1
Multinational Financial
Management: An Overview
CHAPTER
OBJECTIVES
The specific
objectives of this
chapter are to:
■ identify the
management goal
and organizational
structure of the
MNC,
■ describe the key
theories that justify
international
business,
■ explain the
common methods
used to conduct
international
business, and
■ provide a model for
valuing the MNC.
Multinational corporations (MNCs) are defined as firms that engage in
some form of international business. Their managers conduct international
financial management, which involves international investing and
financing decisions that are intended to maximize the value of the MNC.
The goal of these managers is to maximize their firm’s value, which is
the same goal pursued by managers employed by strictly domestic
companies.
Initially, firms may merely attempt to export products to a certain country
or import supplies from a foreign manufacturer. Over time, however, many of
these firms recognize additional foreign opportunities and eventually
establish subsidiaries in foreign countries. Dow Chemical, IBM, Nike, and
many other firms have more than half of their assets in foreign countries.
Some businesses, such as ExxonMobil, Fortune Brands, and ColgatePalmolive, commonly generate more than half of their sales in foreign
countries. It is typical also for smaller U.S. firms to generate more than
20 percent of their sales in foreign markets; examples include Ferro (Ohio)
and Medtronic (Minnesota). Seventy-five percent of U.S. firms that export
have fewer than 100 employees.
International financial management is important even to companies
that have no international business. The reason is that these companies
must recognize how their foreign competitors will be influenced
by movements in exchange rates, foreign interest rates, labor costs,
and inflation. Such economic characteristics can affect the foreign
competitors’ costs of production and pricing policies.
This chapter provides background on the goals, motives, and valuation of
a multinational corporation.
1-1
MANAGING
THE
MNC
The commonly accepted goal of an MNC is to maximize shareholder wealth. Managers employed by the MNC are expected to make decisions that will maximize the stock price and
thereby serve the shareholders’ interests. Some publicly traded MNCs based outside the
United States may have additional goals, such as satisfying their respective governments,
3
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4
Part 1: The International Financial Environment
creditors, or employees. However, these MNCs now place greater emphasis on satisfying
shareholders; that way, the firm can more easily obtain funds from them to support its operations. Even in developing countries (e.g., Bulgaria and Vietnam) that have just recently
encouraged the development of business enterprise, managers of firms must serve shareholder interests in order to secure their funding. There would be little demand for the stock
of a firm that announced the proceeds would be used to overpay managers or invest in
unprofitable projects.
The focus of this text is on MNCs whose parents wholly own any foreign subsidiaries,
which means that the U.S. parent is the sole owner of the subsidiaries. This is the most
common form of ownership of U.S.-based MNCs, and it gives financial managers
throughout the firm the single goal of maximizing the entire MNC’s value (rather than
the value of any particular subsidiary). The concepts in this text apply generally also to
MNCs based in countries other than the United States.
1-1a How Business Disciplines Are Used to Manage the MNC
Various business disciplines are integrated to manage the MNC in a manner that maximizes shareholder wealth. Management is used to develop strategies that will motivate
and guide employees who work in an MNC and to organize resources so that they can
efficiently produce products or services. Marketing is used to increase consumer awareness about the products and to monitor changes in consumer preferences. Accounting
and information systems are used to record financial information about revenue and
expenses of the MNC, which can be used to report financial information to investors
and to evaluate the outcomes of various strategies implemented by the MNC. Finance
is used to make investment and financing decisions for the MNC. Common finance
decisions include:
■
■
■
■
whether to discontinue operations in a particular country,
whether to pursue new business in a particular country,
whether to expand business in a particular country, and
how to finance expansion in a particular country.
These finance decisions for each MNC are partially influenced by the other business
discipline functions. The decision to pursue new business in a particular country is based
on comparing the costs and potential benefits of expansion. The potential benefits of
such new business depend on expected consumer interest in the products to be sold
(marketing function) and expected cost of the resources needed to pursue the new business (management function). Financial managers rely on financial data provided by the
accounting and information systems functions.
1-1b Agency Problems
Managers of an MNC may make decisions that conflict with the firm’s goal of maximizing shareholder wealth. For example, a decision to establish a subsidiary in one location
versus another may be based on the location’s appeal to a particular manager rather than
on its potential benefits to shareholders. A decision to expand a subsidiary may be motivated by a manager’s desire to receive more compensation rather than to enhance the
value of the MNC. This conflict of goals between a firm’s managers and shareholders is
often referred to as the agency problem.
The costs of ensuring that managers maximize shareholder wealth (referred to as
agency costs) are normally larger for MNCs than for purely domestic firms for several
reasons. First, MNCs with subsidiaries scattered around the world may experience larger
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Chapter 1: Multinational Financial Management: An Overview
5
agency problems because monitoring the managers of distant subsidiaries in foreign
countries is more difficult. Second, foreign subsidiary managers who are raised in
different cultures may not follow uniform goals. Third, the sheer size of the larger
MNCs can also create significant agency problems. Fourth, some non-U.S. managers
tend to downplay the short-term effects of decisions, which may result in decisions for
foreign subsidiaries of the U.S.-based MNCs that maximize subsidiary values or pursue
other goals. This can be a challenge, especially in countries where some people may perceive that the first priority of corporations should be to serve their respective employees.
EXAMPLE
Two years ago, Seattle Co. (based in the United States) established a subsidiary in Singapore so
that it could expand its business there. It hired a manager in Singapore to manage the subsidiary.
During the last two years, the sales generated by the subsidiary have not grown. Even so, the
manager hired several employees to do the work that he was assigned. The managers of the parent company in the United States have not closely monitored the subsidiary because it is so far
away and because they trusted the manager there. Now they realize that there is an agency problem. The subsidiary is experiencing losses every quarter, so its management must be more closely
monitored. l
Parent Control of Agency Problems The parent corporation of an MNC may
be able to prevent most agency problems with proper governance. The parent should
clearly communicate the goals for each subsidiary to ensure that all of them focus on
maximizing the value of the MNC and not of their respective subsidiaries. The parent
can oversee subsidiary decisions to check whether each subsidiary’s managers are satisfying the MNC’s goals. The parent can also implement compensation plans that reward
those managers who satisfy the MNC’s goals. A common incentive is to provide managers with the MNC’s stock (or options to buy that stock at a fixed price) as part of their
compensation; thus the subsidiary managers benefit directly from a higher stock price
when they make decisions that enhance the MNC’s value.
EXAMPLE
When Seattle Co. (from the previous example) recognized the agency problems with its Singapore
subsidiary, it created incentives for the manager of the subsidiary that were aligned with the parent’s goal of maximizing shareholder wealth. Specifically, it set up a compensation system whereby
the manager’s annual bonus is based on the subsidiary’s earnings. l
Corporate Control of Agency Problems In the example of Seattle Co., the
agency problems occurred because the subsidiary’s management goals were not focused
on maximizing shareholder wealth. In some cases, agency problems can occur because
the goals of the entire management of the MNC are not focused on maximizing
shareholder wealth. Various forms of corporate control can help prevent these agency
problems and thus induce managers to make decisions that satisfy the MNC’s shareholders. If these managers make poor decisions that reduce the MNC’s value, then another firm might acquire it at the lower price and hence would probably remove the
weak managers. Moreover, institutional investors (e.g., mutual and pension funds) with
large holdings of an MNC’s stock have some influence over management because they
will complain to the board of directors if managers are making poor decisions. Institutional investors may seek to enact changes, including removal of high-level managers or
even board members, in a poorly performing MNC. Such investors may also band together to demand changes in an MNC, since they know that the firm would not want
to lose all of its major shareholders.
How SOX Improved Corporate Governance of MNCs One limitation of the
corporate control process is that investors rely on reports by the firm’s own managers for
information. If managers are serving themselves rather than the investors, they may
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6
Part 1: The International Financial Environment
exaggerate their performance. There are many well-known examples (such as Enron and
WorldCom) in which large MNCs were able to alter their financial reporting and hide
problems from investors.
Enacted in 2002, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) ensures a more transparent process
for managers to report on the productivity and financial condition of their firm. It
requires firms to implement an internal reporting process that can be easily monitored
by executives and the board of directors. Some of the common methods used by MNCs
to improve their internal control process are:
■
■
■
■
■
establishing a centralized database of information,
ensuring that all data are reported consistently among subsidiaries,
implementing a system that automatically checks data for unusual discrepancies
relative to norms,
speeding the process by which all departments and subsidiaries access needed
data, and
making executives more accountable for financial statements by personally verifying
their accuracy.
These systems made it easier for a firm’s board members to monitor the financial
reporting process. In this way, SOX reduced the likelihood that managers of a firm can
manipulate the reporting process and therefore improved the accuracy of financial information for existing and prospective investors.
1-1c Management Structure of an MNC
The magnitude of agency costs can vary with the MNC’s management style. A centralized management style, as illustrated in the top section of Exhibit 1.1, can reduce agency
costs because it allows managers of the parent to control foreign subsidiaries and thus
reduces the power of subsidiary managers. However, the parent’s managers may make
poor decisions for the subsidiary if they are less informed than the subsidiary’s managers
about its setting and financial characteristics.
Alternatively, an MNC can use a decentralized management style, as illustrated in the
bottom section of Exhibit 1.1. This style is more likely to result in higher agency costs
because subsidiary managers may make decisions that fail to maximize the value of the
entire MNC. Yet this management style gives more control to those managers who are
closer to the subsidiary’s operations and environment. To the extent that subsidiary
managers recognize the goal of maximizing the value of the overall MNC and are
compensated in accordance with that goal, the decentralized management style may be
more effective.
Given the clear trade-offs between centralized and decentralized management
styles, some MNCs attempt to achieve the advantages of both. That is, they allow
subsidiary managers to make the key decisions about their respective operations while
the parent’s management monitors those decisions to ensure they are in the MNC’s
best interests.
How the Internet Facilitates Management Control
The Internet is making it
easier for the parent to monitor the actions and performance of its foreign subsidiaries.
EXAMPLE
Recall the example of Seattle Co., which has a subsidiary in Singapore. The Internet allows the
foreign subsidiary to e-mail updated information in a standardized format that reduces language
problems and also to send images of financial reports and product designs. The parent can then
easily track the inventory, sales, expenses, and earnings of each subsidiary on a weekly or
monthly basis. Thus, using the Internet can reduce agency costs due to international aspects of
an MNC’s business. l
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Chapter 1: Multinational Financial Management: An Overview
Exhibit 1.1 Management Styles of MNCs
Centralized Multinational
Financial Management
Cash Management
at Subsidiary A
Financial Managers
of Parent
Inventory and
Accounts Receivable
Management at
Subsidiary A
Financing at
Subsidiary A
Cash Management
at Subsidiary B
Inventory and
Accounts Receivable
Management at
Subsidiary B
Capital
Expenditures
at Subsidiary A
Capital
Expenditures
at Subsidiary B
Financing at
Subsidiary B
Decentralized Multinational
Financial Management
Cash Management
at Subsidiary A
Financial Managers
of Subsidiary A
Financial Managers
of Subsidiary B
Inventory and
Accounts Receivable
Management at
Subsidiary A
Financing at
Subsidiary A
Cash Management
at Subsidiary B
Inventory and
Accounts Receivable
Management at
Subsidiary B
Capital
Expenditures
at Subsidiary A
Capital
Expenditures
at Subsidiary B
Financing at
Subsidiary B
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7
8
Part 1: The International Financial Environment
1-2
WHY FIRMS PURSUE INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS
Three commonly held theories to explain why firms become motivated to expand their
business internationally are (1) the theory of comparative advantage, (2) the imperfect
markets theory, and (3) the product cycle theory. These theories overlap to some extent
and can complement each other in developing a rationale for the evolution of international business.
1-2a Theory of Comparative Advantage
Multinational business has generally increased over time. Part of this growth is due to
firms’ increased realization that specialization by countries can increase production
efficiency. Some countries, such as Japan and the United States, have a technology advantage whereas others, such as China and Malaysia, have an advantage in the cost of basic
labor. Because these advantages cannot be easily transported, countries tend to use their
advantages to specialize in the production of goods that can be produced with relative efficiency. This explains why countries such as Japan and the United States are large producers
of computer components while countries such as Jamaica and Mexico are large producers
of agricultural and handmade goods. Multinational corporations like Oracle, Intel, and IBM
have grown substantially in foreign countries because of their technology advantage.
A country that specializes in some products may not produce other products, so trade between countries is essential. This is the argument made by the classical theory of comparative
advantage. Comparative advantages allow firms to penetrate foreign markets. Many of the
Virgin Islands, for example, specialize in tourism and rely completely on international trade
for most products. Although these islands could produce some goods, it is more efficient for
them to specialize in tourism. That is, the islands are better-off using some revenues earned
from tourism to import products than attempting to produce all the products they need.
1-2b Imperfect Markets Theory
If each country’s markets were closed to all other countries, then there would be no international business. At the other extreme, if markets were perfect and so the factors of production (such as labor) were easily transferable, then labor and other resources would flow
wherever they were in demand. Such unrestricted mobility of factors would create equality
in both costs and returns and thus would remove the comparative cost advantage, which is
the rationale for international trade and investment. However, the real world suffers from
imperfect market conditions where factors of production are somewhat immobile. There
are costs and often restrictions related to the transfer of labor and other resources used for
production. There may also be restrictions on transferring funds and other resources among
countries. Because markets for the various resources used in production are “imperfect,”
MNCs such as the Gap and Nike often capitalize on a foreign country’s particular resources.
Imperfect markets provide an incentive for firms to seek out foreign opportunities.
1-2c Product Cycle Theory
One of the more popular explanations as to why firms evolve into MNCs is the product
cycle theory. According to this theory, firms become established in the home market as a
result of some perceived advantage over existing competitors, such as a need by the market for at least one more supplier of the product. Because information about markets and
competition is more readily available at home, a firm is likely to establish itself first in its
home country. Foreign demand for the firm’s product will initially be accommodated by
exporting. As time passes, the firm may feel the only way to retain its advantage over
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Chapter 1: Multinational Financial Management: An Overview
9
competition in foreign countries is to produce the product in foreign markets, thereby
reducing its transportation costs. The competition in those foreign markets may increase
as other producers become more familiar with the firm’s product. The firm may develop
strategies to prolong the foreign demand for its product. One frequently used approach
is to differentiate the product so that competitors cannot duplicate it exactly. These
phases of the product cycle are illustrated in Exhibit 1.2. For instance, 3M Co. uses one
new product to enter a foreign market, after which it expands the product line there.
There is, of course, more to the product cycle theory than summarized here. This
discussion merely suggests that, as a firm matures, it may recognize additional opportunities outside its home country. Whether the firm’s foreign business diminishes or
expands over time will depend on how successful it is at maintaining some advantage
over its competition. That advantage could be an edge in its production or financing
approach that reduces costs or an edge in its marketing approach that generates and
maintains a strong demand for its product.
1-3
HOW FIRMS ENGAGE
IN INTERNATIONAL
BUSINESS
Firms use several methods to conduct international business. The most common
methods are:
■
■
■
international trade,
licensing,
franchising,
Exhibit 1.2 International Product Life Cycle
1
2
Firm creates product to
accommodate local
demand.
Firm exports product to
accommodate foreign
demand.
4a
Firm differentiates product
from competitors and/or
expands product line in
foreign country.
3
4b
Firm establishes foreign
subsidiary to establish
presence in foreign
country and possibly
to reduce costs.
or
Firm’s foreign business
declines as its competitive
advantages are eliminated.
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10
Part 1: The International Financial Environment
■
■
■
joint ventures,
acquisitions of existing operations, and
establishment of new foreign subsidiaries.
Each method will be discussed in turn, with particular attention paid to the respective
risk and return characteristics.
1-3a International Trade
WEB
www.trade.gov/mas/ian
Outlook of international
trade conditions for
each of several
industries.
International trade is a relatively conservative approach that can be used by firms to
penetrate markets (by exporting) or to obtain supplies at a low cost (by importing).
This approach entails minimal risk because the firm does not place any of its capital at
risk. If the firm experiences a decline in its exporting or importing, it can normally
reduce or discontinue that part of its business at a low cost.
Many large U.S.-based MNCs, including Boeing, DuPont, General Electric, and IBM,
generate more than $4 billion in annual sales from exporting. Nonetheless, small
businesses account for more than 20 percent of the value of all U.S. exports.
How the Internet Facilitates International Trade
Many firms use their
websites to list the products they sell along with the price for each product. This makes
it easy for them to advertise their products to potential importers anywhere in the
world without mailing brochures to various countries. Furthermore, a firm can add to
its product line or change prices simply by revising its website. Thus, importers need
only check an exporter’s website periodically in order to keep abreast of its product
information.
Firms can also use their websites to accept orders online. Some products, such as
software, can be delivered directly to the importer over the Internet in the form of a
file on the importer’s computer. Other products must be shipped, but even in that
case the Internet makes it easier to track the shipping process. An importer can transmit its order for products via e-mail to the exporter, and when the warehouse ships the
products it can send an e-mail message to the importer and to the exporter’s headquarters. The warehouse may also use technology to monitor its inventory of products so
that suppliers are automatically notified to send more supplies once the inventory falls
below a specified level. If the exporter has multiple warehouses, the Internet allows
them to operate as a network; hence if one warehouse cannot fill an order, another
warehouse will.
1-3b Licensing
Licensing is an arrangement whereby one firm provides its technology (copyrights,
patents, trademarks, or trade names) in exchange for fees or other considerations.
Starbucks has licensing agreements with SSP (an operator of food and beverage
concessions in Europe) to sell Starbucks products in train stations and airports
throughout Europe. Sprint Nextel Corp. has a licensing agreement to develop telecommunications services in the United Kingdom. Eli Lilly & Co. has a licensing
agreement to produce drugs for foreign countries, and IGA, Inc., which operates
more than 1,700 supermarkets in the United States, has a licensing agreement to
operate markets in China and Singapore. Licensing allows firms to use their technology in foreign markets without a major investment in foreign countries and without
the transportation costs that result from exporting. A major disadvantage of licensing
is that it is difficult for the firm providing the technology to ensure quality control in
the foreign production process.
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Chapter 1: Multinational Financial Management: An Overview
11
1-3c Franchising
Under a franchising arrangement, one firm provides a specialized sales or service strategy, support assistance, and possibly an initial investment in the franchise in exchange
for periodic fees. For example, McDonald’s, Pizza Hut, Subway Sandwiches, Blockbuster,
and Dairy Queen have franchises that are owned and managed by local residents in
many foreign countries. As in the case of licensing, franchising allows firms to penetrate
foreign markets without a major investment in foreign countries. The recent relaxation
of barriers in countries throughout Eastern Europe and South America has resulted in
numerous franchising arrangements.
1-3d Joint Ventures
A joint venture is a venture that is jointly owned and operated by two or more firms.
Many firms enter foreign markets by engaging in a joint venture with firms that already
reside in those markets. Most joint ventures allow two firms to apply their respective
comparative advantages in a given project. For instance, General Mills, Inc., joined in a
venture with Nestlé SA so that the cereals produced by General Mills could be sold
through the overseas sales distribution network established by Nestlé.
Xerox Corp. and Fuji Co. (of Japan) engaged in a joint venture that allowed Xerox to
penetrate the Japanese market while allowing Fuji to enter the photocopying business.
Sara Lee Corp. and AT&T have engaged in joint ventures with Mexican firms to gain
entry to Mexico’s markets. Joint ventures between automobile manufacturers are numerous, since each manufacturer can offer its own technological advantages. General Motors
has ongoing joint ventures with automobile manufacturers in several different countries,
including the former Soviet states.
1-3e Acquisitions of Existing Operations
Firms frequently acquire other firms in foreign countries as a means of penetrating foreign markets. Such acquisitions give firms full control over their foreign businesses and
enable the MNC to quickly obtain a large portion of foreign market share.
EXAMPLE
Google, Inc., has made major international acquisitions to expand its business and improve its
technology. It has acquired businesses in Australia (search engines), Brazil (search engines),
Canada (mobile browser), China (search engines), Finland (micro-blogging), Germany (mobile
software), Russia (online advertising), South Korea (weblog software), Spain (photo sharing), and
Sweden (videoconferencing). l
However, the acquisition of an existing corporation could lead to large losses because
of the large investment required. In addition, if the foreign operations perform poorly
then it may be difficult to sell the operations at a reasonable price.
Some firms engage in partial international acquisitions in order to obtain a toehold
or stake in foreign operations. This approach requires a smaller investment than that of
a full international acquisition and so exposes the firm to less risk. On the other hand,
the firm will not have complete control over foreign operations that are only partially
acquired.
1-3f Establishment of New Foreign Subsidiaries
Firms can also penetrate foreign markets by establishing new operations in foreign countries to produce and sell their products. Like a foreign acquisition, this method requires a
large investment. Establishing new subsidiaries may be preferred to foreign acquisitions
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12
Part 1: The International Financial Environment
because the operations can be tailored exactly to the firm’s needs. In addition, a smaller
investment may be required than would be needed to purchase existing operations.
However, the firm will not reap any rewards from the investment until the subsidiary is
built and a customer base established.
1-3g Summary of Methods
The methods of increasing international business extend from the relatively simple
approach of international trade to the more complex approach of acquiring foreign firms
or establishing new subsidiaries. Any method of increasing international business that
requires a direct investment in foreign operations normally is referred to as a direct foreign investment (DFI). International trade and licensing are usually not viewed as
examples of DFI because they do not involve direct investment in foreign operations.
Franchising and joint ventures tend to require some investment in foreign operations
but only to a limited degree. Foreign acquisitions and the establishment of new foreign
subsidiaries require substantial investment in foreign operations and account for the
largest portion of DFI.
Many MNCs use a combination of methods to increase international business. For
example, IBM and PepsiCo engage in substantial direct foreign investment yet also derive some of their foreign revenue from various licensing agreements, which require less
DFI to generate revenue.
EXAMPLE
The evolution of Nike began in 1962 when Phil Knight, a student at Stanford’s business school,
wrote a paper on how a U.S. firm could use Japanese technology to break the German dominance
of the athletic shoe industry in the United States. After graduation, Knight visited the Unitsuka
Tiger shoe company in Japan. He made a licensing agreement with that company to produce a shoe
that he sold in the United States under the name Blue Ribbon Sports (BRS). In 1972, Knight exported
his shoes to Canada. In 1974, he expanded his operations into Australia. In 1977, the firm licensed
factories in Taiwan and Korea to produce athletic shoes and then sold the shoes in Asian countries.
In 1978, BRS became Nike, Inc., and began to export shoes to Europe and South America. As a result
of its exporting and its direct foreign investment, Nike’s international sales reached $1 billion by
1992 and now exceed $8 billion per year. l
The effects of international business on an MNC’s cash flows is illustrated in Exhibit 1.3.
In general, the cash outflows associated with international business by the U.S. parent are used to pay for imports, to comply with its international arrangements, and/
or to support the creation or expansion of foreign subsidiaries. At the same time, an
MNC receives cash flows in the form of payment for its exports, fees for the services
it provides within international arrangements, and remitted funds from the foreign
subsidiaries. The first diagram in this exhibit illustrates the case of an MNC that
engages in international trade; its international cash flows therefore result either
from paying for imported supplies or from receiving payment in exchange for products that it exports.
The second diagram illustrates an MNC that engages in some international arrangements (which could include international licensing, franchising, or joint ventures). Any
such arrangement may require cash outflows of the MNC in foreign countries to cover,
for example, the expenses associated with transferring technology or funding partial
investment in a franchise or joint venture. These arrangements generate cash flows
for the MNC in the form of fees for services (e.g., technology, support assistance) that
it provides.
The third diagram in Exhibit 1.3 illustrates the case of an MNC that engages in direct
foreign investment. This type of MNC has one or more foreign subsidiaries. There can
be cash outflows from the U.S. parent to its foreign subsidiaries in the form of invested
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Chapter 1: Multinational Financial Management: An Overview
13
Exhibit 1.3 Cash Flow Diagrams for MNCs
International Trade by the MNC
Cash Inflows from Exporting
Foreign Importers
MNC
Cash Outflows to Pay for Importing
Foreign Exporters
Licensing, Franchising, Joint Ventures by the MNC
Cash Inflows from Services Provided
MNC
Foreign Firms or
Government
Agencies
Cash Outflows for Services Received
Investment in Foreign Subsidiaries by the MNC
Cash Inflows from Remitted Earnings
MNC
Foreign
Subsidiaries
Cash Outflows to Finance the Operations
funds to help finance the operations of the foreign subsidiaries. There are also cash flows
from the foreign subsidiaries to the U.S. parent in the form of remitted earnings and fees
for services provided by the parent; all of these flows can be classified as remitted funds
from the foreign subsidiaries.
1-4
VALUATION MODEL
FOR AN
MNC
The value of an MNC is relevant to its shareholders and its debt holders. When managers make decisions that maximize the firm’s value, they also maximize shareholder
wealth (assuming that the decisions are not intended to maximize the wealth of debt
holders at the expense of shareholders). Given that international financial management
should be conducted with the goal of increasing the MNC’s value, it is useful to review
some basics of valuation. There are numerous methods of valuing an MNC, some of
which lead to the same valuation. The method described in this section reflects the key
factors affecting an MNC’s value in a general sense.
1-4a Domestic Model
Before modeling an MNC’s value, consider the valuation of a purely domestic firm
that does not engage in any foreign transactions. The value (V) of a purely domestic
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14
Part 1: The International Financial Environment
firm in the United States is commonly specified as the present value of its expected
cash flows:
V ¼
n
X
t ¼1
(
E ðCF$,t Þ
ð1 þ kÞt
)
Here E(CF$,t) denotes expected cash flows to be received at the end of period t; n is the
number of future periods in which cash flows are received; and k represents not only the
weighted average cost of capital but also the required rate of return by investors and
creditors who provide funds to the MNC.
Dollar Cash Flows
The dollar cash flows in period t represent funds received by
the firm minus funds needed to pay expenses or taxes or to reinvest in the firm (such
as an investment to replace old computers or machinery). The expected cash flows are
estimated from knowledge about various existing projects as well as other projects that
will be implemented in the future. A firm’s decisions about how it should invest funds
to expand its business can affect its expected future cash flows and therefore can affect
the firm’s value. Holding other factors constant, an increase in expected cash flows over
time should increase the value of a firm.
Cost of Capital The required rate of return (k) in the denominator of the valuation equation represents the cost of capital (including both the cost of debt and the
cost of equity) to the firm and is, in essence, a weighted average of the cost of capital
based on all of the firm’s projects. In making decisions that affect its cost of debt or
equity for one or more projects, the firm also affects the weighted average of its cost
of capital and thus the required rate of return. If the firm’s credit rating is suddenly
lowered, for example, then its cost of capital will probably increase and so will its required rate of return. Holding other factors constant, an increase in the firm’s required
rate of return will reduce the value of the firm because expected cash flows must be
discounted at a higher interest rate. Conversely, a decrease in the firm’s required rate
of return will increase the value of the firm because expected cash flows are discounted
at a lower required rate of return.
1-4b Multinational Model
An MNC’s value can be specified in the same manner as a purely domestic firm’s value.
However, consider that the expected cash flows generated by a U.S.-based MNC’s parent
in period t may be coming from various countries and so may be denominated in different foreign currencies.
The foreign currency cash flows will be converted into dollars. Thus, the expected
dollar cash flows to be received at the end of period t are equal to the sum of the
products of cash flows denominated in each currency j multiplied by the expected
exchange rate at which currency j could be converted into dollars by the MNC at the
end of period t:
E ðCF$,t Þ ¼
m
X
½E ðCFj ,t Þ % E ðS j ,t Þ&
j¼1
Here CFj,t represents the amount of cash flow denominated in a particular foreign currency j at the end of period t, and Sj,t denotes the exchange rate at which the foreign
currency (measured in dollars per unit of the foreign currency) can be converted to
dollars at the end of period t.
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Chapter 1: Multinational Financial Management: An Overview
15
Valuation of an MNC That Uses Two Currencies An MNC that does business in two currencies could measure its expected dollar cash flows in any period by
multiplying the expected cash flow in each currency by the expected exchange rate at
which that currency could be converted to dollars and then summing those two
products.
It may help to think of an MNC as a portfolio of currency cash flows, one for each
currency in which it conducts business. The expected dollar cash flows derived from
each of those currencies can be combined to determine the total expected dollar cash
flows in the given period. It is easier to derive an expected dollar cash flow value for
each currency before combining the cash flows among currencies within a given period,
because each currency’s cash flow amount must be converted to a common unit (the
dollar) before combining the amounts.
EXAMPLE
Carolina Co. has expected cash flows of $100,000 from local business and 1 million Mexican pesos
from business in Mexico at the end of period t. Assuming that the peso’s value is expected to be $.09
when converted into dollars, the expected dollar cash flows are:
E ðCF$,t Þ ¼
m
X
½E ðCFj ,t Þ % E ðS j ,t Þ&
j¼1
¼ ð$100,000Þ þ ½1,000,000 pesos % ð$:09Þ&
¼ ð$100,000Þ þ ð$90,000Þ
¼ $190,000:
The cash flows of $100,000 from U.S. business were already denominated in U.S. dollars and therefore
did not have to be converted. l
Valuation of an MNC That Uses Multiple Currencies
The same process as
just described can be employed to value an MNC that uses many foreign currencies. The
general formula for estimating the dollar cash flows to be received by an MNC from
multiple currencies in one period can be written as follows:
E ðCF$,t Þ ¼
m
X
½E ðCFj ,t Þ % E ðS j ,t Þ&
j¼1
EXAMPLE
Assume that Yale Co. will receive cash in 15 different countries at the end of the next period. To
estimate the value of Yale Co., the first step is to estimate the amount of cash flows that it will
receive at the end of the period in each currency (such as 2 million euros, 8 million Mexican pesos,
etc.). Second, obtain a forecast of the currency’s exchange rate for cash flows that will arrive at
the end of the period for each of the 15 currencies (such as euro forecast ¼ $1.40, peso forecast ¼
$.12, etc.). The existing exchange rate can be used as a forecast for the future exchange rate, but
there are many alternative methods (as explained in Chapter 9). Third, multiply the amount of each
foreign currency to be received by the forecasted exchange rate of that currency in order to estimate the dollar cash flows to be received due to each currency. Fourth, add the estimated dollar
cash flows for all 15 currencies in order to determine the total expected dollar cash flows in the period. The previous equation captures the four steps just described. When applying that equation to
this example, m ¼ 15 because there are 15 different currencies. l
Valuation of an MNC’s Cash Flows over Multiple Periods The entire process described in the example for a single period is not adequate for valuation because most
MNCs have multiperiod cash flows. However, the process can be easily adapted to estimate
the total dollar cash flows for all future periods. First, apply the same process described for a
single period to all future periods in which the MNC will receive cash flows; this will generate an estimate of total dollar cash flows to be received in every period in the future. Second,
discount the estimated total dollar cash flow for each period at the weighted cost of capital
(k) and then sum these discounted cash flows to estimate the value of this MNC.
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16
Part 1: The International Financial Environment
The process for valuing an MNC receiving multiple currencies over multiple periods
can be expressed formally as:
V ¼
8 m
9
X
>
>
>
½E ðCFj ,t Þ % E ðS j ,t Þ&>
>
>
>
>
n <
=
X
j¼1
t ¼1
>
>
>
>
:
ð1 þ kÞt
>
>
>
>
;
Here CFj,t is the cash flow denominated in a particular currency (which may be dollars)
and Sj,t denotes represents the exchange rate at which the MNC can convert the foreign
to the domestic currency at the end of period t. Whereas the previous equation is applied
to single-period cash flows, this equation considers cash flows over multiple periods and
then discounts those flows to obtain a present value.
Since the management of an MNC should be focused on maximizing its value, the
equation for valuing an MNC is extremely important. According to this equation, the
value (V) will increase in response to managerial decisions that increase the amount of
its cash flows in a particular currency (CFj) or to conditions that increase the exchange
rate at which that currency is converted into dollars (Sj).
To avoid double counting, cash flows of the MNC’s subsidiaries are considered in the
valuation model only when they reflect transactions with the U.S. parent. Therefore, any
expected cash flows received by foreign subsidiaries should not be counted in the valuation equation unless they are expected to be remitted to the parent.
The denominator of the valuation model for the MNC remains unchanged from the
original valuation model for the purely domestic firm. However, note that the weighted
average cost of capital for the MNC is based on funding some projects involving business
in different countries. Hence any decision by the MNC’s parent that affects the cost of its
capital supporting projects in a specific country will also affect its weighted average cost
of capital (and required rate of return) and thereby its value.
EXAMPLE
Austin Co. is a U.S.-based MNC that sells electronic games to U.S. consumers; it also has European
subsidiaries that produce and sell the games in Europe. The firm’s European earnings are denominated in euros (the currency of most European countries), and these earnings are typically remitted
to the U.S. parent. Last year, Austin received $40 million in cash flows from its U.S. operations and
20 million euros from its European operations. The euro was valued at $1.30 when remitted to the
U.S parent, so Austin’s cash flows last year are calculated as follows.
Austin’s total
$ cash flowslast year ¼ $ cash flows from U:S: operations þ $ cash flows from foreign operations
¼ $ cash flows from U:S: operations þ ½ðeuro cash flowsÞ % ðeuro exchange rateÞ&
¼ $40,000,000 þ ½ð20,000,000 eurosÞ % ð$1:30Þ&
¼ $40,000,000 þ $26,000,000
¼ $66,000,000
Assume that Austin Co. plans to continue its business in the United States and Europe for the next
three years. As a basic valuation model, the firm could use last year’s cash flows to estimate each future year’s cash flows; then its expected cash flows would be $66 million for each of the next three
years. Its valuation could be estimated by discounting these cash flows at its cost of capital. l
1-4c Uncertainty Surrounding an MNC’s Cash Flows
The MNC’s future cash flows (and therefore its valuation) are subject to uncertainty
because of its exposure not only to domestic economic conditions but also to international economic conditions, political conditions, and exchange rate risk. These factors
are explained next, and Exhibit 1.4 complements the discussion.
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Chapter 1: Multinational Financial Management: An Overview
17
Exhibit 1.4 How an MNC’s Valuation Is Exposed to Uncertainty (Risk)
Uncertain foreign currency cash flows
due to uncertain foreign economic
and political conditions
Uncertainty surrounding
future exchange rates
m
n
V5^
t51
^ [E(CFj,t ) 3 E (Sj,t )]
j51
(1 1 k )t
Uncertainty Surrounding an MNC’s Valuation:
Exposure to Foreign Economies: If [CFj,t , E (CFj,t )]
Exposure to Political Risk: If [CFj,t , E (CFj,t )]
V
V
Exposure to Exchange Rate Risk: If [Sj,t , E (Sj,t )]
V
Exposure to International Economic Conditions To the extent that a foreign
country’s economic conditions affect an MNC’s cash flows, they affect the MNC’s valuation. The cash inflows that an MNC receives from sales in a foreign country during a
given period depends on the demand by that country’s consumers for the MNC’s products, which in turn is affected by that country’s national income in that period. If economic conditions improve in that country, consumers there may enjoy an increase in
their income and the employment rate may rise. In that case, those consumers will
have more money to spend and their demand for the MNC’s products will increase.
This illustrates how the MNC’s cash flows increasing because of its exposure to international economic conditions.
However, an MNC can also be adversely affected by its exposure to international economic conditions. If conditions weaken in the foreign country where the MNC does
business, that country’s consumers suffer a decrease in their income and the employment
rate may decline. Then those consumers have less money to spend, and their demand for
the MNC’s products will decrease. In this case, the MNC’s cash flows are reduced
because of its exposure to international economic conditions.
When Facebook went public in 2012, the registration statement acknowledged its
exposure to international economic conditions: “We plan to continue expanding our
operations abroad where we have limited operating experience and may be subject to
increasing business and economic risks that could affect our financial results.”
International economic conditions can also affect the MNC’s cash flows indirectly by
affecting the MNC’s home economy. Consider that when a country’s economy strengthens and hence its consumers buy more products from firms in other countries, the firms
in those other countries experience stronger sales and cash flows. Therefore, the owners
and employees of these firms have more income. When they spend a portion of that
higher income locally, they stimulate their local economy.
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18
Part 1: The International Financial Environment
Conversely, if the foreign country’s economy weakens and hence its consumers buy
fewer products from firms in other countries, then the firms in those countries experience weaker sales and cash flows. The owners and employees of these firms therefore
have less income, and if they reduce spending locally their local economy weakens.
There is much international trade between the United States and Europe. European
countries under weak economic conditions tend to reduce their demand for U.S.-made
products. The result may be weaker economic conditions in the United States, which
may lead to lower national income and higher unemployment there. Then U.S. consumers would have less money to spend and so would reduce their demand for the products offered by U.S.-based MNCs. In recent years, the financial press has featured
extensive coverage on how bad economic conditions in European countries adversely
affect the U.S economy. Similarly, research has documented that U.S. stock market performance is highly sensitive to economic conditions in Europe.
The effects on international economic conditions are illustrated in Exhibit 1.5,
which shows how weak European conditions can affect the valuations of U.S.-based
MNCs. The top string of effects (from left to right) in this exhibit indicate how weak
European economic conditions cause a decline in the demand for the products made
by U.S. firms. The result is weaker cash flows of the U.S.-based MNCs that sell products either as exports or through their European subsidiaries to European customers.
However, there is an additional adverse effect of the weak European economy on
U.S.-based MNCs and even on domestic U.S. firms. As the U.S.-based MNCs experience weaker cash flows, they may reduce their workforce or the number of hours that
employees work. Furthermore, the profits earned by their owners are reduced. Thus
not only the employees but also the owners of U.S.-based MNCs have less money to
Exhibit 1.5 Potential Effects of International Economic Conditions
Reduced
European
Demand for
Products at
European
Subsidiaries
of U.S. Firms
Weak European
Economy
Reduced
European
Demand
for U.S.
Firms’
Exports
Reduced
Sales and
Cash Flows
of U.S.
Firms
Reduced
Valuations
of U.S.
Firms
Weak
U.S.
Economy
Weak
U.S. Demand
for Products
at U.S.
Firms
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Chapter 1: Multinational Financial Management: An Overview
19
spend, so all U.S. firms will likewise experience reduced sales and cash flows. This
means that a weak European economy, in addition to reducing European demand for
the products of U.S.-based MNCs, also weakens the U.S. economy and thus reduces
U.S. demand for those products.
EXAMPLE
Recall from the original example for Austin Co. that it has expected annual cash flows of $40 million
from its U.S. operations. If Europe experiences a recession, however, then Austin expects reduced
European demand for many U.S. products, and this will adversely affect the U.S. economy. Under these
conditions, the U.S. demand for Austin’s computer games would decline, reducing its expected annual
cash flows due to U.S. operations from $40 million to $38 million. A European recession would naturally
result also in reduced European demand for Austin’s computer games, so the company reduces its
expected euro cash flows due to European operations from 20 million euros to 16 million euros. l
Exposure to International Political Risk
Political risk in any country can affect
the level of an MNC’s sales. A foreign government may increase taxes or impose barriers
on the MNC’s subsidiary. Alternatively, consumers in a foreign country may boycott the
MNC if there is friction between the government of their country and the MNC’s home
country. Political actions like these can reduce the cash flows of an MNC. The term “country risk” is commonly used to reflect an MNC’s exposure to a variety of country conditions, including political actions such as friction within the government, government
policies (such as tax rules), and financial conditions within that country.
Exposure to Exchange Rate Risk If the foreign currencies to be received by a
U.S.-based MNC suddenly weaken against the dollar, then the MNC will receive a lower
amount of dollar cash flows than expected. Therefore, the MNC’s cash flows will be reduced.
EXAMPLE
Recall from the previous example that Austin Co. now anticipates a European recession and so has
revised its expected annual cash flows to be 16 million euros from its European operations. The
dollar cash flows that Austin will receive from these euro cash flows depend on the exchange rate
at the time those euros are converted to dollars. If the exchange rate is expected to be $1.30,
then Austin’s cash flows are predicted as follows.
Austin’s $ cash flows resulting from European operations ¼ Austin’s cash flows in euros % euro exchange rate
¼ 16,000,000 euros % $1:30
¼ $20,800,000
However, if Austin believes that the anticipated European recession will cause the euro’s value to
weaken and be worth only $1.20 when the euros are converted into dollars, then its estimate of
the dollar cash flows from European operations would be revised as follows.
Austin’s $ cash flows resulting from European operations ¼ Austin’s cash flows in euros % euro exchange rate
¼ 16,000,000 euros % $1:20
¼ $19,200,000
Thus, Austin’s expected dollar cash flows are reduced as a result of reducing the expected value of
the euro at the time of conversion into dollars.
This conceptual framework can be used to understand how MNCs such as Facebook or Google are
affected by exchange rate movements. Google now receives more than half of its total revenue
from outside the United States as it provides advertising for non-U.S. companies targeted at
non-U.S. users. Consequently, Google’s dollar cash flows are favorably affected when the currencies
it receives appreciate against the dollar over time.
As Facebook attracts more users in Europe, it will attract more demand for advertising by European firms and therefore will receive more cash flows in euros. As it sells more ads to firms in other
countries, it will receive more cash flows in their respective currencies. Its international revenue as
a percentage of total revenue has consistently increased over the last four years and it is now
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20
Part 1: The International Financial Environment
approaching 50 percent. As Facebook’s international business continues to grow, its estimated dollar cash flows in any period will necessarily become more sensitive to the exchange rates of these
currencies relative to the dollar. If the revenue it receives is denominated in currencies that
appreciate against the dollar over time, then its dollar cash flows and valuation will increase.
Conversely, if the revenue it receives is denominated in currencies that depreciate against the
dollar over time, its dollar cash flows and valuation will decrease. l
Many MNCs have cash outflows in one or more foreign currencies because they
import supplies or materials from companies in other countries. When an MNC anticipates future cash outflows in foreign currencies, it is exposed to exchange rate movements but in the opposite direction. If those foreign currencies strengthen, then the
MNC will require more dollars to obtain the foreign currencies needed to make its
payments. This dynamic reduces the MNC’s dollar cash flows (on a net basis) overall
and so diminishes its value.
1-4d Summary of International Effects
Exhibit 1.4 summarized how an MNC’s expected cash flows and valuation are subject to
uncertainty through exposure to international conditions. Up to this point, the possible
impact of each international condition on an MNC’s cash flows has been treated in
isolation. In reality, however, an MNC must consider the impact of all international conditions so that it can determine the resulting effect on its cash flows.
EXAMPLE
Recall the original example of Austin Co., a U.S.-based MNC that expects to generate $40 million
annually in cash flows from its operations in the United States and 20 million euros annually in cash
flows from its operations in Europe over the next three years. Assume that Austin anticipates a
possible European recession during this period and therefore revises its expectations as follows to
reflect that possibility.
1. The company expects that a European recession will adversely affect the U.S. economy and
result in reduced U.S. demand for its computer games; it therefore reduces its estimated
dollar cash flows from U.S. operations to $38 million annually over the next three years.
2. Austin expects that a European recession will result in a reduced European demand for its
computer games, so it lowers its estimated euro cash flows from European operations to
16 million euros annually over the next three years.
3. The firm expects that a European recession will weaken the euro and hence lowers its estimate
of the euro’s value to $1.20 over the next three years. Altogether, then, Austin’s expected
annual cash flows for each of the next three years are now calculated as follows.
Austin’s total expected $ cash
flows each year ¼ $ cash flows from U:S: operations þ $ cash flows from foreign operations
¼ $ cash flows from U:S: operations þ ½ðeuro cash flowsÞ % ðeuro exchange rateÞ&
¼ $38,000,000 þ ½ð16,000,000 eurosÞ % ð$1:20Þ&
¼ $38,000,000 þ $19,200,000
¼ $57,200,000 l
Comparing these estimates to those in the original example reveals how each of the
three revisions in expectations affects expected cash flows. The expected dollar cash flows
from U.S. operations are reduced. The expected euro cash flows are reduced and the expected exchange rate is lower; both of these factors reduce the estimate of dollar cash
flows from foreign operations. The expected annual dollar cash flows for Austin in the
original example were $66 million, whereas the revised expectation is only $57.2 million.
This example clearly illustrates just how adversely an MNC’s cash flows can be affected
by exposure to international conditions.
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Chapter 1: Multinational Financial Management: An Overview
21
1-4e How Uncertainty Affects the MNC’s Cost of Capital
If there is suddenly more uncertainty about an MNC’s future cash flows, then investors
will expect to receive a higher rate of return. Thus more uncertainty increases the return
on investment required by investors (and thus the MNC’s cost of obtaining capital),
which lowers the firm’s valuation.
EXAMPLE
Since Austin Co. does substantial business in Europe, its value is strongly influenced by how much
revenue it expects to earn from that business. As a result of some events that occurred in Europe
today, economic conditions in Europe are subject to considerable uncertainty. Although Austin does
not change its forecasts of expected cash flows, it is concerned that the actual flows could deviate
substantially from those forecasts. The increased uncertainty surrounding these cash flows has
increased the firm’s cost of capital, because its investors now require a higher rate of return. In
other words, the numerator (estimated cash flows) of the valuation equation has not changed but
the denominator has increased owing to the increased uncertainty surrounding the cash flows.
Thus, the valuation of Austin Co. has decreased. l
In some periods, the uncertainty surrounding conditions that influence cash flows of
MNCs could decline. In that case, the uncertainty surrounding cash flows also declines
and results in a lower required rate of return and cost of capital for MNCs. Consequently, the valuations of MNCs increase.
1-5
ORGANIZATION
OF THE
TEXT
The chapters in this textbook are organized as shown in Exhibit 1.6. Chapters 2 through 8
discuss international markets and conditions from a macroeconomic perspective, focusing
Exhibit 1.6 Organization of Chapters
Background
on International
Financial Markets
(Chapters 2–5)
Exchange Rate
Behavior
(Chapters 6–8)
Exchange Rate
Risk Management
(Chapters 9–12)
Long-Term
Investment and
Financing Decisions
(Chapters 13–18)
Risk and Return
of MNC
Value and Stock
Price of MNC
Short-Term
Investment and
Financing Decisions
(Chapters 19–21)
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22
Part 1: The International Financial Environment
on external forces that can affect the value of an MNC. Although financial managers cannot control such forces, they can control the extent of their firm’s exposure to them. These
macroeconomically oriented chapters provide the background necessary to make financial
decisions.
Chapters 9 through 21 take a microeconomic perspective and focus on how the financial management of an MNC can affect its value. Financial decisions by MNCs are commonly classified as either investing decisions or financing decisions. In general, investing
decisions by an MNC tend to affect the numerator of the valuation model because such
decisions affect expected cash flows. In addition, investing decisions by the MNC that
alter the firm’s weighted average cost of capital may also affect the denominator of the
valuation model. Long-term financing decisions by an MNC tend to affect the denominator of the valuation model because they affect its cost of capital.
SUMMARY
■
■
The main goal of an MNC is to maximize shareholder wealth. When managers are tempted to
serve their own interests instead of those of shareholders, an agency problem exists. Multinational
corporations tend to experience greater agency
problems than do domestic firms because managers of foreign subsidiaries might be tempted to
make decisions that serve their subsidiaries instead
of the overall MNC. Proper incentives and communication from the parent may help to ensure
that subsidiary managers focus on serving the
overall MNC.
International business is justified by three key
theories. The theory of comparative advantage
suggests that each country should use its comparative advantage to specialize in its production
and rely on other countries to meet other needs.
The imperfect markets theory suggests that imperfect markets render the factors of production
immobile, which encourages countries to specialize based on the resources they have. The
product cycle theory suggests that, after firms
are established in their home countries, they
■
■
commonly expand their product specialization
in foreign countries.
The most common methods by which firms conduct international business are international trade,
licensing, franchising, joint ventures, acquisitions
of foreign firms, and formation of foreign
subsidiaries. Methods such as licensing and franchising involve little capital investment but distribute some of the profits to other parties. The
acquisition of foreign firms or formation of foreign
subsidiaries requires substantial capital investments but offers the potential for large returns.
The valuation model of an MNC shows that the
MNC’s value is favorably affected when its expected foreign cash inflows increase, the currencies
denominating those cash inflows increase, or the
MNC’s required rate of return decreases. Conversely, the MNC’s value is adversely affected
when its expected foreign cash inflows decrease,
the values of currencies denominating those cash
flows decrease (assuming that they have net cash
inflows in foreign currencies), or the MNC’s
required rate of return increases.
POINT COUNTER-POINT
Should an MNC Reduce Its Ethical Standards to Compete Internationally?
Point Yes. When a U.S.-based MNC competes in
some countries, it may encounter some business norms
there that are not allowed in the United States. For
example, when competing for a government contract,
firms might provide payoffs to the government officials
who will make the decision. Yet, in the United States, a
firm will sometimes take a client on an expensive golf
outing or provide skybox tickets to events. This is no
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