to be faced. In contrast to the youth study where children would be
relatively easy to locate due to the fact that they were attending programmes or had attended a
programme, it would be different for obtaining parents to participate. Parents and care givers
are residing in the community. Many of them would be at work and be unable to attend
sessions where they would be asked questions. It was reported to us beforehand that many
parents had low levels of involvement with their children. This was stated as an observed
problem contributing to the phenomenon of youth crime. This trend is observed in the nature of
this survey as the reader will see in the report.
SAMPLING
The sample for the parent survey was drawn on an availability basis. It can be classified as partly
an accidental sample and partly a convenience sample. It was not possible to do an extensive
search for respondents by going into the community. Therefore the sample was drawn as
follows:
NGO’s and organizations where children were attending programmes or were in secure
care were requested to contact parents and invite them to participate in the study.
On days when children would be interviewed parents were invited to be present for an
interview as well.
Similar introductory procedures would then be followed to invite care givers to
participate.
As the sampling proceeded it immediately became clear that the numbers of parents who
attended the data collection sessions would be much smaller than in the case of children.
Reasons for lack of parental cooperation were mostly that parents were at work and could not
attend sessions. It was also found that children were more likely to attend because they
reported having a strong bond with staff at the organization and they were used to go to the
organization.
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The realized sample amounted to 60 parents who completed the questionnaires. As will be
evident from the statistics, most of these care givers were single and not employed. It can thus
be concluded that the sample was more purposive than was expected in that a certain group of
parents who were more likely to be available attended the data collection. Working parents
mostly were not able to attend the sessions. This limitation should be kept in mind when
assessing the results. As a result the care giver sample is not nearly similar to the child sample.
Comparison will show opposing trends in biographic detail with the parent sample more biased
towards unemployed respondents and parents in the youth sample more likely to be employed.
The youth sample is more likely to be a closer approximation of the population as has been
explained before. In spite of this limitation the results clearly show certain trends that are
valuable for this study. Due to the smaller sample size it was not possible to conduct an in depth
level analysis to the same extent as the youth survey. However, the results do have significance
in the broader project.
RESULTS OF THE STUDY
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
60% or 35 of the care givers in the sample were male. This is significant since the results of
phase 1 and 3 indicate that youths are mostly from single parent families where the father is
absent. On average care givers were 37 years of age. The oldest respondent was 76 years old.
60% of the sample reported being not married or single, whilst 13 or 21% were married or in a
co-habitating relationship. 63% of respondents were not employed and in 61% of cases
educational qualifications were lower than grade 10. It is also significant to note that 42% of
respondents depend on others for support; 12% receive pension and 34% receive a salary.
Furthermore about 70% of respondents in the sample regarded themselves as primary care
giver of the child. The number of children in the care giver’s care is approximately 25% for 1 – 2
children; 25% for 3 – 4 children; 25% for 5 - 6 children and 25% for 7+ children. It appears that in
about 76% of cases the child was in the care giver’s care at the time the offence was committed.
40% of care givers have been arrested for criminal offences themselves.
REASONS FOR COMMITTING OFFENCE
The following Table provides information regarding the reasons for committing an offence. The
results are divided into three groups and are colour-coded accordingly.
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Table 27 Reasons for committing crime
Reason for committing crime
Percentage
of yes
responses
He/she did it to get money
48%
Things just went out of control
44%
He/she got involved by mistake
38%
He/she did it to please other people
37%
He/she used alcohol and/or drugs
27%
He/she wanted to have things that other people have
26%
He/she wanted to feel part of a group
26%
He/she had to find a way to survive
24%
He/she got drawn into crime because of circumstances
24%
Somebody put pressure on him/her to commit an offence
21%
He/she saw it on TV as a solution
21%
It was part of a gang initiation
21%
He/she did not know at the time what he/she was doing
21%
He/she needed to help the family to survive
19%
He/she felt angry towards someone
19%
He/she was bored at the time
14%
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Reason for committing crime
Percentage
of yes
responses
He/she wanted to take revenge on someone
14%
He/she was hungry
12%
He/she was involved in prostitution
10%
I do not know
72%
It appears that the care givers were mostly uncertain about the underlying reasons for
committing the crime (72%). It is clear however that crime was committed for the different
reasons presented to respondents, except for prostitution which was only a reason in 10% of
cases.
It is noteworthy that the most commonly stated reason was to get money and otherwise to see
things going out of control or trying to please others. It can be concluded that materialistic
reasons were most significant. It appears that ‘social reasons’ such as group participation and
gang activities could be the second most common reason. Survival issues were low on the list of
reasons and prostitution was the least frequently mentioned reason. This result confirms the
findings of the youth study where similar trends were found.
Interesting, a low percentage (19%) of care-givers were of the opinion that the child got
involved in behaviour due to family survival issues. Both the youth study as well as the care giver
study indicated that survival issues were a strong motivating factor in committing an offence.
This finding appears to be very important for programme design purposes. If most parents
indicate they do not know why their children became involved in criminal activities, they need
to be educated in the most common reasons why children get involved in crime. In order to
prevent re-offending this should be made a priority.
SERVICE DELIVERY ASPECTS
In this section the actions and involvement of different service delivery agents is reported on.
The following Table presents the results:
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Table 28 Effectiveness of service delivery aspects
Service delivery aspect
Percentage
of yes
responses
Police made contact with the care giver after the event
57%
Were his/her rights read to him/her?
72%
Did your child go to court within 48 hours? (Two days)
71%
Was your child informed about the charge against him/her?
62%
Was your child told that a social worker/probation officer
would assist him/her?
45%
It is evident from this result that care givers are of the opinion that their children were properly
informed about processes that would follow and the charges against them.
Care giver perceptions regarding the child’s experiences during the first period after the offence
indicates that the process is structured and quick. It further appears that necessary information
is shared with care givers.
Table 29 Child's experiences in the first phase after the offence
Service delivery aspect
Percentage
of yes
responses
Did he/she have to share a cell with adults?
18%
Was he/she physically hurt by someone who had to work with him/her (e.g. Police
officer)?
17%
Was he/she hurt by other people in the cell?
14%
Did a police officer shout at your child to make him/her answer questions?
16%
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Service delivery aspect
Percentage
of yes
responses
Was your child told what to say in his/her avadavat?
15%
Was your child allowed to phone anyone?
19%
Was your child held in custody for longer than 48 hours (two days)?
24%
None of the above apply
19%
The resulting Table shows that in between 14 – 24% of cases children were subjected to
negative behaviours by service delivery staff or environmental negative behaviours. The validity
of these results may be questioned in view of the small size of the sample that could present a
skewed result. It is possible that responses may be biased towards the opinions of a few
respondents who could, due to the small sample have influenced the total response rate of the
sample. However, in spite of this possibility it is to be noted that behaviours that can be termed
out of professional range do occur and that children are still subjected to these invasive
behaviours.
INTERACTION WITH SERVICE STAFF
The following section describes the frequency of interactions with different service staff during
the child’s initial involvement with the Criminal Justice System. The following table provides the
detail of service staff most frequently interacted with. In each case the highest percentages are
listed and compared with being uncertain.
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Table 30 Frequency of involvement with service staff
Service staff category
Police officer
Frequency of involvement
Not sure: 40%
Not answered: 40%
Probation officer
Not sure: 38%
Had a lot to do with person: 29%
Prosecutor
Not sure: 38%
Had a lot to do with person: 28%
Magistrate
Not sure: 24%
Had a lot to do with person: 38%
Lawyer
Something to do with person: 32%
Had a lot to do with person: 35%
Social worker
Had something to do with person: 10%
Had a lot to do with person: 57%
Child and youth care worker
Had a lot to do with person: 78%
It should be noted that the social worker and especially the child and youth care worker are
listed as those persons the child has had most frequent contact with. Initial observation
indicates that the service system is geared towards the social services professions, but one
should take note of the following conditions that may have influenced this finding. Care givers
may have been interviewed at organizations where social workers and youth care workers may
have high presence. It is further possible that persons from these two groups may have
contacted the care giver and invited him/her to the interview. It is however significant to note
that care givers have had contact with these two groups more than with any other group,
including the probation officer. This may also indicate that social workers and child and youth
care workers are the first line of contact between the family and the service agency. These
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groups may also have been likely to conduct home visits.
CARE GIVER CONTACT WITH SERVICE STAFF
In this section care givers were asked to rate the extent of their contact with service staff. The
results of this phase are provided in the following table:
Table 31 Care giver contact with service staff
Care giver contact with staff
Percentage response
Were you interviewed by anyone regarding your child’s offense?
Yes = 50%
Were you asked questions regarding what your child had done?
Yes = 47%
No = 36%
The possibility of a guilty plea was discussed with you?
Yes = 61%
Did someone explain to you the implications if your child would plea
guilty?
Yes 61%
Were you given information about alternative sentences for your
child?
Yes = 62%
Did you understand what was expected of your child in court?
Yes = 66%
Was your child made part of the legal process?
Yes = 57%
Were you able to discuss your child’s options with someone of your
choice?
Yes = 40%
No = 29%
This table clearly illustrates that in the majority of cases the care givers were informed of
processes at the court and regarding the offence. It is equally clear that fewer parents were
asked questions regarding their child’s offence and in some cases they were not able to
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discuss different options with someone. It would appear that the parents were less involved in
the more personal aspects of the child’s offence such as causality and reasons etc. This result
may confirm what was found in the youth study namely that children are likely to avoid the
involvement of their parents in their affairs as far as possible.
CARE GIVER PERCEPTIO NS ABOUT THE PROGRAMME
Generally parents were found to be satisfied with the programmes as they are. They felt they
were adequately involved in the programme; they knew exactly what was going to happen to
their child; they were made part of the programme etc. The following aspects however stood
out as contrasting views.
Table 32 Care giver perceptions of programmes
Question
Perceptions
Q19.13 The court procedure by itself will not stop
my child from committing an offence in future
Yes = 41%
Q23.9 The programme helped me understand
how my child’s behaviour contributed to his/her
offence
Yes = 67%
Q23.11 I could see my child got bored whilst in
the programme
Yes = 34%
No = 55%
No = 24%
No = 63%
Q23.12 The professionals were friendly towards
my child
Yes = 45%
Q23.14 My child could not fit in with the other
people who attended the programme with
him/her
Yes = 55%
No = 42%
No = 36%
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Question
Perceptions
Q23.15 My child was able to discuss his/her
personal situation with a professional person in
the programme
Yes = 40%
No = 49%
The above table indicates items where care givers were more divided regarding the value of the
programme for their child. Most contrasting was item 23.12 where almost 50% of parents felt
professionals working with their child were not friendly towards them. This item could suggest
some forms of labeling that occur in the service delivery channel. Similarly care givers were unundecided if their children were able to discuss their problems with a professional whilst on the
programme. Generally care givers felt that the court process as well as the programme would be
more successful in jointly discouraging their children to commit another offence.
This concludes the section on care giver perceptions. It was not possible to obtain specific
information regarding the different programme types as the sample size was insufficient to get
more detail. It was also found that the questions on programme types were answered
incoherently by respondents.
INTERPRETATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
This study was an attempt to begin evaluating interventions and programmes that were
implemented since 1995. Interpretations and conclusions are based on the empirical results and
trend findings of the different components of the study. The results are interpreted against
policy criteria, practice realities and current literature. The data obtained from the study is used
to clarify the realities experienced by service delivery professionals and by youth. The
researchers used methods of deduction, comparison and literature verification to derive at the
specific conclusions.
The conclusions are divided into different categories.
CONCLUSIONS REGARDING THE ROLE OF THE FAMILY IN THE CHILD’S CRIME
Various aspects about family life were found to play a significant role in the child’s overall well
being and prognosis in diversion programmes. It is clear that those children, who regarded
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the programmes as helpful to prevent repetition of criminal behavior, were supported by the
following family characteristics.
In tact family structure where the child stays with his/her family is by far the most
important contributor to the child’s overall progress in a programme.
Stable family income where the parents work and earn a salary
Staying in the same place/area for a period of five years and longer.
Families who own the place they stay in are more likely to be stable and this is noted as
a significant indicator of improvement.
Parents who are married provide some form of stability to a family situation. This aspect
has a significant impact on how the child experiences services, the amount of insight
they are likely to develop into their own behavior and the amount of remorse they will
have regarding their own behavior.
It follows that children whose families do not display these structural characteristics are at
greater risk of offending and repeating offences. For example, children who have left home; stay
with relatives or on the streets are at much greater risk of repeating crimes and not change their
behaviour. It is also significant to note that three of the above significant variables have been
found to be significant indicators of family well being in another study (Roestenburg, 1999).
These are geographical stability, home ownership and parent’s marital status. This study has
demonstrated the importance of the family in shaping positive behavior in children, creating the
most appropriate emotional environment, and providing a secure climate within which children
can not only flourish, but face their own difficulties and in the case of this study, face their own
criminal behavior within the family context.
Families of at risk youth have the following characteristics:
They are headed by single parents or caregivers
Parents are unemployed and have financial problems
Family is incomplete in that some children are not residing with the family
The data provided evidence that when a child in conflict with the law functions within a singleparent family the parent is in most cases a mother. These youths mainly grow up with a mother
or grandmother who takes responsibility for the well-being and everyday functioning of the
family.
An in tact family system is not the only indicator of effective rehabilitation. The school system is
another important factor. Children, who had strong links with the school, were more likely to
develop insight and remorse about their own behavior than children who had dropped out of
school. This finding underscores the important role of the school as institution that shapes
behaviour. It is not known to what extent the school is involved in the service delivery process,
and whether re-integration into the school system is addressed in programmes at all. It would
be strongly recommended to the Department that it should lay down a standard for all
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rehabilitative programmes that specifies application of a holistic approach in such programmes
that includes a focus on re-integration with the school system.
The evidence obtained in the study as it relates to family structure and community environment
(including schools) is consistent with observations made from literature. Ryan and Lane (1998),
Wolmarans and Jacobs (1994), Western, Lopoo and McLanahan (2002) all describe the impact
of the family structure on the child in conflict with law. Consistencies in terms of family
hierarchy, financial well-being (such and poverty impact) and family stability issues were
observed. Flores (2003), Currie & Covell (1998) provides evidence of strong supportive
structures within the community such as schools and support groups.
THE CHILD AND THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE PROCESS
This study has shown that application of principles of child rights and humane treatment of
children has a significant impact not only on the child’s perceptions regarding services, but also
in his/her own ‘prognosis’ or extent to which the child in conflict with the law will be able to
effectively re-habilitate, change behavior and re-integrate with society. Aspects like informing
the child, releasing the child within 48 hours, keeping the child in a place of custody that is
separate from adults and the societal prison system; reaching out and allowing the child to
discuss matters with a professional person; helping the child understand how the court process
works and what the future holds contribute to a more positive attitude towards the service
system. Such effective management clearly improves chances of the child developing the
necessary insight and remorse in own behavior.
Data related to the types of offenses for which children in conflict with the law are detained
indicates rape as one of the dominant offenses. However in the qualitative data there are
discrepancies which relates to age. Although not scientifically confirmed there are indications
that children as young as 7 are charged with rape.
THE CHILD AND THE ‘PSYCHOLOGY’ OF CRIME
This study has shown that criminal behavior in the child appears to be associated with shame,
guilt feelings and fear. These feelings and the emotions associated with these feelings clearly
contribute to a series of avoidance reactions with children. It has been found in this study that
children don’t like their parents to be involved from the start; they don’t want too many
professional people ask them questions about their behavior; they don’t like policemen acting in
a harsh way towards them; they don’t like being kept in custody. In fact they prefer to discuss
their situation with a professional person in confidence. Not only are they likely to regard
services with greater skepticism if violence occurs or if they are treated in a harsh way, but
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such behaviours clearly impact on the extent to which the offending child is likely to develop
remorse and insight into their own behavior. So what contributes to positive insight? From this
study it appears that - though contradictory - family involvement from the start is very
important. It is clear that next to diversion, the family is considered the most effective
intervention. Wanting to escape shame and guilt is perhaps a natural psychological
phenomenon, and some amount of shame perhaps necessary to bring about change in insight. It
is further clear that service delivery in the initial stages of arrest should be focused at informing
the child about the route towards change, the court procedure, the guilty plea and what will
happen in diversion. Specifically the guilty plea appears to have a positive impact on the child’s
remorse levels, insight and behavioural change. A further contributor towards remorse, insight
and behavioural change is whether the child is involved with a church or not. In conclusion,
some mechanisms exist in the current intervention system that should be tuned towards more
effective intervention. These are: a healthy amount of ‘psychological discomfort’ due to being
kept in custody or detention, but with effective information provision, professional care and
professional treatment by service personnel. This ‘mix’ of intervention service will contribute
towards more effective intervention later on in the process.
FACTORS OF CRIME
This study has shown that the factors of crime have changed little over time. The same factors
that were noted in 1995 still hold and have been confirmed by the survey done on the child.
Visual inspection of the different groups of results clearly shows that family factors continue to
play an important role in the phenomenon of youth offending. Besides individual factors that
play a role as confirmed by this study it is clear that the main aspect in offending behaviour is
the fact that the child cannot account for his/her own role in the offence. Impulsivity, lack of
self-control, not knowing what was happening; getting drawn into the situation by peers all
indicate towards poor impulse control and tolerance, weak self-control and lack of insight.
These individual factors contribute significantly to offensive behaviour. It is notable that serious
offences like murder are being committed under these circumstances of poor self-control and
impulsivity. Inherently the murder type of child has more positive family relations than the
violent, anti-social child. Focus group reports hinted at the same phenomenon, added peergroup influence and uncontrolled communities as environmental influences in weak self-control.
It is further noteworthy that violence related crimes such as robbery are more characteristic of
the child who has left home, lives by himself, mixes with adults and has less respect for other
people. The anti-social child appears to have a lot more problems with the intervention
system(Not surprising), is less likely to develop insight and show remorse. Service providers are
remarkably accurate in some of their assessments. It was noted for example that service
providers saw a need to develop new programmes specifically for the management of sexual
abuse type crimes. This trend was confirmed by the quantitative survey as well as the historical
study. It is alarming that rape counts as one of the most dominant crimes reported in the
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different studies. Factors of crime are well described in literature (Talaimanu (2006), Shepherd,
Green & Omobien (2005) Bradshaw, Brown & Hamilton (2006), Currie & Covell (1998) and
Abrams, Kim & Anderson-Nathe (2005)). The factors identified and described in this study are
consistent with those identified in literature.
SERVICES
Although services are guided by the IMC Policy Recommendations (1996) there is some critique
by those who have to apply the principles in practice... A research participant replied during the
focus group assessments “... I feel that the IMC concentrated on social development and the
facilities only … rather than the individual child’s needs …” This perception was supported by
more members of the focus group. According to different data sets, the limitations towards
effective service delivery are rather institutional in nature than developmental.
Diversion programmes are rated as far more efficient than any other service type, including
home-based supervision (The latter appears to be the second most effective form of
intervention). The ‘problem’ with the latter intervention appears to be the fact that the family is
involved in a structured way. The child does not particularly favour this involvement and it
appears to add a further dimension of control to the child’s life, which may be more stressful.
However, this study confirms that family involvement has a definite positive impact on the
child’s effective rehabilitation and re-integration.
Short term services are less effective than longer term services and there is a clear indication
that services should be developed to include aftercare or maintenance over time to reduce the
effect of ‘diminishing insight’. It was also clear that the family remains uninvolved to a large
extent, in spite of the benefits of such involvement that have been confirmed by this study.
From the data it is evident that the rights of children in conflict with the law are given
appropriate attention. Furthermore these rights enable the youth to understand personal
responsibility towards rehabilitation and enhance accountable behaviour. There is some
suggestion from the qualitative data that parents are not always well-informed, creating
confusing about their role. This information about family members not being clear about their
rights is in line with the conclusion made earlier, that family members are not always wellinformed.
Usual problems of service delivery have been noted, namely: Lack of funding, lack of
professional staff and well trained staff; inability to employ social workers; relationship with the
department that is not always healthy, payments that are not received on time, weak
management of cases and a lack of an adequate information system. The quality of assessments
was found to be weak and unprofessional. Client files were grossly inadequately filled with
information. From an accountability perspective the case management system is grossly
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inadequate. It could not be determined from files how the probation officer reached a
conclusion. From observation and experience during the research process it was clear that there
is obvious lack of communication and coordination between the justice system and the social
development system. There is no information system that keeps track of clients in the system
and adequately closes cases. Probation officers do not know about the specific crime the child
client is charged with. The various assessment aspects are not consistently completed. There is a
lack of evidence in client files regarding the assessment, conclusion, motivation and
recommendation. Different filing systems, procedures and processes have been observed at
different centers. There is a general lack of a uniform procedure and system. Although there is a
broad range of services, it is clear that services are so vastly different in the various areas that
inconsistency is a likely result.
In addition to the abovementioned conclusion, results from the focus group interviews
concluded that social workers experience limited support and resources to implement the
principles and guidelines of the policy documents guiding treatment. The quantitative data
provided evidence of tasks, programmes and treatment strategies which are all high priority and
labor intensive. The discrepancy in the availability of services and the need for specialized
services might create a challenge to service delivery.
Evidence of significant transformation as it relates to service delivery was found in the data. For
instance in 1995 youths were detained for long periods of time before appearing in court. 35%
were detained for up to a week. In 2006/7 this time period has changed significantly and now
35% are only detained for one day before appearing in court. This is a valuable result and is
interpreted as a positive change. However this transformation in service delivery is not
confirmed by the focus group discussion. The perception of professionals regarding the period
to be detained is not consistent with the abovementioned finding.
The data related to evaluation of services shows discrepancies in terms of the (1) the types of
services delivered to children in conflict with the law. Professionals working with children in
conflict with the law consider the main approach as a community development approach.
However the results show evidence of efforts towards a combination of a clinical and
community development approach.
In terms of the process it is clear that each step should be considered in terms of intervention
and rehabilitative purposes. Assessment reports do not seem consistent in terms of concept
clarity. These report frameworks should meet the criteria of clarity and simplicity. From the
historical analysis it is evident that the questions are open for interpretation. The initial
assessment reports contain four assessment categories namely mastery, independence,
belonging and generosity. These categories are unclear and not clearly denied as assessment
concepts. The reactions and behaviour assessed by these categories are not consistently
applied. In terms of conceptualization, there is a considerable difference between contributing
factors and internal and external motivators of crime. Contributing factors refer to those factors
which create an environment sufficient enough to develop and maintain crime. Internal and
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external motivators refer to those conditions adopted by individual and families which enhance
crime within the individual.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The following section outlines the recommendations to be made regarding the most prominent
conclusions of this project
RECOMMENDATIONS RELATED TO PRACTICE
Based on the findings of this study the following holistic service delivery model is proposed that
captures some of our key recommendations.
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Child enters into
system
Phase 1
Criminal Justice
system
Phase 2
Diversion
Phase 3
Assessment
- Standardized
assessment
- One file through
process
Key Indicators
Intervention
- Diversion
Programme
- Home based
supervision
Key Indicators
Evaluation
-Standardized
instrument
- Aftercare
programme
Re-Integration
Child exits from
system
System
Involvement
Information
Role player
interactions
Parental
involvement
Duration of
programme
Key Indicators
School integration
Family integration
Behaviour change
Relationship
change
Figure 74 Proposed Service Delivery process model
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RECOMMENDATIONS RELATED TO FUTURE RESEARCH
This model captures the following aspects:
1. Four ‘strategic forces of change’ in the holistic intervention process can be identified:
The child; the family; the Justice System; the Social development system and the NGO
sector. When combined these systems all play a significant role in the service delivery
process and effectiveness of intervention outcomes.
2. There are significant indicators of effectiveness that have been identified for each stage
of the intervention process. Some of these are listed in the three arrows in the last
column of the Figure. The indicators are derived from the significant findings in this
research and form the basis for future evaluation of programmes. In reality
effectiveness indicators are variables that contribute to success in intervention. These
are measurable outcomes and determinants of success.
3. It has been concluded that at present there is not a sufficient ‘feedback’ system that
links initial assessment results with programme outcome results. Such feedback
mechanism is indicated by means of the orange arrow in the graph. Implementation of a
feedback mechanism will assist with future programme evaluation and adjustments in
programmes. The feedback system is an important element of intervention and without
such system it becomes virtually impossible to measure programme outcomes. A
feedback system is compiled of the different indicators as indicated before. An
important aspect of an efficient feedback system is when there is a single client filing
system where the client’s file is carried over between departments and accompanies the
child throughout the process. A feedback system requires ‘before’ and ‘after’
measurement of the client that are compared to determine if significant change
occurred during intervention.
We would like to specifically recommend the following in relation to the above service delivery
model.
1. That a comprehensive service delivery manual is compiled and made available to all
stakeholders in the process. This manual should contain standards for all components of
the programme. These programme standards should be used as minimum service
delivery standards to ensure optimal service delivery. The manual should be made
available to the different service delivery systems who are involved throughout the
process. It should contain a series of guidelines on what to do; how to do it; and
according to what standard. In this manual it would for instance be specified how the
child should be treated whilst in the assessment stage; what assessment procedures
should be used; the types of measures to be used at initial assessment; and what
process to be followed. This manual should be based on the findings of this research in
as far as the ‘indicators for success’ are concerned.
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2. The comprehensive service delivery manual should specify minimum requirements for
programmes to be presented by NGO’s. Aspects such as programme duration; essential
content; therapeutic focus areas; assessment and evaluation issues, etc should be
formulated in this manual.
3. Service-delivery staff-specifically at NGO’s, the Justice System and Social Development
should receive regular training to develop a uniform understanding of programme
contents, requirements and focus areas. This training will promote standardization of
the programme and its contents as well as service delivery process
4. The development of a single client file that accompanies the child during the whole
process is a very important requirement for future service delivery. Without such file
the administration and management of the client remains un-standardized and random.
Without a single file it becomes impossible to conduct outcomes measurement, and to
keep track of the client in the intervention process. This recommendation fits in with a
case management model, which is strongly recommended to improve service delivery.
5. In accordance with the above explanation of a feedback system it is recommended that
a simple but effective ‘before’ and ‘after’ measurement system is designed to measure
programme impact on a continuous basis. This system should be part of the single client
filing system proposed in point 4. The feedback system should be based on the
programme indicators identified through this study. These indicators are important
measures to enhance the understanding of a social problem such as child in conflict with
the law. These indicators should also be used to enhance practice and to develop a
better understanding of the macro- and mezzo-level context of the child.
6. It is recommended that a comprehensive information system is developed to provide
programme information to all role-players and stakeholders on a regular basis. It should
be a priority of the Department of Social Development to develop and maintain such a
system over time. Such a system can provide information regarding the profile of the
child in conflict with the law, relevant strategies and impact evaluation outcomes on a
regular basis. Such an information system will prevent the unnecessary repetition of
service delivery and will enhance the capacity of the service delivery system to fill gaps
in the service and enhance networking regarding a specific case. This should include a
client tracking system to ensure that cases do not get lost or disappear in the system.
This system should be in electronic format to ensure efficiency. The system should not
only be available to the Department of Social Development but all stakeholders who
play a role in the four levels of care.
7. The development of strategies 27 to enhance the impact of current intervention
programmes is imperative. This study has shown that successful intervention is reliant
on a collaborative strategy. Such strategies should be based on solid research regarding
27
Afri.yze provides services towards the development of ecometric assessment instruments and further research
suggestions.
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8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
intervention factors that promote the prevention of re-offending and youth engaging in
more serious crimes than their first offenses and effective integration of the child with
his/her family as well as the community. These strategies should be based on solutionfocused and strengths based theories.
It is evident from the data that there is a need to develop effective prevention
programmes which address issues such as contributing factors within the community.
Prevention is a cost-effective way to reduce youth offending and to identify at risk
behaviour at an early level. Effective prevention should take place by means of a
networking system enabling different role-players to participate. Based on evidence
from the study, it is suggested that parents, schools, mentoring networks, juridical and
social welfare professionals and the media should be engaged in preventative actions.
It is recommended that longitudinal research studies are conducted to enable collection
of evidence over a longer period of time. Evidence collected from longitudinal studies
will enable practitioners and policy-makers to identify changes as it relates to changes in
society. These issues include changes in the country’s profile of the child in conflict with
the law, the impact of political and socio-economic scenarios on child offending and
evaluation of service delivery programmes.
In addition the current conceptualization of the four levels of intervention and its impact
on service delivery should be assessed. Research should ask questions related to the
conceptualization of the four levels of care, the practice application value of the four
levels and the relevance of the current levels to the child in conflict with the law.
This study has shown that current services are characterized by a general lack of
standardized procedures of assessment and case management. It is recommended that
concrete measures should be developed to demonstrate treatment effectiveness by
means of standardized evaluation strategies and measurement. The instruments that
have been developed in this study have the potential to be used as such measures in
structured evaluation processes. The measures that have been developed in this study
possess excellent psychometric capacity to be used effectively in practice. It has been
found that service delivery staff from the NGO sector present with negative perceptions
regarding the Department’s role in service delivery. It appears that these perceptions
are often related to funding problems; lack of communication and inconsistency in
service delivery from the department’s side. By adopting a case management model
many communication problems can be resolved.
It is further imperative that specific assessment categories and an assessment model be
developed, which is relevant and applicable to the child in conflict with the law, and
promotes accountability in the assessment process. Such assessment model and
associated protocols should be disseminated to probation officers across the province to
ensure a unified assessment process that is more accountable and is recognized by the
criminal justice system. Afri.Yze has the capacity to develop and implement such
assessment model. In addition to training probation officers it is suggested that all
professionals involved in a correctional and/or treatment capacity should be trained in
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assessment strategies and the model.
13. It is recommended that more finances are provided to capacitate service delivery. In
current format the NGO sector appears to be unable to deliver effective services on
behalf of the department. This is largely due to inefficient funding provisions. One can
hardly expect effective services if programmes are not able to adequately provide
trained capacity to staff programmes.
14. The development and maintenance of a library or reading network specific to the
realities of the child in conflict with the law should be developed. Throughout this study
the lack of resources specifically focused on South-Africa was clear. Such a reading
network will enable the professional working with the child to build and develop the
necessary capacity.
RECOMMENDATIONS RELATED TO IN-SERVICE TRAINING OF PROFESSIONALS
The evidence in this research project indicates that a variety of professionals (such as police
officers, magistrates, social workers) are involved in the detention and treatment of the child in
conflict with the law. Although some of these professionals are employed by the Department of
Social Development it seems that a majority are contracted by other departments such as the
Department of Corrections and the Justice Department. In order to deliver a quality driven and
accountable service it is necessary to ensure that all service providers are part of the process.
Being part of the process include inclusion in decision-making as well as a necessary role
description for each.
Besides the training programme for all role-players involved in youth offending, it is also
important to train all service providers in effective assessment. For the purpose of this a
comprehensive assessment model should be developed. After development of the model, all
role-players should be trained in the model. Although not all role-players will use the
comprehensive model, it is important hat each person working with the child will have an
understanding of the way the child is assessed. This can however only be done if each person
understand the value of the model in the process of rehabilitation.
PROPOSED TRAINING MODULES
The data collected in the study provided information valuable towards (1) understanding the
current service delivery system and programmes and (2) developing new programmes. This
section is aimed towards recommending specific programmes which should either be enhanced
or developed. The programme suggestions are directly linked to the limitations identified in the
current service delivery system.
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PROGRAMME SUGGESTION 1: KNOWLEDGE DEVELOPMENT FOR CARE GIVERS AS IT
RELATES TO RE-OFFENDING
From the results it is evident that families and primary are informed but that it is not adequate
enough to enable them to understand the context and dynamics of offending behaviour. It is
suggested that a programme is development with the aim to provide information to caregivers
on offending behaviour. Such a program should be educational in nature and aimed at
empowering care givers. This programme should also provide specific steps towards addressing
the re-offending behaviour and when to contact the professionals involved. The main purpose
of the programme should be to prevent re-offending by providing knowledge to care givers. It is
suggested that the following issues are addressed in the programme:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Reasons youths get involved in crime
Reasons re-offending takes place
Re-offending behaviour – identification and symptom detection
Guidelines for addressing re-offending behaviour patterns
Resources available to support the care giver with the behaviour
Understanding communication with the child as it relates to re-offending
Enhancing opportunities for strengthening of relationships with the child
PROGRAMME SUGGESTION 2: KNOWLEDGE AND INSIGHT DEVELOPMENT FOR THE
CHILD IN CONFLICT WITH THE LAW REGARDING OFFENDING BEHAVIOUR
Helping the child to understand his/her behaviour is one of the priorities of rehabilitation.
Through an educational and therapeutic programme the child can develop and awareness of his
actions. Although the programme should be linked at specific behaviour it is suggested that
certain generalist topics are addressed throughout all the programmes. When talking about
specific behaviour it is clear that specialized programmes should be developed for (1) sexual
offending – specifically rape (2) violent behaviour (3) social skills and peer group pressure and
(4) substance abuse. It is suggested that these programmes are presented as separate programs.
General areas should include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Symptom identification related to each of the specialized areas
Causes related to the specific offending behaviour
Development of an understanding of the cycle of offending behaviour
Description of the role of the individual, family, peer group and education in offending
behaviour
5. Identification of behaviour needed to change
6. Identification and sensitizing of feelings related to crime (such as shame, guilt, anger)
7. Enhancement of a responsible attitude towards crime
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PROGRAMME SUGGESTION 3: INTERVENTION PROGRAM FOCUSED AT BEHAVIOUR
CHANGE
Changing the behaviour of a child in conflict with the law should be based on (1) behaviour
modification (2) insight development and (3) self-reflection. Although existing programmes
clearly provide information and enhances knowledge the information, it is necessary to take
these a step further. In addition to developing and understanding of the reasons why they got
involved in the first place, programme participants should also develop insight about their own
behaviour. It is suggested that the behaviour modification should be linked to the context in
which the child functions. The context includes the family as well as the community. The
following topics are suggested for a behaviour modification programme:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Identification of behaviour which enhances criminal involvement
Identification of behaviour related to families
Assessment of own behaviour – defining the behaviour in measurable terms
Adapting behaviour towards positive survival solutions
Adapting new behaviour related to self control
Altering current behaviour
Learning and applying new skills and behaviour
Reinforcement of new skills and behaviour
PROGRAMME SUGGESTION 4: FAMILY SUPPORT AND COMMUNITY INTEGRATION
In order to minimize re-offending the family or care givers need to understand their role in
the offending behaviour. In certain situations family members or care givers maintain the
problem without realizing it. Whether this maintenance is related to financial problems,
survival issues, involvement in criminal activities or mental health issues, it impacts the
rehabilitation process. From the evidence in this research project it is clear that some
children in conflict with the law reside with grandparents. This programme should also focus
on providing information to grandparents as well as support. The latter could be done
through social networking and a team responsible for the re-integration of the child into the
community
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Proving guidelines regarding how to deal with offending behaviour
Building positive relationships between family and the child in conflict with the law
Development of knowledge regarding the family’s role in offending behaviour
Insight development in contextual dynamics of youth offending
Guidelines towards breaking patterns maintaining offending behaviour
Understanding how positive community re-integration is affected by offending
behaviour
7. Developing skills towards re-integration into the community
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RECOMMENDATIONS RELATED TO POLICY
Evidence from the data indicates that there is a lack of consistency in service delivery. Though
this practice problem, it may also be the result of limited clarification of service delivery issues
on a policy level. It is recommended that policy is reviewed and where necessary re-formulated
to ensure that concepts, actions, delivery systems and continuum of care levels are consistent.
Such a revision will result in consistent and precise interpretation of process outcomes.
Networking should include various role-players who could provide support towards the four
levels of care. These role-players should not only be those familiar to the current system and can
also include familiar stakeholders such as private organizations, the media, and national
organizations. Networking should bring together law enforcement, corrections personnel,
community organizations, and youth themselves. Networking and partnerships is considered as
an effective tool to strengthen service delivery and to ensure that quality services are provided
to the child and his/her family. It is recommended that such networking nurtures existing
partnerships but also develops new ones, not only on a national level but also on an
international level.
It is further recommended that policy-makers and practitioners should review current outcomes
of service delivery. Outcomes should be clearly identified and programmes and services
delivered based on these outcomes. It is recommended that these outcomes relate to issues
such as management of at risk behaviour, changes of offending and networking strategies – all
on micro, mezzo and macro-levels.
In terms of the intervention process, it is recommended that rehabilitated youth themselves are
included as role-players in the intervention process. Being rehabilitated and empowered,
rehabilitated youth are in the ideal position to inform service providers and policy makers about
affective strategy development.
Legislative impact should be considered and researched not only in terms of its practice
application, empirical value and sustainability, but also in terms of its ability to reform a country
experiencing the challenges created by the destructive cycle of violence.
CONCLUDING REMARK
This research study provided an opportunity for the research team to evaluate services. It also
presented a current profile of the child in conflict with the law in Gauteng. Such a profile is
beneficial towards understanding the dynamics of youth offending in the province. A
comprehensive knowledge base will enable role players to design and develop effective service
delivery methods.
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By using mixed methodology the researchers were able to explore different aspects of the youth
offending. An important outcome of the research is the identification of several useful indicator
variables and potential scales that can be used effectively for future data collection to draw up a
profile of the child in conflict with the law.
It is envisioned that this research study will make a contribution towards capacity building in the
effort to deliver effective services to the child in conflict with the law in Gauteng.
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