Definite and Indefinite Free Choice Items:
Evidence from English, French and Greek
Evangelia Vlachou
University of Utrecht
1
Introduction
The meaning of freedom of choice (hereafter FC) and its expression in natural language has
received a lot of attention the last forty years.1 Vendler (1967) has been the first to observe
that the English item any has a very special meaning that he calls freedom of choice. More
precisely, (Vendler, 1967, 80) argues that the speaker in (1) claims that “no matter whom you
select from among you, I can beat him”. Ladusaw (1979) baptizes this use of any as Free Choice
Item (FCI):
(1)
I can beat any one of you.
After Vendler, analyses on FCIs were primarily focused on their distribution in a crosslinguistic
perspective (cf. Giannakidou (2001) and Jayez and Tovena (2005)). In the present paper, I leave
aside the distribution of FCIs and concentrate on another very interesting and not documented
phenomenon; the fact that only some are presuppositional. Based on novel data from English,
French and Greek, I propose that this is due to a very rich inherent semantics of FCIs; a cluster
of quantificational properties and lexical semantic implications.
2
The facts
Except for any, English Free Relatives formed by the particle ever, are also involved in the
discussion on FCIs, being grammatical in modal contexts as shown in (2). I refer to them as
English complex wh-items:
(2)
I can beat whoever you want.
den Dikken and Giannakidou (2002), Giannakidou (2001), von Fintel (2000), Horn (2000a,b)
and Quer (1998, 1999, 2000) equate any to English complex wh-items. However, a more detailed
study shows that they differ. English complex wh-items, contrary to any, scope over negation:
2
(3)
I left before talking to anyone
(4)
I left before inviting whoever was at the conference.
Any scopes over negation only when preceded by just. (5) can be uttered in situations where
there is the expectation that the speaker would talk to some person. This shows that any
becomes presuppositional when preceded by just:
(5)
I left before talking to just anyone
The examples above are consequently represented as follows:
1 I would like to thank Cleo Condoravdi, Francis Corblin, Anastasia Giannakidou and Henrie̋tte de Swart
for valuable comments. This research is supported by the Utrecht Institute of Linguistics and the Netherlands
Organization for Scientific Research (NWO). They are here cordially acknowledged.
2 Here, before is in its negative use
© 2006 Evangelia Vlachou. Proceedings of the 2004 Texas Linguistics Society Conference, ed. Pascal Denis et
al., 150-159. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project.
151
(6)
¬∃x(person(x)∧I.talked.to(x))
(7)
∃x(person.at.the.conference(x)∧¬I.talked.to(x))
(8)
∃x(invited.person(x)∧¬I.talked.to(x))
The two French FCIs of the kind qu- que ce soit (French concessive FCI) and n’importe qu(French matter FCI) have exactly the same differences. As FCIs, they are commonly grammatical in modal contexts:
(9)
(10)
On peut critiquer qui
que ce soit.
One can criticize FR.concessive.FCI
One can criticize anybody [DB]3
Tu peux prendre n’importe
quelle carte
You can take
FR.matter.FCI
card
You can take any card
However, only the French matter FCI scopes over negation. In (11), the speaker claims that
she left before talking to anybody, with no exception. Qui que ce soit is not presuppositional.
In (12), the speaker claims that none of the invited persons would be interesting for her. She is
happy because she left the party without talking to anyone. N’importe quel invité presupposes
the existence of invited persons.
(11)
Je suis parti avant de parler à qui
que ce soit
I am left before from talki to FR.concessive.FCI
I left before talking to anyone
(12)
Heureusement, je suis parti avant de parler à n’importe
quel invité
Fortunately
I am left before from talk to FR.matter.FCI
invited
I was so lucky that I left before talking to just any invitee
Greek FCIs have the same differences. As argued in Vlachou (forthcoming) Greek has five classes
of FCIs. In this paper, I concentrate on three of them: 1) Greek complex wh- items, 2) Greek
complex concessive wh- items and 3) Greek complex wh- items that are preceded by a definite
article (article+complex wh- hereafter). As FCIs, they are all grammatical in modal contexts:
(13)
I
anthropi afti tora dulevun ja tus amerikanus ke bori na exun opjadhipote
The people these now work
for the americans and can SUB have complex.whthesi
ston kratiko
mixanismo
position to.the governmental mechanism
These people are now working for the Americans and may have already occupied any
governmental position. [DB]
(14)
I
asthenis bori na
exi erthi se epafi me opjondhipote
ki an
The patient may SUBJ have come to contact with complex.concessive.whvrethike brosta tis
was.found front her
The patient may have already come in contact with whoever she found
(15)
I
asthenis bori na
exi erthi se epafi me ton
opjondhipote
The patient may SUBJ have come to contact with complex+article.whThe patient may have already come in contact with anyone
However, they differ in that Greek complex concessive wh-items (14) and article+concessive
wh- items scope over negation (15). Greek complex wh- items (13) do not. In (16), the speaker
3 Data presented with [DB] are extracted from the Free Choice Item Database (FCID). For more information,
cf. Vlachou (2004) and Vlachou (forthcoming)
152
claims that the subject left before talking to anybody. The variable introduced by the Greek
complex wh- FCI has narrow scope. In (17), it is presupposed that there were invited speakers
and that Mary left without inviting them. (18) can be uttered in a situation where Maria is at
a party and she feels very bored. None of the invitees looks interesting to her. Luckily for her,
she left and therefore she did not talk to them. The existence of invitees is presupposed.
(16)
Efije prin na
milisi se opjondhipote
Left before SUBJ speak to complex.whShe left before talking to anybody
(17)
I Maria efije prin
na
proskalesi opjondhipote
ki an itan sto
parti
I Mary left without SUBJ invite
complex.concessive.whwas to.the party
Mary left before inviting whoever was at the party
(18)
Eftixos
i Maria efije prin na
milisi ston opjodhipote
Fortunately the Mary left before SUBJ talk SUBJ to.complex+article.whMary left before talking just anyone
In the following sections, I propose that the differences above can be explained in terms of the
quantificational properties of FCIs and of their lexical semantic implications. In section 3, I
argue that French FCIs are indefinites just like (just)any and the Greek (article+) complex
wh-items. In section 4, I argue that Greek concessive complex wh- items are definite, just like
English complex wh- items. By the end of these two sections, it will have been shown that
the quantificational properties of FCIs are not enough to account for the above differences. In
section 5, the full proposal is presented.
3
Indefinite Free Choice Items
In the present section, I argue that French FCIs are indefinites just like (just)any and the Greek
(article+) complex wh-items.
According to Heim (1982), Partee (1986), Kadmon and Landman (1993), Lee and Horn
(1994) any is an indefinite. Giannakidou (2001) argues the same for Greek complex wh- items.
The differences between universal quantifiers, any and the Greek complex wh- FCI together with
the similarities between any, Greek complex wh- items and simple indefinites have been used by
scholars as the main arguments to show that any is an indefinite. In this section, I first present
these arguments and then show how they also apply to French FCIs under consideration.
The discovery of the double quantificational status of any, first observed by Hamilton (1858),
divides researchers into two camps: ambiguists and unitarians.4 Scholars that belonged to the
first group supported the hypothesis that any is either a universal or an existential. In the first
group belonged the following scholars: Reichenbach (1948), Quine (1960), Lasnik (1972), (Horn,
1972, ch. 3), Kroch (1975), Carlson (1981), Eisner (1995), Dayal (1995a) and Dayal (1998). Lee
and Horn (1994) and Horn (2000a) give a very clear summary of the diagnostics for the universal
character of any that have been used in the literature. First of all comes the diagnostic of adverb
modification. Just like universal quantifiers, any can be modified by adverbs like almost and
absolutely:
(19)
Absolutely everybody/anyone/*someone can win.
Second, this item, just like universal quantifiers, is not grammatical in the scope of existential
constructions:
(20)
*There is anybody/everyone in the garden
Third, neither any nor universal quantifiers can modify predicate nominals:
4 Term
used by Horn (2000a)
153
(21)
*He is any/every student of mine.
This way of approaching any presents two basic problems. The first problem concerns the
validity of tests used for universality. As explained first by McCawley (1981) almost is not a
good test for universal quantification. For instance, it can modify a predicate as be stupid :
(22)
He is almost stupid.
There-insertion is not a valid criterion either. As shown by McNally (1998), it can modify a
universal quantifier when it denotes kinds of individuals as in (23).
(23)
There was every kind of doctor at the convention.
Finally, any can modify predicate nominals if it is in the scope of negation:
(24)
I am not just any person– I am your husband
The second flaw in the universalists’ approach is that universal flavor is not always available.
For instance, any in (3) is not universally interpreted. If it did, (3) would be synonymous to I
left before talking to everyone (for extensive discussion on this issue cf. Dahl (1970), Hoeksema
(1983), Horn (1972), Lakoff (1972) to mention some). These problems show that any is not a
universal quantifier.
Regarding the similarities between any, the Greek complex wh- item and simple indefinites,
three are the most crucial arguments. First, a CN 5 and any CN and Greek complex wh- items
exhibit alternation between generic and existential readings in the same way that simple indefinites do; they are generically interpreted in generic contexts (25), (26-a), (26-b) and existentially
interpreted in negative contexts as (27), (28-a) and (28-b) (see Diesing (1992) for discussion on
existential and generic indefinites):
(25)
A doctor will tell you that stopsneeze helps
(26)
a.
b.
(27)
I did not see a student
(28)
a.
b.
Any doctor will tell you that stopsneeze helps
Ojosdhupote jatros tha su pi oti to “stopsneeze” voitha
I did not see any student
Dhen idha opjondhipote fititi6
Second, a CN, any CN and Greek complex wh- items take narrow scope in negative contexts.
(27), (28-a) and (28-b) are represented as (29).
(29)
¬∃x(student(x)∧I.saw(x))
On the other hand they take wide scope with respect to modal operators as in (30), (31-a) and
(31-b) as shown in (32):
(30)
A student can solve this problem
(31)
a.
b.
(32)
Gx(student(x))3(x solve.this.problem)
Any student can solve this problem.
Opjosdhipote fititis bori na lisi afto to provlima
Third, as shown in (33), (34-a) and (34-b), they are unselectively bound by an operator whereas
universal quantifiers are not (35):
(33)
5 CN
If a farmer owns a donkey, he beats it
stands for Common Noun
do not include in the discussion examples with the Greek complex wh-item preceded by an article. Since
the Greek complex wh- item is indefinite, this result passes over to this item as well.
6I
154
(34)
a.
b.
If any farmer owns a donkey, he beats it
Ean opjosdhipote agrotis exi ena ghaidhuri, to xtipa
(35)
*If every farmer owns a donkey, he beats it
These arguments show that the English FCI any and the Greek complex wh-item are indefinites.
In the remainder of this section, I argue that the French concessive and matter FCIs are also
indefinites.
As their English counterpart any, they can both be modified by adverbs like presque (almost).
However, as explained above, this is not a valid argument for universal quantification:
(36)
Alfred mangera presque quoi
que ce soit
Alfred will.eat almost FR.concessive.FCI
Alfred will eat almost any meal
(37)
Alfred mangera presque n’importe
quoi
Alfred will.eat almost FR.matter.FCI
Alfred will eat almost anything
The first fact that shows that these two French FCIs are indefinites is their ambiguity. As their
English and Greek counterparts, they are existentially interpreted in negative contexts as in
(38) and (39). They are generically interpreted in generic contexts as in (40) and (41):
(38)
Il n’a
pas bu
quoi
que ce soit.
He not.has not drunk FR.concessive.FCI
I did not drink anything
(39)
Marie n’a
pas parlé à n’importe
qui. Elle a parlé au
président.
Mary not.has not talked to FR.matter.FCI
She has talked to.the president
Mary did not talk to just anyone. She talked to the president
(40)
Quelque
chat que ce soit a quatre pattes.
FR.concessive.FCI cat
has four feet
Any cat has four feet
(41)
N’importe
qui a des amis
FR.matter.FCI
has
friends
Anyone has friends
Second, both French FCIs are unselectively bound by an operator, just like simple indefinites
(33). On the contrary, as shown in (35), universal quantifiers are not unselectively bound.
(42)
Si quelque
fermier que ce soit a un âne,
il le bat.
If FR.concessive.FCI farmer
has a donkey he it beats
If any farmer has a donkey, he beats it.
(43)
Si n’importe
quel fermier a un âne,
il le bat.
If FR.matter.FCI
farmer has a donkey he it beats
If any farmer has a donkey, he beats it
In the present section, I showed that French FCIs are indefinites. However, the fact that the
FCIs considered in this section are indefinites does not explain why the French matter FCI ,
any preceded by just and the Greek article+complex wh- item are presuppositional as shown in
(12), (5) and (18) respectively.
4
Definite Free Choice Items
In the present section, based on the similarities between English complex wh- FCIs and Greek
complex concessive FCIs, I argue that the latter are definite.
155
Eliott (1971), Richardson (1995), Jacobson (1995), Dayal (1995b), Rullmann (1995) and
Dayal (1997), Vlachou (2003b,a, 2005) have argued that English complex wh-items are definites.
Let me present the arguments initially proposed by Jacobson (1995).
Consider (44). It either has a definite reading, and is paraphrased by a definite NP there is
a lot of garlic in the thing that Arlo is cooking, or it has a universal interpretation: there is a
lot of garlic in all meals Arlo is cooking
(44)
There is a lot of garlic in whatever Arlo is now cooking
In order to account for both readings, Jacobson (1995) argues that the meaning of FRs is that
of plural definite NPs. Their apparent universal meaning comes from the fact that they denote
a maximal plural entity. First, in order to derive the definite semantics of English complex
wh-items, she uses tools from Partee and Rooth (1983) who propose that the syntactic category
NP corresponds to a variety of semantic types. For instance, an NP can denote an individual
type e, the characteristic function of a set of individuals whose denotation is of type he, ti or
of a set of properties he, th, tii. As proper names, which are of type hei, the definite article the
maps a common noun (a property) into an individual. Jacobson (1995) makes the hypothesis
that wh-expression shifts “down” from a property to an individual by the iota type shifting rule
proposed by Partee (1987). This operation is defined for those properties which characterize
one and only individual. Therefore, we can have an inherently predicative expression to shift
into an individual denoting expression if the set characterized by the predicate is a singleton.
If the definite reading of an FR involves shifting down rather than up, then it ends up being
equivalent to definite descriptions.
Second, in order to account for the definite and universal interpretation of FRs, Jacobson
(1995) uses Sharvy (1980) and Link (1983)’s way of analyzing plural entities. Link argues that a
plural entity can be seen as a special kind of of individual. A given property P can be associated
to a maximal plural entity namely that entity with the property P. Thus if in a given domain
there is only one atomic individual with a given property then the maximal plural entity with
that property is the one consisting of just this atomic individual. This gives the reading of
singular definite. If there is more than one, then the NP denotes the single entity composed of
all other entities and so is universally interpreted. For Jacobson (1995) whatever differs from
what in that it broadens the possible domain. Apart from that, they do not differ. The meaning
of whatever Arlo is cooking is the property true of all entities that Arlo is cooking:
(45)
a.
b.
what’/whatever’ = λP[λX[P(X)∧∀Y(P(Y)→Y≤X)]](X and Y are variables over
members of e* and e* is the set of plural entities)
what/whatever Arlo is cooking’= λX[is.cooking’(X)(A)∧∀Y(is.cooking(Y)(A)→Y≤X)]
Since whatever Arlo is cooking characterizes a set which is a singleton, then it can easily shift
into an NP type of meaning, where it shifts to denote the single individual characterized by the
predicate:
(46)
[whatever Arlo is cooking]’ = ιX[is.cooking(X)(A)∧∀Y(is.cooking’(Y)(A)→Y≤X)]
Another very important argument that shows that English complex wh- items are definite comes
from the fact that they escape negation as shown in (4). Also, (Jacobson, 1995, 473) (see also
Eliott (1971)) argues that (47-a) compared to (47-b), “more strongly suggests the existence of
a delinquent student”. This is par excellence a property of definite NPs.
(47)
a.
b.
Whoever handed in the assignment late failed.
Anyone who handed in the assignment late failed.
Greek complex concessive wh- FCIs are, then, also definites. First, they are interpreted both as
definites and as universals:
(48)
Iparxi poli skordho se otidhipote
ki an majiervi tora o Janis
There.is much garlic to GR.complex.concessive.FCI
cooks
now the John.
There is a lot of garlic in whatever John is now cooking (cf. (44))
156
In (48), the speaker either claims that there is a lot of garlic in the meal that Janis is now
cooking or that there is a lot of garlic in all meals that Janis is now cooking.
Second, presupposition escapes negation. In (17) repeated under (49), there is the presupposition that Maria left before inviting the persons who were at the party.
(49)
I Maria efije prin
na
proskalesi opjondhipote
ki an itan sto
parti
I Mary left without SUBJ invite
complex.concessive.whwas to.the party
Mary left before inviting whoever was at the party
Third, Greek complex concessive FCIs presuppose the existence of an entity with the relevant
property, like their English counterpart (47-a). In (50), the speaker describes how her friends
are.
(50)
Opjoshipote
ki an ine filos mu kapnizi pipa
Greek.complex.whis friend my smokes pipe
Whoever is my friend smokes a pipe
This is a very crucial difference between indefinite and definite FCIs. For instance, as argued in
Vendler (1967), any is not presuppositional in the same kind of context. As stated in (Vendler,
1967, 87), (51) means that “if somebody is my fiend, he smokes a pipe; if he does not he is not
my friend. [...] Then it is quite possible that I have no friends. ”
(51)
Anyone who is my friend smokes a pipe
In the present section, I showed that English complex wh- items and Greek concessive complex
wh- items are definites. This fact explains why they are presuppositional as it has been initially
argued in (4) and (17).
5
Lexical semantics
In the previous sections, I argued that the class of FCIs is divided into two subclasses; indefinite
and definite FCIs. As already showed, these quantificational properties do not explain why
the English item just anyone (5), the French matter FCI (12), and the Greek FCI formed by
a complex wh- item preceded by an article (18) are presuppositional. Relevant examples are
repeated below:
(52)
I left before talking to just anyone (from (5))
(53)
Heureusement, je suis parti avant de parler á n’importe
quel invité
Fortunately
I am left before from talk to FR.matter.FCI
invited
I was so lucky that I left before talking to just any invitee (from (12))
(54)
Eftixos
i Maria efije prin na
milisi ston opjodhipote
Fortunately the Mary left before SUBJ talk SUBJ to.complex+article.whMary left without inviting just anyone (from (18))
A detailed study of the semantics of these three indefinite FCIs is enlightening. All three
FCIs have a very special interpretation: The subject leaves before talking to persons that are
considered to be very boring for her. Therefore, if she had talked to them then she would have
chosen to talk to them randomly; all persons look the same to her. In order for the crux of this
meaning to become clearer, let me introduce into the discussion three examples in which these
three FCIs are not in the scope of any sentential operator:
(55)
She got married with just anyone
157
(56)
(...)fait à Orly: Société ICP . Je ne savais pas ce que signifiaient les initiales. J’ai avalé
ma salive, j’ai dit:
in Orly: Society I C P I didn’t know the meaning of these initials. I swallowed my saliva
I said:
-c’est une agence de publicité.
-It’s an advertisement agency
-Et alors?
-And so what?
J’ai répondu n’importe quoi:
I said something/whatever/just anything
-International Caravaille Publicité. [DB](see also Vlachou (in press))
(57)
Ed Wood (1922-1978) is considered to be the worst film director of the American cinema
ever
Ekane ta panda monos tu-paragogi,
senario, skinothesia- ke xrisimopiise
Did the all
alone himself-production scripts staging
and used
ton
opjodhipote ja ithopio.
complex+article.whfor actor
He did everything alone: production, scripts, staging; He also used just any actor [DB]
In (55), the speaker argues that the subject chose randomly whom to marry. She did not pay
attention to her choice. It is very probable that she married the first person that she met in her
life. In (56), the speaker did not know what to say and suddenly she said something without
even thinking. Among all alternatives that she had, she chose to say something that is equally
probable to be chosen by the agent. Finally, the same holds for (57). Ed Wood chose his
actor or actors at random, without any proper consideration. Both three FCIs have the flavor of
indiscriminacy (see Horn (2000a) and Vlachou (forthcoming)) defined in Vlachou (forthcoming))
as follows:
Definition 5.1 Working definition of indiscriminacy implication
An agent makes a choice in such a way that, before choosing, any alternative is equally
probable to be chosen.
Indiscriminacy therefore describes the way that an agent will make a choice among alternatives that are equally probable to be chosen. Since indiscriminacy describes a choice, the
existence of possible alternatives is consequently presupposed. If this was not the case, then the
semantics of these FCIs would be vacuous. For this reason, just anyone, n’importe qui and ston
opjodhipote scope over negation in (5), (12) and (18) repeated above.
On the contrary, the indefinite FCIs that are not presuppositional have a different lexical
semantics; widening defined by Kadmon and Landman (1993) as follows:
Definition 5.2 Widening by Kadmon and Landman (1993)
In an NP of the form any CN, any widens the interpretation of the common noun phrase
(CN) along a contextual dimension.
In (3) repeated under (58), the speaker argues that she left and she did not talk to a person,
not even to the most likely one.
(58)
I left before talking to anyone
The same holds for French concessive FCIs and for Greek complex wh- items as shown in (11)
and (16) repeated below:
158
(59)
Je suis parti avant de parler à qui
que ce soit
I am left before from talki to FR.concessive.FCI
I left before talking to anyone
(60)
Efije prin na
milisi se opjondhipote
Left before SUBJ speak to complex.whShe left before talking to anybody
Indefinite FCIs that express widening, contrary to the indefinite FCIs that express indiscriminacy, are not presuppositional due to their lexical semantics. Nothing in the meaning of widening
requires the existence of actual witnesses. For this reason, they do not scope over negation.
6
Conclusion
In this paper I attempted to explain the reason for which some Free Choice Items are presuppositional whereas some others are not. I argued that the fact that some FCIs are presuppositional
is due to a very strong inherent semantics, cluster of quantificational properties and lexical semantic implications. More precisely, I claimed that the class of FCIs is divided into two big
subclasses; indefinite and definite FCIs. I showed that only the quantificational properties of
definite FCIs predict that they are presuppositional. As for indefinite FCIs, I proposed that their
being presuppositional or not, is subject to their lexical semantic implications; indiscriminacy
or widening. The results presented in this paper, show that the class of Free Choice Items is
composed by items with very strong inherent semantic properties. This fact calls for detailed
and systematic investigation of their semantics.
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Proceedings of the 2004 Texas Linguistics
Society Conference: Issues at
the Semantics–Pragmatics Interface
edited by Pascal Denis, Eric McCready,
Alexis Palmer, and Brian Reese
Cascadilla Proceedings Project
Somerville, MA
2006
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Vlachou, Evangelia. 2006. Definite and Indefinite Free Choice Items: Evidence from English, French and Greek.
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In Proceedings of the 2004 Texas Linguistics Society Conference, ed. Pascal Denis et al., 150-159. Somerville,
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