Geotechnical Testing Journal, Vol. 35, No. 4
Paper ID GTJ104317
Available online at: www.astm.org
Abouzar Sadrekarimi1 and Scott M. Olson2
Effect of Sample-Preparation Method on
Critical-State Behavior of Sands
ABSTRACT: It is well-known that specimen-preparation method and the resulting sand fabric significantly affect sand behavior. In many
cases, the fabric and behavior of reconstituted sand samples do not represent those of in-situ deposits. Therefore, understanding the influence of
specimen preparation and sand fabric on its behavior, particularly at the critical state, is important for relating the behavior of laboratory reconstituted specimens to in-situ soil response. In this study, the effect of sand fabric and specimen-preparation method on the shearing behavior of three
sands is studied using ring-shear tests. Ring-shear tests are used to reach large shear displacements and determine critical states, particularly for
dense sand specimens. Moist tamping and air pluviation are used to prepare the specimens. The results indicate that the shearing behavior of
sand in ring-shear tests is not only affected by the specimen-preparation method (i.e., sand fabric), but also by particle damage and compressibility.
However, these mechanisms do not affect the critical states at which particle rearrangement and damage are complete and the initial sand fabric is
completely erased.
KEYWORDS: sand, fabric, ring shear, specimen-preparation method, critical state, particle damage.
Introduction
Several methods have been developed to reconstitute specimens
of granular soil in geotechnical laboratories. Moist tamping and
pluviation (through air or water) are among the most popular techniques. Numerous studies (Oda 1972; Ladd 1974; Mulilis et al.
1977; Ishihara 1993; Vaid et al. 1999; Frost and Park 2003;
Yamamuro and Wood 2004) have shown that different specimenpreparation methods result in different soil fabrics and stress–
strain response of reconstituted specimens at small to moderate
shear strain levels.
Studies by Oda (1972) and Ladd (1974) were among the first
attempts to study the effects of the specimen-preparation method
on reconstituted sand behavior. Ladd (1974) observed that the
method of specimen preparation significantly affected the cyclic
shear strength of sand. Similarly, Mulilis et al. (1977) reported
that different specimen-preparation procedures significantly
affected the liquefaction characteristics of sand in undrained
stress-controlled cyclic triaxial compression tests. Zlatovic and
Ishihara (1997) performed undrained triaxial compression tests on
loose silty sands and found that the shear response depended significantly on the preparation method. However, nearly all earlier
studies of the effect of specimen-preparation method on criticalstate behavior involved loose sands sheared to limited shear displacements under undrained conditions using triaxial devices.
Studies investigating the effects of different specimen-preparation
methods on the stress–strain response of sand sheared in plane
Manuscript received September 6, 2011; accepted for publication February
13, 2012; published online July 2012.
1
Ph.D., Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of Western
Ontario, London, ON N6A 5B8, Canada, e-mail: [email protected]
2
Ph.D., P.E., Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of
Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801, e-mail: [email protected]
strain to very large shear displacements are rare, even though
many field problems (e.g., cone penetration testing, pile driving,
slope failures, and liquefaction flow failures) commonly involve
large shear displacements. Therefore, the effects of specimenpreparation method and sand fabric on the plane-strain response
of sand at large shear displacements and whether the critical states
obtained from specimens prepared by one method could be
extended to specimens prepared by other methods are poorly
understood. In particular, the particle fabric of laboratory sand
specimens may not resemble the fabric of natural soil deposits.
The main objective of this paper is to illustrate the effects of
specimen-preparation method and sand fabric on critical-state
behavior. A suite of ko-consolidated, large displacement ring-shear
tests are conducted on three different sands prepared by moist
tamping (MT) and air pluviation (AP), and the results are compared and discussed. These two reconstitution methods yield distinctly different sand fabrics (as reflected in the stress-displacement
responses). Note that “fabric” is used here to describe the arrangement of sand particles of all sizes, shapes, and associated pores,
whereas “structure” describes the combination of fabric and bonding, i.e., interparticle forces including cementation, electrostatic
and electromagnetic attractions, or any other force that holds particles together (Lambe and Whitman 1969; Mitchell 1993).
Testing Program
We selected three sands for this study: Ottawa 20/40 sand (OT),
an Illinois River sand (IR), and a Mississippi River sand (MR).
Figure 1 presents average particle size distributions of these sands.
OT sand is a commercially available, medium to coarse grained,
uniform, clean, pure quartz sand with rounded particles from
Ottawa, IL. It has a specific gravity (Gs) of 2.63, and maximum
(emax) and minimum (emin) void ratios of 0.679 and 0.391,
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GEOTECHNICAL TESTING JOURNAL
respectively. IR sand is a fine to coarse grained, uniform, clean, alluvial sediment from the Illinois River, with Gs ¼ 2.63,
emax ¼ 0.757, and emin ¼ 0.464. IR sand particles are rounded to
sub-rounded, and consist primarily of quartz with traces of muscovite, chlorite, and hematite (Mueller 2000). MR sand is a very fine
grained alluvial silty sand with an average fines content of 38 %
that we sampled near Cape Girardeau, MO. It has subangular to
sub-rounded particles, and contains about 70 % albite, 21 %
quartz (both determined by x-ray diffraction technique), and 5 %
calcite (determined by acid dissolution method). It has Gs ¼ 2.65,
emax ¼ 1.038, and emin ¼ 0.563. We used ASTM (2006) to determine Gs and the procedure described by Yamamuro and Lade
(1997) to consistently evaluate emax and emin because the relatively high fines content of MR sand precludes the use of ASTM
standards. In this method, we obtained emin by placing approximately 50 g of sand into a graduated cylinder and tapping on the
sides of the cylinder with a rubber mallet. This procedure was
repeated until 800 g of sand was deposited in the graduated cylinder and the volume of the sand was then read to determine emin.
Maximum void ratio was then obtained by covering the end of the
cylinder by a cardboard sheet and turning it upside down and
back again with very slow motion (about 45–60 s). The new volume of the sand was read to obtain emax. These methods were
repeated three times for each sand, and the average void ratios are
reported for each sand.
Specimen-Preparation Methods
We used both air-pluviation and moist-tamping methods to prepare ring-shear specimens. Moist-tamped specimens of MR sand
deformed excessively during preparation and the application of
the initial seating pressure before shearing, and, therefore, the majority of MR sand specimens were prepared by air pluviation.
Moist tamping simulates cases where moist sand is dumped as
a fill and subsequently submerged as the water table rises (Olson
et al. 2000; Chu and Leong 2003), or loess soils formed by slow
dry aggradation of windborne dust held in a loose state by means
of pore water suction (Dijkstra et al. 1994). We used the moisttamping method to obtain very loose specimens that would exhibit
entirely contractive and strain-softening behavior. In this method,
we thoroughly mixed dry sand with 5 % water (of the weight of
FIG. 1—Average particle size distributions of test sands.
dry sand), and then poured and gently tamped the moist sand in
20 layers into the specimen mold. This moisture content developed a capillary force among sand particles that produced a stable
sand fabric at very large void ratios and kept the specimen shape
once the split mold was removed. As a result, some moist-tamped
specimens of OT sand were prepared at void ratios larger than
emax (determined by pluviating dry sand into a cylinder) and thus
yielded negative initial relative densities (Drc). To improve bonding between successive layers, the upper surface of each layer was
scarified prior to the placement of the next layer. Air pluviation on
the other hand is considered to replicate the natural alluvial and
marine depositional processes (Vaid et al. 1999). In the airpluviation method used in this study, we poured dry sand into a
funnel attached to a tube that rested on the bottom of the specimen
mold. Then we slightly raised the tube to deposit sand particles
with nearly zero drop height in a circular motion. This technique
produced the loosest possible fabric using air pluviation (Ishihara
1993) and minimized segregation between the fine and coarse particles in MR sand specimens. Denser air-pluviated specimens
were formed by increasing the pluviation height or by gently tapping on the sides of the mold after pluviation.
Specimen Uniformity
Density variation and void ratio non-uniformities exist in both
moist-tamped and air-pluviated specimens. In the early development of the moist-tamping method, specimens were prepared in a
number of layers of equal dry weight, and each layer was compacted to the same target density. This typically resulted in the
lower portion of the specimen becoming denser than the global
specimen density as compaction of each overlying layer also
slightly densified the underlying layers (Mulilis et al. 1977). In this
study, we used under-compaction as proposed by Ladd (1974) to
achieve a relatively uniform density throughout the specimen. In
this method, each sand layer was compacted slightly looser than
the target global density so that the final density of each layer,
even with the effects of compaction of the successive overlying
layers, would be equal to the target global density. Despite the
improvements in preparing moist-tamped specimens, several studies (Vaid and Negussey 1988; Vaid et al. 1999; Frost and Park
2003) have shown that void ratio distribution in pluviated specimens is generally more uniform than moist-tamped samples.
Regardless of specimen-preparation method, it is practically
impossible to eliminate non-uniform density distribution within
sand specimens (Gilbert and Marcuson 1988). Even after carefully
preparing a specimen, leveling the specimen surface prior to placing the upper platen densifies the upper portion of both airpluviated and moist-tamped specimens, causing additional specimen non-uniformity. In this study, we assessed specimen uniformity for both preparation methods by preparing a number of
specimens in four lifts and measuring the weight and height of the
sand deposited in each lift and at different locations along the circumference of the ring-shear specimens. We observed that the
void ratio of an individual lift deviated by less than 5 % from the
average void ratio of the entire specimen for both moist-tamping
and air-pluviation methods (Sadrekarimi 2009).
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SADREKARIMI AND OLSON ON EFFECT OF SAMPLE-PREPARATION
Ring-Shear Tests
In a ring-shear test, an annular specimen is confined between inner
and outer rings and is sheared at its bottom surface (or top, or midheight depending on the configuration and fixity of the rings). A
fixed platen on a specimen’s top surface measures soil shear resistance. Sadrekarimi and Olson (2009) summarize the advantages
that the ring-shear test provides for measuring the large displacement shearing resistance of sands. We performed constant volume
and drained ring-shear tests using the solid confining rings-type
ring-shear apparatus designed and built at the University of Illinois
(Sadrekarimi 2009; Sadrekarimi and Olson 2009). The University
of Illinois ring-shear apparatus has a ring-shaped specimen chamber with inner (Ri) and outer (Ro) radii of 10.2 cm and 13.5 cm,
respectively, and a height of 2.6 cm. The ratio of the outer to inner
specimen diameter is 1.33, which results in an error of less than
2 % in measuring peak shear strength caused by shear strain nonuniformity and progressive mobilization of peak shear strength
(Sadrekarimi 2009). The wide sample section (3.3 cm) further minimizes wall friction effects. The mode of shearing in this ring-shear
device is similar to a plane strain mode of simple shear and reasonably represents conditions in many geotechnical field situations,
such as some landslides, embankments, soils beneath strip footings, and behind retaining structures. All ring-shear tests were performed on dry air-pluviated or moist-tamped specimens, in which
the specimen was not saturated. In these tests, each sand sample
was deposited in the ring-shaped specimen mold of the apparatus,
and the dry mass and height of the specimen were measured to
define specimen global void ratio at an average precision
of 6 0.007 (Sadrekarimi 2009). Specimens were compressed to the
target consolidation normal stress (r0 nc) and sheared in either constant volume or drained conditions at a speed of 18.6 cm/min. As
these specimens were not saturated, primary consolidation (as a
result of particle rearrangement and reorientation) was complete
within few seconds after the application of the normal load. A constant volume was imposed after the application of r0 nc by locking
the loading platens of the apparatus against vertical movement,
and shearing was applied by rotating the bottom platen, which was
deeply serrated to prevent particle slippage. For drained testing,
the upper loading platen was left free to move up and down as the
specimen dilated or contracted, respectively. A load cell measured
the total normal force (Ft) applied on the specimen and a torque
cell measured the shearing torque resisted by the sand specimen at
its upper surface (Tt). Secondary load and torque cells measured
normal force (Fu) and shearing torque (Tu) carried by the sand
above the shear band at its contact with the confining rings. Normal force (Fsb) and shearing torque (Tsb) on the shear band were
then calculated by deducting Fu and Tu (of the sand above the
shear band) from Ft and Tt, respectively. Assuming uniform distributions for the average shear (s) and normal (r0 n) stresses on the
shear band, these stresses were calculated from the following relationships (La Gatta 1970; Bishop et al. 1971):
s¼
3Tsb
2p R3o R3i
(1)
Fsb
p R2o R2i
(2)
r0n ¼
3
Values of s and r0 n on the failure surface were measured as principal stresses are not controlled or measured in ring-shear tests. As
described above, s and r0 n were calculated from direct measurements of total and friction forces and torques in the ring-shear
tests, and auxiliary load and torque cells measured any friction
along the confining rings (Sadrekarimi and Olson 2009). Sadrekarimi and Olson (2009) provide further details of the ring-shear
device, specimen preparation, testing methods, and device
calibration.
A linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) was used to
measure the vertical movement of the upper loading platen, and
shear displacement was obtained from the rotation of the specimen chamber measured by the driving motor encoder. Shear localization and shear banding occurred in the ring-shear tests after
about 0.5 cm of shear displacement (Sadrekarimi and Olson
2010c). Local void ratio within the shear band (esb) changes significantly after shear band formation (whereas the global void ratio remains constant), and thus the void ratio inside the thin shear
band should be measured and used to describe the state of the
specimen (Desrues et al. 1996; Finno et al. 1996; Frost and Jang
2000). To observe and quantify this local behavior, indirect methods have been used, such as x-ray computed tomography (Desrues
et al. 1996) and stereophotogrammetry (Finno et al. 1996).
Although these approaches provide an excellent view of the shear
band within a specimen, there are limitations in the resolution that
can be achieved using these techniques for local volume-change
measurement.
Shear band void ratio changes (i.e., volumetric compression
within the shear band) result from particle damage and rearrangement. During constant volume shear tests, elastic and plastic volumetric strain components are equal but opposite. Thus, particle
damage and rearrangement that produce contractive plastic (irrecoverable) volumetric strains within the shear band, cause r0 n
reduction by elastic rebound of the entire specimen to maintain
the constant volume condition (Jefferies et al. 1990; Vermeer
1990). In ring-shear tests performed with a Plexiglas outer ring
(Sadrekarimi and Olson 2010b), we observed that after shear band
formation, sand within the shear band contracted during shear as a
result of particle rearrangement and damage. In contrast, sand particles above the shear band were stationary and did not experience
any rearrangement/reorientation or damage. Similar observations
have been reported in discrete element models. For example,
Cheng et al. (2008) observed that after shear band formation, particle rearrangement and damage occurred only within the shear
band in discrete element analysis. Similarly, in constant volume
discrete element models, Zhang (2003) observed that the zones
away from the shear band did not show any significant volume
change and localized volume changes occurred only within the
shear band. Therefore, shear-induced volume change was negligible in the sand above the shear band, and it only swelled as r0 n
decreased. Swelling in constant volume ring-shear tests is estimated by changes in r0 n and sand swelling index. This value is
subtracted from the global volume change of the specimen to estimate shear-induced volume change of the shear band. Thus, esb is
estimated as follows:
DVglobal ¼ DVabove þ DVsb
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GEOTECHNICAL TESTING JOURNAL
Vsb Vs;sb DVsb
Vv;sb
esb ¼
¼
Vs;sb
Vs;sb
Vsb Vs;sb DVglobal DVabove
¼
Vs;sb
(4)
where DVglobal ¼ volume change of the entire specimen estimated
from changes in specimen height (resulting from minor system
compliance during constant volume tests, and from shear-induced
volume change in drained tests in response to sand volumetric dilation or contraction); DVabove ¼ swelling of sand above the shear
band as r0 n decreases during shear band contraction in constant
volume ring-shear tests; DVsb ¼ volume change of the shear band;
Vv,sb ¼ volume of voids in the shear band sand; Vs,sb ¼ volume of
sand particles (solids) in the shear band; and Vsb ¼ total volume of
the shear band. In Eq 4, DVabove is estimated by:
0 rn
Vs;above
(5)
DVabove ¼ Cs log 0
r n;sb
where Cs ¼ swelling index ( ¼ De/Dlogr0 n) of the original sand
above the shear band, Vs,above ¼ volume of sand particles above
the shear band, and r0 n,sb ¼ effective normal stress when shear
band forms. We measured swelling indices of 0.0028, 0.0039, and
0.0053 for OT, IR, and MR sands, respectively, in unloading
cycles of one-dimensional compression tests. The most important
advantage of estimating esb analytically using Eq 4 over indirect
techniques (x-ray computed tomography and stereophotogrammetry) is that the sheared sand is not disturbed and esb is calculated
directly from high resolution measurements of the global volume
change of the specimen during shear. However, this method also
introduces some uncertainties with respect to visual measurement
of shear band thickness, and estimating specimen volume change
above the shear band using Eq 5.
For comparison, we also measured esb at the end of some ringshear tests from the weight of sand collected from the shear band
alone and the measured height of the shear band. According to
our comparisons, Eq 4 may underestimate esb up to 3.6 %, 3.2 %,
and 9.0 % in OT, IR, and MR sands, respectively. This error
decreases at larger esb. These small errors are acceptable given the
simplicity of Eq 4, and are likely caused by two factors: (1) difficulties in directly measuring the shear band thickness (particularly
for finer sands with very thin shear bands); and (2) the inevitable
migration of a small volume of the very fine particles of MR silty
sand or the fines produced by crushing of OT and IR sands, into
the mechanical clearances and gaps of the ring-shear specimen
chamber. We also performed a series of pre-production ring-shear
tests on thicker (5.0 cm) specimens that exhibited shear bands of
equal thickness and similar esb to the production ring-shear tests
on 2.6-cm-thick specimens. This further validates Eq 4 for the calculation of esb.
Typical Test Results
Table 1 provides the preparation methods and consolidation conditions for each of the ring-shear tests performed for this study.
Figures 2–13 present typical stress paths, and variations of s, r0 n,
and esb with shear displacement for some of the ring-shear experi-
ments performed in this study. Sadrekarimi and Olson (2009)
present the results of all ring-shear tests listed in Table 1. Moist
tamping creates a collapsible honeycomb sand fabric produced by
capillarity. The collapse of this honeycomb fabric during
undrained or constant volume shear results in rapid pore water
pressure generation, strain-softening, and liquefaction (Casagrande 1975; Sladen et al. 1985; de Gregorio 1990; Vaid et al.
1999). A wide range of consolidation relative densities, ranging
from Drc ¼ 8 % to 39 %, were produced in moist-tamped OT
and IR sand specimens, all of which exhibited strain-softening or
contractive behavior without any strain hardening or dilation.
Careful evaluation of r0 n and esb in contractive specimens (e.g.,
for constant volume and drained ring-shear tests in Fig. 14) indicated that a temporary state of constant r0 n and esb was reached after shear band formation and at shear displacements less than 50
cm, before they continued to decrease as a result of particle crushing. This constant state typically was maintained for about 10 cm
in strain-softening and contractive specimens, corresponding to a
large shear strain (2000 % for OT and IR sand specimens based
on their shear band thickness 0.5 cm), and thus represents the
critical state of the original sand prior to the onset of particle damage (CSo) achieved essentially through particle reorientation/rearrangement (Sadrekarimi and Olson 2011a).
As indicated by values of Drc in Table 1, void ratios looser
than the loosest possible void ratios achieved by air pluviation
and looser than emax were produced by moist tamping. In contrast,
the loosest possible void ratios produced by air pluviation were
denser than emax determined using the Yamamuro and Lade
(1997) approach. Similar to the water-pluviated Fraser River sand
specimens tested in triaxial compression by Vaid and Thomas
(1995), air-pluviated specimens of OT and IR sands all strainhardened or dilated (after a brief initial contraction and before particle crushing occurred) during shearing because of their dense
fabric. However, these specimens exhibited a second phase transformation from dilative to contractive behavior at shear displacements of about 0.60–1.36 cm during constant volume shearing
(e.g., Figs. 2 and 6) as particle damage suppressed dilatancy and
caused strain softening (Sadrekarimi and Olson 2010a). The shear
resistance subsequently decreased and then reached a constant
volume at larger displacements (exceeding 1000 cm). This ultimate plateau corresponds to a large displacement state of constant
s, r0 n, and esb for the crushed sand, termed the crushed sand critical state (CSc) that involves shear band formation and complete
particle damage within the shear band.
As illustrated by the esb changes in Figs. 2–13, particle damage
resulted in markedly contractive behaviors, and even dense airpluviated specimens that experienced particle damage exhibit contracting and strain-softening behavior to the CSc. In this case, very
large shear displacements (>10 ms) were required to exhaust particle damage (by particle crushing producing a broader particle
size distribution and reducing particle contact stresses) and reach
a large-displacement critical state for the damaged sand. This level
of shear displacement in laboratory element tests is only achieved
in a ring-shear device.
Dilative, strain-hardening ring-shear specimens approached CSo
through increasing r0 n (strain-hardening) or increasing esb (dilation). For these specimens, CSo was taken at the maximum r0 n (in
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SADREKARIMI AND OLSON ON EFFECT OF SAMPLE-PREPARATION
5
TABLE 1—Specifications of the ring-shear tests in this study.
a
Drc (%)b
ec
MTOTCV54(1)
389
0.658
7
MTIRDR54
364
0.728
10
MTOTCV21
149
0.697
6
APIRCV82
590
0.612
49
MTOTCV87
MTOTCV63
624
448
0.693
0.669
5
3
APIRCV81
APIRCV17
553
137
0.653
0.717
35
14
MTOTCV54(2)
376
0.701
8
APIRCV94
646
0.676
28
MTOTDR40
MTOTDR4
279
28
0.670
0.584
3
33
APIRCV78
APIRCV41
541
309
0.672
0.634
29
42
MTOTDR38(1)
287
0.689
3
APIRCV45
323
0.617
48
MTOTDR38(2)
APOTCV17
289
120
0.685
0.663
2
6
APIRCV39
APIRDR76
272
490
0.657
0.610
34
50
APOTCV52
357
0.598
28
APIRDR52
335
0.588
58
APOTCV58
APOTCV83
388
606
0.663
0.544
6
47
APIRDR42
APIRDR5
301
48
0.592
0.583
56
59
APOTCV85
620
0.569
37
APIRDR38
277
0.601
53
APOTCV28
APOTCV54
217
392
0.605
0.591
26
31
APIRDR72
APIRDR85
490
550
0.639
0.593
40
56
APOTDR40(1)
279
0.611
24
MTMRCV48
339
0.752
60
APOTDR5
APOTDR40(2)
29
278
0.613
0.676
23
1
MTMRDR40
APMRCV57
266
378
0.794
0.756
51
59
APOTDR78
562
0.541
48
APMRCV43
298
0.709
69
MTIRCV46
MTIRCV53
349
351
0.654
0.748
35
3
APMRCV87
APMRCV89
602
624
0.706
0.768
70
57
MTIRCV58
403
0.629
44
APMRCV103
728
0.677
76
MTIRCV75
MTIRCV52
628
360
0.643
0.680
39
26
APMRCV97
APMRCV22
708
151
0.619
0.728
88
65
MTIRCV56
396
0.707
17
APMRCV48
355
0.625
87
MTIRCV18
MTIRDR41
124
278
0.744
0.673
4
29
APMRDR39
APMRDR4
271
29
0.740
0.773
63
56
MTIRDR75
516
0.673
29
APMRDR40
276
0.719
67
MTIRDR52
383
0.725
11
APMRDR77
523
0.693
73
Test No.
r’nc (kPa)
Drc (%)b
r’nc (kPa)
Test No.
ec
a
MT and AP in test numbers indicate moist-tamping or air-pluviation preparation methods, respectively. OT, IR, and MR indicate OT, IR, and MR sands, respectively. CV and DR indicate constant volume or drained shearing, respectively.
b
Relative density after consolidation.
constant volume shear) or maximum esb (in drained shear) before
these values decreased as a result of particle damage. Figure 15
demonstrates these criteria for dilative specimens sheared in constant volume and drained conditions. As indicated in Figs. 14 and
15, CSo was reached at smaller shear displacements for dilative
specimens than for contractive specimens, likely because of the
larger confinement and limited particle mobility in dense sands.
Effect of Sample-Preparation Method at Small
to Moderate Displacements
Air-pluviated specimens of OT and IR sands exhibited larger peak
shear stress and initial stiffness than their moist-tamped counterparts in constant volume shear, partly because of the different
particle-level deformation mechanisms governing the behavior of
these specimens. In strain-softening, moist-tamped specimens
(Figs. 3 and 7) in which no strain hardening occurred, the peak
shear stress was mobilized through particles pushing and moving
over each other. Comparison of initial and post-shear particle size
distributions, and visual observations of the shear band during
ring-shear tests conducted with a Plexiglas outer ring, indicated
that particle damage was minimal in these specimens (Sadrekarimi
and Olson 2010a), and therefore strain softening resulted from the
collapse of the sand fabric through particle rearrangement and
reorientation. However, in air-pluviated specimens (Figs. 2 and
6), strain softening occurred during constant volume shear as a
result of significant particle damage (indicated by comparing postshear particle size distributions of sand in the shear band and
visual observation of the shear band during ring-shear tests conducted with a Plexiglas outer ring) after the second phase transformation stage, and the peak shear stress was thus limited by
fracture strength of the particles.
As illustrated in Figs. 10–13, all moist-tamped and airpluviated specimens of MR sand, regardless of their larger Drc,
contracted (decreasing esb) or strain softened throughout the
ring-shear tests without significant particle crushing occurring
(Sadrekarimi and Olson 2010a). As discussed by Sadrekarimi and
Olson (2008), we anticipate that MR sand was entirely contractive
(regardless of specimen-preparation method) because of the
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GEOTECHNICAL TESTING JOURNAL
FIG. 2—(a) Stress path, and (b) shear displacement behavior of an air-pluviated OT sand specimen (APOTCV54) in constant volume ring-shear test.
presence of angular fines that made the initial sand fabric more
compressible by the greater number of large-to-small-to-large
unstable particle contacts, as well as its more compressible mineralogy (albite and calcite) compared to the less compressible OT
(rounded quartz) and IR (rounded to sub-rounded quartz and feldspar) sand particles. Particle arrangement among the angular fines
and the rounded larger particles allowed a relatively unstable fabric
to develop during deposition. Once sufficient stress was applied to
overcome particle interlocking, significant volumetric contraction
occurred, consistent with the observations of Yamamuro and
Wood (2004) for silty sands. Therefore, because of the softer and
more angular particles of MR sand, there was almost no effect of
specimen-preparation method and sand fabric on the mobilized
peak strength and initial stiffness.
As illustrated above, sand fabric and specimen-preparation
method (air pluviation and moist tamping in this study) influence
the initiation of yielding and strain-softening mechanisms at small
to moderate shear displacements for sands with relatively incompressible particles. As liquefaction is triggered by the initiation of
instability and yielding at small shear displacement, initial sand
fabric and specimen-preparation methods affect liquefaction susceptibility and triggering in these sand deposits. Therefore, for
liquefaction-triggering analysis and evaluating yield shear
strength, specimens should ideally have the original in-situ soil
fabric. Samples obtained by ground freezing or from high-quality
tube sampling that are corrected for sample disturbance effects
(Poulos et al. 1985) or specimen-preparation techniques that
closely replicate field depositional method (e.g., moist tamping for
moist dumped sand and air pluviation for natural alluvial and marine deposits) should be used.
Effect of Sample-Preparation Method at
Large Displacements
Critical-State Line
The results of this testing program demonstrated that shear band
formation and particle damage play an important role in the
critical-state response of sands, and two types of critical states
were proposed by Sadrekarimi and Olson (2011a): (a) CSo, the
critical state of the original sand without particle damage achieved
solely through particle reorientation and rearrangement; and (b)
CSc, the critical state including particle damage and crushing that
involves shear band formation and particle damage within the
shear band. As described earlier, ring-shear specimens commonly
reached a CSo after shear band formation but prior to significant
particle damage occurring. The loci of the CSo and CSc data in (e,
FIG. 3—(a) Stress path, and (b) shear displacement behavior of a moist-tamped OT sand specimen (MTOTCV54(2)) in constant volume ring-shear test.
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SADREKARIMI AND OLSON ON EFFECT OF SAMPLE-PREPARATION
7
FIG. 4—(a) Stress path, and (b) shear displacement behavior of an air-pluviated OT sand specimen (APOTDR78) in drained ring-shear test.
FIG. 5—(a) Stress path, and (b) shear displacement behavior of a moist-tamped OT sand specimen (MTOTDR38(2)) in drained ring-shear test.
logr0 n) space are termed the CSLo (original sand critical-state line)
and CSLc (crushed sand critical-state line), respectively.
Several researchers (Lee and Seed 1967; Tatsuoka and Ishihara
1974; Vasquez-Herrera and Dobry 1989; de Gregorio 1990; Vaid
et al. 1999; Vaid and Sivathayalan 2000; Chang et al. 2011) have
found that sample-preparation methods (i.e., initial sand fabric)
strongly influence the CSLo. For example, Fig. 16 shows CSo data
from triaxial compression tests performed by Vasquez-Herrera
and Dobry (1989) on sand from the Lower San Fernando Dam,
and by de Gregorio (1990) on Ottawa F-70 sand. These results
FIG. 6—(a) Stress path, and (b) shear displacement behavior of an air-pluviated IR sand specimen (APIRCV82) in constant volume ring-shear test.
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GEOTECHNICAL TESTING JOURNAL
FIG. 7—(a) Stress path, and (b) shear displacement behavior of a moist-tamped IR sand specimen (MTIRCV52) in constant volume ring-shear test.
FIG. 8—(a) Stress path, and (b) shear displacement behavior of an air-pluviated IR sand specimen (APIRDR76) in drained ring-shear test.
suggest that the position of CSLo depends on the samplepreparation method.
In contrast, other researchers (Poulos et al. 1985; Been et al.
1991; Ishihara 1993; Negussey and Islam 1994; Zlatovic and
Ishihara 1997; Murthy et al. 2007) have shown that specimens
prepared by slurry deposition, moist tamping, and water pluviation reach a unique CSLo. Papadimitriou et al. (2005) and Jefferies
and Been (2006) stated that tests like those in Fig. 16 did not reach
CSo within the shear displacements that can be achieved in triaxial
tests. In fact, Verdugo et al. (1995) proposed to divide the initial
FIG. 9—(a) Stress path, and (b) shear displacement behavior of a moist-tamped IR sand specimen (MTIRDR75) in drained ring-shear test.
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SADREKARIMI AND OLSON ON EFFECT OF SAMPLE-PREPARATION
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FIG. 10—(a) Stress path, and (b) shear displacement behavior of an air-pluviated MR sand specimen (APMRCV43) in constant volume ring-shear test.
FIG. 11—(a) Stress path, and (b) shear displacement behavior of a moist-tamped MR sand specimen (MTMRCV48) in constant volume ring-shear test.
fabric of a sand into two groups: (1) fabrics that are completely
erased at large shear strains (attained in triaxial tests), and (2) fabrics that are not fully erased at large shear strains (again in triaxial
tests). As illustrated earlier, soil fabric affects the undrained
behavior of sand at small to moderate displacements where phase
transformation or quasi-critical-state conditions are mobilized
(Ishihara 1993; Zlatovic and Ishihara 1997). Experimental
evidence (Ishihara 1993; Riemer and Seed 1997; Mooney et al.
1998; Yoshimine et al. 1998) suggests that the quasi-critical-state
line is influenced by the specimen-preparation method, and mode
FIG. 12—(a) Stress path, and (b) shear displacement behavior of an air-pluviated MR sand specimen (APMRDR40) in drained ring-shear test.
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FIG. 13—(a) Stress path, and (b) shear displacement behavior of a moist-tamped MR sand specimen (MTMRDR40) in drained ring-shear test.
FIG. 14—Determination of CSo in moist-tamped specimens: (a) MTOTCV54(2), and (b) MTOTDR38(2).
of shear (e.g., triaxial compression and ring shear). Thus, the
influence of specimen-preparation method and sand fabric on
CSLo is a manifestation of the failure to reach CSo in triaxial tests,
and using quasi-critical states to construct CSLo.
Figures 17–19 present r0 n and esb data at CSo and CSc, and the
corresponding CSLo and CSLc for OT, IR, and MR sands, respectively. As illustrated in Fig. 14, CSo was obtained in contractive
specimens (i.e., moist-tamped OT and IR and air-pluviated MR
FIG. 15—Determination of CSo in air-pluviated specimens: (a) APOTCV54, and (b) APOTDR78.
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SADREKARIMI AND OLSON ON EFFECT OF SAMPLE-PREPARATION
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FIG. 16—Effect of specimen-preparation method on CSLo location from triaxial compression shear tests on: (a) Ottawa F-70 sand (de Gregorio 1990), and (b)
Lower San Fernando Dam sand (Vasquez-Herrera and Dobry 1989).
sand specimens) at constant r0 n and esb, before particle damage
became significant. Initially dilative and strain-hardening specimens (air-pluviated OT and IR sand specimens) approached CSo
through increasing r0 n (strain-hardening) or increasing esb (dilation). Therefore, as illustrated in Fig. 15, CSo for these specimens
was taken at maximum r0 n (for constant volume tests) or maximum esb (for drained tests) before they decreased by particle damage. CSc data were obtained at large displacement when values of
r0 n and esb stabilized. The ring-shear test data in Figs. 17–19,
illustrate that both moist-tamped and air-pluviated specimens
yield essentially the same CSLs for both the undamaged (CSLo)
and damaged (CSLc) sands.
Critical-State Friction Angle
Figures 2–13 also include the friction angles mobilized at CSo
(/0 cs,o), and at CSc (/0 cs,c). Because the horizontal failure plane in
the ring-shear tests is the plane of maximum shear stress (Roscoe
et al. 1967; Stroud 1971; Mandl et al. 1977; Dyvik 1981), these
friction angles were obtained from the following relationship
(Skempton 1985; Negussey et al. 1988; Infante-Sedano 1998;
Luzzani and Coop 2002; Holtz et al. 2010):
scs
0
1
/cs ¼ tan
(6)
r0 n;cs
FIG. 17—CSLo and CSLc of OT sand.
where scs and r0 n,cs are stresses measured at CSo and CSc (defined
as illustrated in Figs. 14 and 15) for calculating /0cs,o and /0cs,c,
FIG. 18—CSLo and CSLc of IR sand.
FIG. 19—CSLo and CSLc of MR sand.
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FIG. 20—Variation of /0 cs,o with: (a) ec, and (b) r0 nc (Sadrekarimi and Olson 2011b).
respectively. According to Figs. 2–13, /0 cs,c is greater than /0 cs,o
because of the more angular particles and wider particle size distributions developed by particle crushing at CSc. These friction
angles do not vary with specimen-preparation method as the initial
sand fabric was erased at large displacements and effective stress
paths of both air-pluviated and moist-tamped specimens asymptotically approached the same constant stress ratio lines (i.e., /0 cs,o
and /0 cs,c).
Figure 20 presents the variations of /0 cs,o with consolidation
void ratio, ec and r0 nc. These data suggest that ec does not affect
/0 cs,o. In turn, this further validates that the initial sand fabric
(reflected by ec) was erased as particle rearrangement and reorientation were complete at CSo, prior to the onset of significant particle damage. On the other hand, similar to some other studies
(Fukushima and Tatsuoka 1984; Bolton 1986; Kolymbas and Wu
1990; Infante-Sedano 1998; Lancelot et al. 2006; Sadrekarimi and
Olson 2011b), Fig. 20(b) illustrates that /0 cs,o decreases with r0 nc
and becomes essentially constant at moderate stresses
(r0 nc > 100–200 kPa). According to Fig. 20(b), at small stresses
(r0 nc < 100 kPa), /0 cs,o is about 32 , 36 , and 38 in OT, IR, and
MR sands, respectively, whereas at r0 nc > 200 kPa, /0 cs,o averages
31 , 33 , and 34 , respectively, for these sands (Sadrekarimi and
Olson 2011b). These friction angles agree with the range of
/0 cs,o ¼ 32 –37 measured for many other sands (Bolton 1986;
Santamarina and Cho 2001; Jefferies and Been 2006).
Figure 21 shows the variations of /0 cs,c with ec and r0 nc at very
large shear displacements (only achievable in ring shear), after
particle damage and the subsequent particle rearrangement and
reorientation were complete. These data illustrate that /0 cs,c is relatively independent of ec and specimen-preparation method (as
/0 cs,c from both moist-tamped and air-pluviated specimens are
included in Fig. 21), suggesting that the initial sand fabric was
erased at large shear displacements. Similar to /0 cs,o, /0 cs,c also
decreased with increasing r0 nc (for r0 nc < 150 kPa) in Fig. 21(b).
At r0 nc < 100 kPa, particles experienced less damage (Sadrekarimi
and Olson 2010a) and more relative displacement; thus mobilizing
larger /0 cs,c. Values of /0 cs,c at r0 nc < 100 kPa are 44 for OT and
IR sands, and 46 for MR sand. As r0 nc increases, /0 cs,c decreases
as particle interlocking was suppressed by the increasing normal
load and relative particle sliding was enhanced. However, at
r0 nc > 200 kPa, /0 cs,c slightly increased in OT and IR sands as particle damage produced a wider particle size distribution and more
angular particles. In these sands, the decrease in friction angles by
suppressing particle interaction and interlocking was compensated
FIG. 21—Variation of /0 cs,c with: (a) ec, and (b) r0 nc (Sadrekarimi and Olson 2011b).
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SADREKARIMI AND OLSON ON EFFECT OF SAMPLE-PREPARATION
by an increase in friction angle resulting from the creation of more
angular particles. On the other hand, MR sand does not exhibit
any significant increase in /0 cs,c at r0 nc > 200 kPa because of its
originally wider particle size distribution, resulting in reduced particle damage (Sadrekarimi and Olson 2010a). At r0 nc > 200 kPa,
wider particle size distributions are created in all specimens by
particle damage and crushing for which /0 cs,c becomes constant
(34 , 38 , and 41 for OT, IR, and MR sands, respectively) and
insensitive to r0 nc, in agreement with the findings of Insley and
Hillis (1965), and Bishop (1966). As explained before, /0 cs,c
exceeds /0 cs,o as a result of particle damage creating more angular
particles and wider particle size distributions. Overall, /0 cs,o and
/0 cs,c are independent of initial sand fabric (i.e., specimenpreparation method), ec, and r0 nc (>200 kPa), and primarily
depend on particle mineralogy and shape, reasonably consistent
with the concepts of critical-state soil mechanics (Schofield and
Wroth 1968).
As shown above, the specimen-preparation method does not
affect the determination of critical state, as at critical state the
initial sand structure has been largely destroyed. Therefore, the
critical-state behavior obtained from laboratory tests (irrespective
of the particular preparation method) is also applicable for
describing the flow liquefaction potential, liquefaction severity,
and liquefied strength of in-situ field soils based on the in-situ
void ratio. Void ratio of in-situ field soil should be determined
from representative field samples obtained by ground freezing or
from high-quality tube sampling techniques and then correcting
for sample disturbance effects (Poulos et al. 1985). Correct estimation of the undrained liquefied shear strength is particularly
necessary for the design of large soil structures such as mine
tailings impoundments, earth dams, and building foundations to
protect them against liquefaction flow failure. The main concern
in critical-state testing is the preparation of contractive specimens
that easily reach a true critical state before reaching the displacement limits of laboratory shear test. Among all laboratory specimen
reconstituting techniques, moist tamping has the advantage of producing sufficiently loose contractive samples that most likely reach
a true critical state within the strain limits of the most laboratory
shear testing equipment and define the CSL.
Conclusions
The effect of sand fabric and specimen-preparation methods on
the shearing behavior of three sands was studied in this paper
using ring-shear test results. A wide range of low relative densities
were produced by moist tamping. These specimens strainsoftened or contracted throughout shearing, and reached a critical
state. In contrast, air-pluviated specimens of sands with less compressible particles (rounded particles and harder mineralogy)
exhibited strain-hardening and dilative behavior before strainsoftening and contraction as a result of particle crushing. Whereas,
both moist-tamped and air-pluviated specimens of a sand composed of compressible particles (angular particle shapes and softer
particle mineralogy) experienced strain softening and contraction
during shearing, regardless of higher relative densities. It is possible that particle compressibility outweighed the influence of
specimen-preparation method and sand fabric on the shearing
13
behavior of the sand with compressible particles. Thus, the effects of
both “initial sand fabric” (reflecting particle arrangement/orientation
and depositional method) and “particle characteristics” (reflecting
mineralogy, particle shape, and particle size distribution) should be
considered in understanding the behavior of sandy soils.
At moderate to large shear displacements before the onset of
particle crushing, the critical-state behavior (mobilized friction
angle, critical-state strength, and critical-state line) of the sands
studied in this paper was independent of specimen-preparation
methods. At large shear displacements reached in the ring-shear
tests, particle damage (i.e., abrasion, crushing, and shearing of
particle asperities) occurred within the shear bands and significantly altered sand gradation and particle shapes. Particle damage produced strain softening (during constant volume shear
tests) and contractive response even in initially dilative specimens, and required considerably larger shear displacements
(>1000 cm) to reach critical states. The critical state where
particle damage and subsequent particle rearrangement were
complete (at which the measured specimen volume and stresses
did no longer change) was also independent of specimenpreparation methods.
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