The Plateau: The Hittites
OxfordHandbooksOnline
ThePlateau:TheHittites
JürgenSeeher
TheOxfordHandbookofAncientAnatolia:(10,000-323BCE)
EditedbyGregoryMcMahonandSharonSteadman
PrintPublicationDate: Sep2011
OnlinePublicationDate: Nov
2012
Subject: Archaeology,ArchaeologyoftheNearEast
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0016
AbstractandKeywords
ThisarticlepresentsdataontheHittites,who,duringthesecondmillenniumBCE,establishedthefirstempirein
whatwaslatercalledAnatoliaandthenAsiaMinor.Fromthebeginning,theHittitekingsfollowedanactive
settlementpolicyontheAnatolianplateau.Sitesindisparateareasshowaremarkableuniformityinarchitecture
andmaterialculture,andthusdocumentastrongsystem,withwell-organizedstructuresofproductionand
distribution.Basicallyinlandoriented,theHittitestatemaintainedcloseconnectionstothecoastonlyinsouthern
AsiaMinor,whichmeantaccesstothetraderoutesintheeasternMediterraneanandthenorthernLevant.Theloss
ofthesetraderoutes,togetherwithvariousotherfactors,seemstohaveledtothecollapseoftheempirearound
orshortlyafter1200BCEandtheabandonmentofmany(ifnotall)HittitesettlementsonthecentralAnatolian
plateau.
Keywords:Hittitekingdom,Anatolia,settlements,traderoutes,AsiaMinor
GeographicalRemarks
DuringthesecondmillenniumB.C.E.,theHittitesestablishedthefirstempireinwhatwaslatercalledAnatoliaand
thenAsiaMinor.Thislargepeninsulaissurroundedbyseasonthreesides,buttheHittiteswerelargelyinlandoriented.Thisisduetothestructureoftheterrain,whichaccountedforenvironmentalandpoliticalconditions.The
foldedrangesofthePonticMountainsinthenorthandtheTaurusMountainstothesouthcreatethelimitsofthe
semi-aridhighlands,whichformedthehomelandoftheHittitesandthestageforthedevelopmentofthisBronze
Agesuperpower.AlsocalledtheAnatolianplateau,thisvaststretchoflandisnotflat,butishillyinmostpartsand
oftenformedbysmallplainsseparatedbymoreorlesswidemountainousridges.Thelargestoftheseplainsisthe
Konyaplain,anareawhichcomprisesmuchofwhatwascalledtheLowerLandbytheHittites.TheUpperLand,on
theotherhand,wasthemountainousregionaroundtheupperKızılIrmak,therivercalledMaraššantiyabythe
Hittites(andHalysinantiquity).Inbetweenthetwo,thatis,inandaroundthelargebendoftheKızılIrmakRiverin
thecenterofAnatoliasouthofthePontusMountains,laytheHittiteheartland,orperhapsonemightbettersaythe
nucleus,ofthekingdom(concisesummaryinBryce1998:44–63).
ThereconstructionofHittitegeographyderivesonlyinsmallpartfromexcavationsatarchaeologicalsites(see
Glatz,chapter40inthisvolume).Ingeneral,itreliesoncuneiformtextualevidence.Mostinformativeconcerning
geographicalmattersaretheitinerariesoftheculttravelsoftheking,aswellasthereportsofmilitarycampaigns
(seeBeal,chapter26inthisvolume).Thenarrationsincludehundredsofnamesoftownsvisited,riverscrossed,
andmountainspassed,nottomentioncountriesandterritoriesvisited,invaded,and/orsubjugated.Butthesetexts
containneithercardinaldirectionsnormeasurementsofdistances.Inrareinstancesthenumberofdaystraveled
servesasahintfordistance,butnotknowinginwhichdirectionthejourneyheadedandwhereandhowoftenthe
directionchangedleavesabroadmarginoferrorforpossiblegeographicalreconstructions.Asaresult,the
scholarlydebateislively,andthelocationofonlyaveryfewoftheHittitetownsmentionedinthetextsisgenerally
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The Plateau: The Hittites
agreedupon(seeMielke,chapter48inthisvolume).
ChronologicalRemarks
ThecontributionsofBealandvandenHoutaswellasBryceinthisvolumegiveasynopsisofHittitehistoryasit
canbereconstructedfromtheevidenceofancientwrittensources.Unfortunately,fieldarchaeologyhasnotkept
pacewiththehistoricalstudies.Inviewofthisready-to-usemodel,whichhasconstantlybeenrefinedformore
thanacenturybyscoresofphilologistsandhistorians,archaeologistsworkingatHittitesiteshavealwaystriedto
adjustandhavetoolongrefrainedfromdevelopinganindependentschemeinreconstructingthe“archaeological
history”ofthesecondmillenniumB.C.E.(Schoop2008:35).Ofcourse,thecorrelationofdocumentedhistorical
eventsandarchaeologicalevidenceisaproblem.Onlyafewinstancesofbuilding,destruction,conquest,orthe
likementionedintheancienttextscanbeidentifiedinanexcavation.ThisisallthemoretruebecauseHittitefield
archaeologistshaveworked—andstillareworking—toalargeextentalmostexclusivelywithrelativedating.Only
inrecentyearshaveabsolutedatingmethodslikeradiocarbondatinganddendrochronologybeenemployedat
someexcavations,yieldingeye-openingresults(Mielke,Schoop,andSeeher2006,andesp.Mielke2006;Schoop
andSeeher2006;Yakar2002,andYakar,chapter4inthisvolume).Thebestexampleistheredatingofmuchof
thehistoryofdevelopmentofthecapitalḪattuša(Seeher2006).
Inthemeantime,Hittitearchaeologystruggleswithaconfusingterminologyandchronology.Intheearlyyears,it
wasacommonpracticeatarchaeologicalprojectstodistinguishbetweenOldKingdomandNewKingdomorEmpire
periodlayers,thusfollowingthephilologicaldistinctionbetweenOldHittiteandanEmpireperiodscript.Later,
however,aMiddleHittitescriptwasidentifiedandbecameatoolfortheunderstandingofhistoricaleventsofthe
fifteenthandfourteenthcenturiesB.C.E.Similarly,theprogressofresearchonarchaeologicalsitesshowstheneed
forafurtherdistinction—MiddleHittitehasbeenpostulated,althoughitisstillill-defined(A.Müller-Karpe2003).
Nowadays,somescholarsdousethisasabasisfortheseparationoftheOldKingdom–MiddleKingdom–Empire
periods,butotherssticktothetwo-stagescheme(overview:Dinçol2006).TheEmpireperiodisunderstoodby
sometobeginwiththeaccessiontothethroneofTudḫaliyaI,whereasothersprefertoapplythisdesignationwith
theaccessionofŠuppiluliumaIhalfacenturylater.Additionalconfusionisbroughtaboutbythefactthatthetwostagesupportersandthethree-stagesupportersdonotallusethesamedivisions,andevenageneralconsensus
onthesequenceofHittitekingsisnotinsight—forexample,theauthenticityofasecondḪattušiliandathird
Tudḫaliyaisdebated.Finally,theexistenceoflong,middle,andshortchronologiesaddsfurtherfueltoscholarly
debateandconfusion(Yakar2002;seeBeal,chapter26inthisvolume).
ThebeginningoftheHittitekingdomfollowsthecollapseofthekārumperiodnetworkofAssyriantradecolonies.
Conflagrationshavebeenobservedatvarioussites,buttheircontemporaneityisasuppositionbasedonthe
knowledgeofhistoricalevents,ratherthanarchaeologicalevidence.Generallyspeaking,theymirroradifficult
periodknowntousfromthecuneiformtextsthatsawthestruggleofvariousgroupsandeventuallytheemergence
oftheḪattikingdombasedatḪattušaandtheareawithinthebendoftheMaraššantiya/KızılIrmakRiver(forthe
politicalhistoryofthiskingdom,seeBeal,chapter26inthisvolume).
TheriseofḪattušaasthecapitalofthekingdomisconventionallydatedtothesecondhalfoftheseventeenth
centuryB.C.E.Toconsolidatetheirrule,Hittitekingsfollowedanactivesettlementpolicythatmeantnotonlythe
maintenanceofexistingsettlementsbutalsothefoundationofnewprovincialcenters.Thebestexampleisthesite
ofKuşaklı,located210kmsoutheastofthecapitalḪattušainwhatwasthencalledtheUpperLand.Foundedinthe
sixteenthcenturyB.C.E.,thiscityhasbeenidentifiedasŠarišša,theseatofalocalking.Temple,officialbuildings,
fortificationsandcitygates,aswellasthematerialcultureingeneralarealmostidenticalwithexamplesfromthe
capitalandprovideevidenceofapowerfulsystemalreadyinplaceatthisearlystage(A.Müller-Karpe2002;see
Mielke,chapter48inthisvolume).
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The Plateau: The Hittites
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Figure16.1 .DistributionofHittiteEmpireperiodstonereliefs.
TheupsanddownsofHittitehistory,aswellastheoscillationofHittitestateterritoryinthecourseoftimereflected
inthecuneiformtexts,cannotyetbetracedinthearchaeologicalrecord—toolittleistheamountofsubstantial
excavationsatHittitesitesinvariouspartsofthecountry.Eventhemostthreateningeventtothesurvivalofthe
Hittitestatestilllacksarchaeologicalconfirmationatmostknownsites,includingḪattuša:theconcentricinvasion
duringthereignofTudḫaliyaIIIaroundthemiddleofthefourteenthcenturyB.C.E.,whenenemyattacksfromalmost
everywhereledtoheavylossesofterritoryandpowerandtheconflagrationofthecapital.Inaddition,the
recoveryofthestateandthemassivedevelopmentofHittiteruleduringtheEmpireperiodis,atleastforthetime
being,reflectedindetailsratherthaninevidenceofsuchphenomenaaswidespreadcitygrowthormonumental
architecture;oneexampleisthecreationofrockreliefs,furnishedwiththenamesofHittitekingsandprinces,in
thethirteenthcenturyB.C.E.(seeHarmanşah,chapter28inthisvolume).Thedistributionofthesekindsof
monuments,togetherwithotherreliefsonstonestelaiandarchitecturalmonuments,fromAkpınarinthehinterland
ofİzmironthewesterncoastofTurkeytoKarakuyuandKayalıpınarintheeasternpartoftheplateauandtoSirkeli
andHemiteinCilicia,southoftheTaurusrange,reflectsthesizeoftheempireasitisalsoknownfromthetexts
(figure16.1).Thevariationofthematerialcultureinthisvastterritory,however,isasyetlittleknownandfarfrom
beinganinstrumenttodefineculturaldevelopments,provinces,orthelike.Finally,ourknowledgeaboutthe
collapseoftheempireandtheendoftheLateBronzeAgearound1200/1180B.C.E.isbasedalmosttotallyon
textualevidenceaswell.Thismeansweknowalmostnothingaboutthereasonsandthecourseofeventsthatled
tothedisappearanceoftheHittitesfromthecentralplateau.SomeEmpireperiodsiteshaveyieldedevidenceof
fierydestruction,whichmayormaynotrepresentextensiveconflagrationsandwhichmayormaynothavetobe
assignedtoasingleperiodandasinglereason.AlthoughthefewEarlyIronAgesitesidentifiedsofarhaveyielded
apronouncednon-Hittitematerialculture(KealhoferandGrave,chapter18inthisvolume),itseemslikelythat
thesenewcomerswerenotconquerorsbutsimplysettlerswhotookadvantageofdesertedlandscapes.Asound
archaeologicalbasisforthereconstructionofthefateofHittitecitiesandsettlementsontheplateauisstillmissing.
SitesofInterest
WhatisthearchaeologicalbasisforourknowledgeoftheHittites?Duetoitsextentandlongduration,the
excavationsinthecapital(Mielke,chapter48inthisvolume)haveprovidedthemainpillarinalmosteveryrespect
forthereconstructionofHittiteculture:fromcuneiformtextstoarchitecturalmonumentsandtofindsofall
categories.Besidesthis,excavationsandsurveysofsettlementmoundsontheAnatolianplateauhavealmost
inevitablyyieldedlayersandfindsoftheHittiteperiod,thuswitnessingthewideextentofHittitematerialculture.
TogiveanideaofarchaeologicalinvestigationsatHittitesitesitisstillappropriatetoseparateOldHittitefromthe
Empireperiod.Furtherbreakdowninchronologicalperiodsisdesirable,butnotfeasibleduetothedisparate
characteroftheevidencepresentlyavailable.Tofacilitategeographicalorientation,thefollowingdescriptionof
sitescomprisesdistancesfromthecapitalḪattušaasthecrowflies.
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Figure16.2 .SphinxGateatAlacaHöyük.
Veryclosetothecapital,EskiyaparandAlacaHöyük(respectivelytwentyandtwenty-fivekilometersnortheastof
Ḫattuša)aretwomoundswithlongsettlementtraditions,whichalsoyieldedsubstantialremainsoftheHittiteperiod.
IntheEmpireperiod,AlacaHöyükwasfurnishedwithsomeofthefinestexamplesofHittiterockart—theSphinx
Gatewithrowsoforthostats(figure16.2),whichadornedtheentrancetoacentraldistrictfurnishedwithofficial
buildings,theso-calledtemplepalace.AlacaHöyükisacandidateforthelocationoftheHittitecultcitiesofArinna
orZippalanda,butunequivocalproofisstillmissing(seeMielke,chapter48inthisvolume).
TheHittitesettlementatOrtaköy,situatedsomesixtykilometersnortheastofḪattuša,hasbeenidentifiedwith
Šapinuwa(Süel2008).Heretheremainsofmonumentalbuildingshavebeenunearthed,togetherwithseveral
thousandfragmentsofcuneiformtablets—thelargestcollectionoutsideofthecapital.Thefoundationdateofthis
townclosetothenorthernborderofthekingdom,aswellasitssettlementhistory,remaininthedark,butitseems
tohavebeeninhabiteduntiltheendoftheEmpireperiod(seeMielke,chapter48inthisvolume).
TheHittitestatedidnothavecloserelationswiththeBlackSealittoralduringmostofitsexistence.Initially,the
wholeofthePonticregionseemstohavebeenunderOldHittiterule(V.Müller-Karpe2001).Laterhowever,various
groupsmovedin,andlocaltribesgainedstrength,whichmadetheHittitesretreatasfarasthesouthernlimitsof
thePonticMountains.ThenewinhabitantsoftheseregionsweretheKaška,acollectivetermforaloose
conglomerateoftribesalwaysreadytoharryorevendeeplyinvadetheborderzonesoftheempireinmomentsof
weakness;duringthetimeofTudḫaliyaIII,KaškanswereevenabletoinvadetheHittitehomelandasfarasthe
southernbendoftheMaraššantiyaRiver(Bryce1998:158–65;seeBeal,chapter26inthisvolume).ImportantOld
HittitecultcentersinthisPonticregion,likeZalpaandNerik,werelostafterKaškaattacks,onlytoberegainedand
restoredduringtheEmpireperiodwhenthenorthcameonceagainunderHittitecontrolthroughvassaltreaties.
Variousideashavebeenputforwardonthelocalizationofthesetwotowns,butproofisstillmissing.Recentlya
newprojectinsearchofNerikhasbeenlaunchedatthelargemoundofOymaağaçtepe,some150kmnortheastof
Ḫattušaand50kmsouthoftheBlackSeashoreline(CzichonandKlinger2006).Nevertheless,Hittite
archaeologicalremainsoftheEmpireperiodinthenortharerare—althoughnotasrareastheyonceseemed
(GlatzandMatthews2005)—whichcertainlypointstothefactthatthenorthwasnotthefocusofHittiteattention.
Unappealingenvironmentalconditionsforlivingandeconomyontheonehandandthelackofpromising
destinationsbeyondthemountainsontheotherarelikelytobethereason.
Lookinginamoreeasterlydirection,amajorsiteisMaşatHöyük,lyingatadistanceof100kmfromthecapital
(Özgüç1978,1982).AlreadyinhabitedinthekārumandOldHittiteperiod,thissettlementwasHittiteTapigga,
whichgainedspecialimportancelaterwhenitbecametheseatofagovernoroftheborderprovinceoftheempire
—animportantoutpostinthefightagainsttheKaškapeople.Excavatedremainscompriseapalace-likebuildingin
LevelIIIwithasubstantialcollectionofMiddleHittitecuneiformtablets,whichhaveaddedmuchtoourknowledgeof
theorganizationofHittiteruleinthispartofthecountry(seeBeal,chapter26,andMielke,chapter48inthis
volume).
Seventykilometerstothesoutheastofthecapital,stillwithintheHittitecorearea,liesthemoundofAlişarHöyük
(Gorny1995).Excavatedalreadyinthe1920sand1930s,thishugeprehistorictellisoneofthemainreference
sitesfortheLateChalcolithic/EarlyBronzeAge(EBA)incentralAnatolia.Alongfortificationwallwithcasemates
andgatessurroundingtheterracebelowthemoundisthehallmarkoftheOldHittiteperiodonthissite.Asfaras
canbeascertained,thisistheearliestHittitecitywalldetectedsofarandtypologicallyaprecursoroftheoldest
fortificationatḪattuša.Afteradestructionlevel,thesettlementseemstohavelingered,onamuchsmallerscale,
possiblywithoutfortification,duringtheEmpireperiod.ThissitepossiblyistobeidentifiedasHittiteAnkuwa,butas
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The Plateau: The Hittites
withmostHittitecities,otheridentificationshavebeenputforward,andAnkuwahasalsobeensoughtelsewhere.
ThesameistruefortheneighboringsettlementmoundofÇadırHöyük,thirteenkilometersnorthwestofAlişar
Höyük,whichisconsideredbyitsexcavatorstobeacandidatefortheHittitecityofZippalanda(Gorny1997).
ThesiteofKültepe,justsouthoftheKızılIrmak/MaraššantiyaRiverandabout155kmtothesoutheastofḪattuša,
hadbeenthepowerfulhubofcentralAnatoliaduringthekārumperiodandthusanearlycenterofHittiteculture
(seeKulakoğlu,chapter47,andMichel,chapter13inthisvolume).However,itsrulerslostthecompetitionfor
dominanceduringtheformationoftheHittitestate,andKültepewasdeserted.Instead,othercentersaroseinthe
east,intheareacalledtheUpperLandbytheHittites(Gurney2003).Excavatedinrecentyearswithmodern
methods,theabove-mentionedKuşaklı/ŠariššahasbecomeanimportantsiteinHittitearchaeology.Thisprovincial
centerandcultsitedidnotescapedestructionduringtheyearsofturmoilinthefourteenthcenturyB.C.E.,butitwas
soonrevivedandcontinuedtoserverightdowntotheendoftheEmpireperiod.Onlyaboutfiftykilometers
northwestofthissite,anotherHittitetowniscurrentlybeingexcavatedatKayalıpınar(A.Müller-Karpe2006).The
remainsofmonumentalbuildings,togetherwithcuneiformtablets,provetheimportanceofthisplace,whichisa
possiblecandidatefortheHittitetownofŠamuḫa—astrongholdfortheHittitekingintheUpperLandduringthetime
whenmuchofthecoreareaofthekingdomwasbesiegedanddestroyedbyenemyattacksduringthefourteenth
centuryB.C.E.
TheeasternlimitsoftheHittitekingdomaredifficulttoestablish.TheregioneastoftheUpperLand,thatis,eastof
SivasandtheupperKızılIrmak,isaruggedterrainformedbythemergingrangesofthePonticandtheTaurus
Mountains.Aharshclimaterestrictseffectiveagriculturalactivitiestoafewplains,andtheHittitesdidnotspend
muchefforttoexpandintothesepartsofthecountry.However,sitesintheMalatya-ElazığregionlikeArslantepe
(Frangipane,chapter45inthisvolume),Korucutepe(vanLoon1980),İmikuşağı(Konyar2006),orNorşuntepe
(Korbel1985),thatis,370–450kmsoutheastofḪattuša,displayHittitefeaturesbothinarchitectureandmaterial
culture.Sealimpressionsandtextualevidence,however,makeitclearthatthisisbasicallytheterritoryofIššuwa,
aneighboringcountrythatonlylaterbecamepartoftheempire,butwhichhadadoptedHittiteculturalelements
fromveryearlytimesonward.
IfwenowturnwestwardfromthecapitalḪattuša,thesiteofİnandıkmustbementioned(Özgüç1988).Situated
about100kmnorthwestofḪattuša,thissettlementmoundwasoccupiedfromtheEBAtotheIronAgeandyielded
substantiallayersfromtheOldHittiteperiod.Afewhundredmeterstothewestofthesiteproper,alarge
multiroomedbuildingcomplexwasfoundsittingonaridge.Destroyedinaviolentconflagration,auniqueOldHittite
cultinventorywaspreservedinitsruins.Itconsistedofmanyvesselsofsuperbmake,amongthemthefamous
İnandıkvasewithreliefdepictionofcultscenes.ArathersimilarsituationwasencounteredatYörüklü/Hüseyindede
someforty-fivekilometersnorthwestofthecapitalḪattuša.Here,too,burnedOldHittitebuildingremainsyielded
cultvessels,twoofthemwithreliefdecoration(Sipahi2000;Yıldırım2000,2006).Asatİnandık,thisbuildingalso
stoodseparatefromthesettlement.ThisisatypicalfeatureofHittitecultpractice,whichisalsoreflectedinthe
cuneiformtexts;inadditiontotemplessituatedwithinthecities,sanctuarieswerealsoerectedinthecountryside.
AperfectcounterpartforthereliefvasesfromİnandıkandYörüklü/HüseyindedecomesalsofromthesiteofBitik,a
hugesettlementmound170kmwestofḪattuša(Özgüç1957).Thisisthewesternmostappearanceofthiskindof
OldHittitecultvessel.Theexcavationsatthesitehavebeenverylimited,buttheyseemtohaveyielded
substantialOldHittiteperiodlayers.Furthertothewest,siteslikeGordion(Mellink1956),Ilıca(Orthmann1967),
Yanarlar(Emre1978),Çavlum(Bilgen2005),andDemircihöyük(Seeher2000)haveyieldedcemeteries(thelatter
alsoasettlement)thatcanbedatedatleastpartiallytotheOldHittiteperiod;atthepresentstateofinvestigationit
isnotclearhowmuchthiswesternpartoftheplateauwasundertheinfluenceofHittiterule.Accordingtothe
textualevidence,thisarealayoutsideofitsrealmatthattime,butparallelsinthematerialcultureareobviousand
provecloseconnections.ExcavatedsiteswithEmpireperiodmaterial,however,arerare—Gordionisoneexample,
andsherdsandasealimpressionfromŞarhöyük/Dorylaionconstituteanother(Darga2004).Apparently,this
northernpartofwesterninnerAnatoliawasabackwaterduringmostoftheLateBronzeAge.
Politicallymuchmoreimportantwasitssoutherncounterpart.Accordingtotheirtexts,manyoftheHittitekings
initiatedmilitaryactionsinthewesternrangesofthehighlandsandbeyond,sometimeseventowardtheAegean
shoreline.EspeciallyduringthetimeoftheEmpire,raidsinthewestseemtohavebeenroutine.Thelackof
excavations,however,deprivesusofthepossibilityofbetterunderstandingthebasisofHittiteexpansioninthis
direction.SurveysinthedrystepperegionaroundandsouthoftheTuzGölü(SaltLake)haveyieldedextremely
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The Plateau: The Hittites
fewsites,whichistobeexpectedduetotheunfavorableconditionsforagriculturallybasedsettlements.Further
southinthefertileKonyaPlainvarioussurveyshaveyieldedanabundanceofsiteswithoccupationintheMiddle
andLateBronzeAge,buttheonlysiteofthisperiodwhichhasbeenexcavatedtoacertainextentisKarahöyük
nearKonya.Thislargemoundwasthesiteofafortifiedkārumperiodsettlement,butafterthisitseemstohave
beendeserted.
Fromtheeconomicpointofview,theregionbeyondthewesternpartoftheplateauwasnotofmuchinteresttothe
Hittites.Fromthepoliticalpointofview,however,thispartofAnatoliawasanotherbufferzonethatwasunder
constantthreatfromcountriesoccupyingthevalleysandcoastalareas,aboveallArzawa—anenemywhichhad
beenabletooverrunlargepartsofwesternAnatoliareachingasfarassoutheasternCappadociainthefourteenth
centuryB.C.E.ToprotectthiswesternflankoftheHittitemainlanditwasmandatorytofight,createalliances,and
signvassaltreaties.Furthermore,thiswasalsoawaytowardoffanotherpotentialenemy:theAhhiyawans,who
ruledtheAegeanSeaandwerekeenonextendingtheirinfluenceontotheAnatolianmainland(seeBryce,chapter
15,andBeal,chapter26inthisvolume).Theywouldnothavehadthemeanstoinvadethehighlands,butcertainly
theyhadenoughpotentialtocreateunrestinthewesternprovincesoftheempire.
Finally,theextensionandorientationoftheHittiterealmtowardthesouthwasclearlydominatedbyapronounced
economic—andthusalsopolitical—interest,verysimilartotheprecedingkārumperiod,whichsawthe
establishmentoftheAssyriantradecolonynetwork(seeMichel,chapter13inthisvolume).BeyondtheTaurus
RangelayKizzuwatnawithaccesstothelandroutestothenorthernLevantandMesopotamiabutalsotothe
seabornetradealongtheshoresoftheeasternMediterranean.TheseresourcesfosteredtheHittitewilltoexpand
inthisdirectiontoguaranteeopentraderoutesandthustheeconomicwelfareofthecountry(seeGates,chapter
17inthisvolume).
TwomainaccessroutesledfromtheLowerLandontheplateauintothesesouthernrealms.Oneledviathevalley
oftheGöksuRiverthroughtheterritoryofTarḫuntašša,whichcoveredthewesternpartoftheTaurusrange.
Perhapsduetothisgeopoliticalsituation,TarḫuntaššawassoimportantthatKingMuwatalliIItemporarilymovedthe
capitalfromḪattušatothiscity,andafewdecadeslateritevenbecame,afterKarkamiš,thesecondviceroyaltyof
theHittiteEmpire.Forthetimebeing,amajorexcavationyieldingHittitelevelshasbeenconductedonlyat
KilisetepenearMut(PostgateandThomas2007).
Thesecondroutewentfurthereast,passingtheTaurusviaapasscalledtheCilicianGates(northofmodern
TarsusintheplainofAdana).Closeby,onthesouthernfringeoftheLowerLandand280kmsouthofḪattuša,sits
thelargemoundofPorsuk-Ulukışla.Thissiteisnotonlyneartothemainaccessroutebetweenthehighlandsand
theharborsintheeasternMediterraneanbutisalsoclosetothesilverminesofBulgarmaden;alreadyintheOld
Hittiteperiodtherearetracesofmetalworkingatthesite.ThefortifiedHittiteEmpireperiodLevelVwasdestroyedin
aconflagrationaroundthebeginningofthetwelfthcenturyB.C.E.
SelectedTopicsofMaterialCulture
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Figure16.3 .BeakspoutedjugfromtheOldHittiteperiod.
TheclassificationofHittitepotteryhasbeenbasedprimarilyonthematerialunearthedinthecapital(Fischer1963;
A.Müller-Karpe1988;ParzingerandSanz1992).However,inrecentyears,newstudiesfromothersites(e.g.,
Mielke2006)andareevaluationofthepotterysequenceatḪattušacurrentlyunderway(Schoop2006)haveled
toamorediversifiedpicture.Generallyspeaking,HittitepotteryisalocalAnatoliandevelopmentthatreflects
clearlythetraditionofthecentralAnatolianEBA/MBA(MiddleBronzeAge)ofthethird/earlysecondmillenniumB.C.E.
Regardingquality,thebestitemsofthiswheelmadepotteryoccurduringtheMBA/OldHittiteperiod;extremelywellmadevesselswithpolishedsurfacesandperfectproportionsareabundant,buteveneverydaywareshowsawill
tocreateavarietyofelegantshapes,adornedwithcoloredshinyslipsandplasticdecorativeelements.The
hallmarkofthisperiodisthebeakspoutedjug(figure16.3),whichoccursinvariousshapesasfinetablewareora
cultvessel,aswellasasimplewaterjugorasalargeprovisioncontainer.
AfterthesixteenthcenturyB.C.E.,adeclineinthequalityofthepotterytowardsimplershapes,poorer
manufacturing,andlessdecorationbecomesobvious,andtheEmpireperiodpotteryischaracterizedbyamass
productionofrathercoarsefabricandisalmostcompletelywithoutdecoration.Thebeakspoutedjugalmost
disappearsfromthearchaeologicalrecord,althoughitstillplaysaprominentroleinthedepictionofculticscenes
onsealsandrockreliefs.Perhapsheremetalvesselsareshown,acategoryoffindsalmostcompletelyabsent
fromthearchaeologicalrecord.
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ThedistributionofHittite-typepotteryindicatesapowerfulregimewhichalreadyintheearlyperiodwasableto
createakindofcommonmaterialcultureoverlargestretchesofcentralAnatolia.IntheEmpireperiod,an
extremelyconsistentpotteryproductionfromCiliciainthesouthtothePonticMountainsinthenorthisdiscernible:
acleartraceofastateorganizationwithcentralizedcontroloftheproductionanddistributionofgoods.
ThedevelopmentofinternationalrelationsbytheHittitesalsoledtotheimportationofcertaincategoriesofpottery
intothehighlands.Themostobviousexamplesarespindlebottles,highslenderjugswithadisc-shapedbase,long
neck,anddelicatehandle.Thoughttobecontainersforperfumedoilorthelike,theycanbefoundateveryHittite
sitedatingtothefifteenthtotwelfthcenturyB.C.E.,buttheircenterofproductionissoughtinCyprus(Knappettetal.
2005).AnotherexampleistherareoccurrenceofMycenaeanpotteryofthefourteenth/thirteenthcenturyB.C.E.in
thehighlands,forexample,atḪattuša,MaşatHöyük/Tapigga,andKuşaklı/Šarišša,likelytobeimportedthroughthe
harborsintheCilicianPlainorthenorthernLevant(Genz2004;seeBryce,chapter15inthisvolume).
AmongthesmallfindsfromHittitesettlements,lumpsofclaywiththeimpressionsofthesealsofHittiteofficialsand
kings,theso-calledbullae,formaprominentpart.Foundbythethousands,theywereonceattachedtoletters,
contracts,consignmentsofgoods,andeventothelockingboltsofcitygates.ThetypicalHittitesealisthestamp
seal,madeofmetal,stone,orivory(figures16.4a,16.4b).Itwaseitherfurnishedwithahandleorwasdisc-or
button-shaped.Sealringsarerare,andcylinderseals,socommonintheprecedingkārumperiod,arealmost
nonexistent.UsuallyaHittitesealdisplaysthenameandfunctionofitsbearerinLuwianhieroglyphics,but
especiallyontheroyalsealsthenameandgenealogyofthekingaregivenincuneiformaswell.Thismakesseal
impressionsapowerfultoolforchronologicalissuesinHittitearchaeology.Butthereisalsoaformaldevelopment:
earlysealshaveahandleandaflatsealsurface,whichoftendisplaysaringofornamentalbandsaroundthe
center,wherethenameofthebeareriswritten(figure16.4c).Inthecourseoftime,patternschangeandtwofacedsealscomeintofashion—flat,disc-shapedseals,plano-convexsealswithoneflatandoneconvexsurface,
andeventuallyknob-shapedbiconvexseals(figure16.4d).
Especiallyduringthelasttwocenturies,thesealsoftheHittitekingssawavividdevelopment.Insomecases
idealizedrepresentationsofthesealholderorofagod—andsometimesboth—wereincorporatedintheseal
design(figure16.4e).Atthesametime,monumentalversionsofsuchdepictionsofkings,princes,andgodswere
pickedintorockfaçadesinvariouspartsofthecountry,thusforminganewgenreofart(seeHarmanşah,chapter
28inthisvolume).
Incontrast,mostothersmallfindshavenotbeenfoundinsufficientnumberstooutweightheshortcomingsof
insufficientstratigraphicobservationsintheexcavations—manyitemsseemtobestartlinglylong-lived,eventhose
withnonfunctionaldecorativeelementsthatareelsewhereeasilysubjecttofashionandchangeovertime.Here
thelackofburials(seelaterdiscussion)ispainfullyfeltandleavesuswithlittlemeanstochangethissituation
quickly.Chancefindsandbetterexcavationtechniqueswilleventuallyleadtoamoredifferentiatedpicture.
Objectsofmetalareextremelyunderrepresentedinthearchaeologicalrecordbecausetheyweremostlyrecycled.
However,thedescriptionsofobjectsinHittitetextsandafewchancefindslikethedecoratedaxfromŞarkışlaor
thesilverandbronzerhytaprovideuswithaglimpseoftheexcellenceofHittitesmiths(Aruz,Benzel,andEvans
2008:179–84).Hittitemetallurgywasstateoftheart,andalthoughexcavationsinHittitesettlementshaveyielded
almostnoobjectofiron,theirtextsshowthatthismetalwasinusefromthebeginningofHittiterule;duringtheOld
Kingdom,preciousironwasexclusivelyusedforsymbolsofpower,thatis,throne,scepter,andcultobjects.Inthe
Empireperiodweaponsofironarementionedforthefirsttime,buttheytoomusthavebeenratherrareandbyfar
outnumberedbyweaponsofbronze(Siegelová2005).
Anintriguingexampleofchangecanbeseenwithobjectsusedforweaving;whereasspindlewhorlsandcrescentshapedloomweightsarewellknownfromOldHittitecontexts(andcanbetracedbacktoEBAorigins),theyseem
todisappearmoreorlesscompletelyduringtheEmpireperiod.Itistemptingtointerpretthisasproofforachange
ineconomy,thatis,clothwasnolongerproducedbutratherbroughtinfromsomewhereelse.Moreprobable,
though,isachangeintechnology—thesameworkwasaccomplishedinadifferentwaywithadifferentsetoftools
whichleftnotraceinthearchaeologicalrecord.
Burials
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The Plateau: The Hittites
ThenumberofHittiteburialsdiscoveredthusfarisverylimited,andasfarascanbeascertainedalmostallofthem
belongtotheOldHittiteperiod.ThislackofevidenceisaseriousproblemforthereconstructionofHittitespiritual
andreligiousbeliefsandcustoms;atthesametime,thelackofgravesalsomeanstheabsenceofgravegoods,
thatis,accumulationsofobjectsthatwerelaiddownatthesametimeandthuscanhelpestablishreliable
chronologicalschemesforthedevelopmentofavarietyofobjects.Thisisaseriousdrawbackwhichdistinguishes
Hittitearchaeologyfromthatoftheprecedingandthefollowingeras,nottomentionotherculturalcontexts.
ThepresentevidenceshowsthattheHittitesusedtoburytheirdeadextramurally;onlyoccasionallyhaveburials
beenencounteredwithinsettledareas,oftenchildrenwhomayhavebeenconsideredunfittobeburiedfaraway
fromhome.
TheOldHittiteburialsshowaclearcontinuationofEBAcustoms;thedeadareusuallyburiedinaflexed“Hocker”
positioninlargevessels(pithoi),simplestonecists,orpitswithorwithoutstonelining,sometimescoveredwith
partsofpotteryvessels.Graveofferings,suchasoneorseveralvessels(mostlyjugs),andanoccasionalobjectof
metal,clay,orbone,aretherule.Theintermentofthebodieslyingontheirbacks,asitwasobservedin
Kazankaya(Özgüç1978:69–88)andAlişarHöyük(vonderOsten1937:84–108),seemstobealocaldeviation
fromtherule.
Whereassomecemeteriesyieldedonlyinhumations,thereareotherswhereinhumationsarebyfaroutnumbered
bycremations.AtBoğazköy/Osmankayasıaminimumofseventy-onecremationsputintovesselsandatleast
twenty-twocompleteandpartialinhumationswerefoundinalargegrotto-likenicheinarockoutsideofthecapital
(Bitteletal.1958).AtIlıcaonly4outof131burialsconsistedofinhumations;therestwerecremationsburiedin
vessels(Orthmann1967).Alsothetop(latest)MBAlevelofKonya-Karahöyükyielded,inadditiontoinhumationsin
pithoi,cremationscoveredwithpithossherds(Alp1961).Thecremationofthedeceasedisattestedduringthis
periodforthefirsttimeontheAnatolianplateau.WhetherthisisduetoaninfluencefromacrosstheTaurus
Mountains,wherecremationsdatingtothesecondhalfofthethird/beginningofthesecondmillenniumB.C.E.have
beenexcavatedatGedikli(Duru2006:162–73),isopentodiscussion.
Thecombinedoccurrenceofthesetwodifferentburialcustomsinthesamecemeteryhasledtospeculations
aboutdifferentgroupsofdifferentbeliefsystemsburyingtheirdeadtogether.However,ethnographicstudiesin
differentregionsoftheworldhaveyieldedavastnumberofexampleswherebothcustomsarepracticedbythe
samegroupofpeople—thedifferenceinburialismeanttoperpetuatethedifferentstatusthedeadpersonhad
duringhisorherlife.AgoodproofforthisobservationcomesfromtheMBAcemeteryofDemircihöyük-Sarıket,
whereseveralcremationswerediscoveredtohavebeenputintopreviouslyburiedpithoiwithnormalinhumations
(Seeher1993).
AbigriddleinHittitearchaeologyisthelackofcemeteriesfromtheEmpireperiod.Asfarascanbeascertained,
onlythelatestburialsofthecemeteryatOsmankayasıcanbedatedtothefourteenthcenturyB.C.E.;otherthan
that,fromFerzant(Özgüç1986)andKazankayaeastofḪattušatoDemircihöyük-SarıketandAğızören(Türktüzün
2002)atthenorthwesternrimofthehighlands,alltenorsoknowncemeteriesbelongtotheMBA/OldHittiteperiod.
ItishardtoimaginethatHittiterulehadthemeanstoabolishthiscustomalloverthestatewithinarathershort
spanoftime,becausethewaypeoplelaytheirdeadtorestisanemotionallyloadedritualandcertainlynoteasily
liabletochange.Atthemoment,noanswerisavailable,andasissooftenthecase,theHittitetextsremainsilentin
thismatter.
Conclusion
TheinvestigationofHittiteruleinAnatoliaisdominatedbytheoverwhelmingamountofdatasuppliedbythe
philologicalsources.Untilnow,archaeologicalfieldresearchislimitedtoasmallamountofsites,oftenonly
“tested”ratherthanexcavated.However,weknowthatfromthebeginning,theHittitekingsfollowedanactive
settlementpolicyontheAnatolianplateau.Sitesindisparateareasshowaremarkableuniformityinarchitecture
andmaterialcultureandthusdocumentastrongsystemwithwell-organizedstructuresofproductionand
distribution.Basicallyinlandoriented,theHittitestatemaintainedcloseconnectionstothecoastonlyinsouthern
AsiaMinor,whichmeantaccesstothetraderoutesintheeasternMediterraneanandthenorthernLevant.Theloss
ofthesetraderoutes,togetherwithvariousotherfactors,seemstohaveledtothecollapseoftheempirearound
orshortlyafter1200B.C.E.andtheabandonmentofmany(ifnotall)HittitesettlementsonthecentralAnatolian
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The Plateau: The Hittites
plateau.
ChronologicaldevelopmentsduringthemorethanfourcenturiesofHittiterulecanbeestablishedforsomekindsof
artifacts,whereasothersremainundifferentiatedduetothescarcityofevidence.Generallyspeaking,Hittite
archaeologyisdesperatelyinneedofmodernexcavations,scientificdating,in-depthstudiesofartifactcategories,
andeventuallysolvingtheriddleofthemissinggraves.Thiswillsupplyuswithasecondbasisforthe
reconstructionofHittitechronologyandgeography,independentoftheshortcomingsofcontemporarytextual
evidence,forexample,thechancepreservationofcuneiformtabletsaswellasbiasedrecordingdependentonthe
perspectiveofindividualrulers.
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