THE MEMORY OF ‘ALĪ B. ABĪ ṬĀLIB IN EARLY SUNNĪ THOUGHT
Nebil Ahmed Husayn
A DISSERTATION
PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY
OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY
IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE
OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
DEPARTMENT OF NEAR EASTERN STUDIES
Adviser: Hossein Modarressi
May 2016
© Copyright by Nebil Ahmed Husayn, 2016. All rights reserved.
ABSTRACT
Pro-‘Alid sentiment (al-mayl ilā ‘Alī, tashayyu‘) is a prevalent, trans-sectarian tendency to
venerate ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib (d. 40/661) and his family. In contrast, Muslims expressing anti-‘Alid
sentiment (naṣb) historically viewed ‘Alī and his descendants with contempt. In a literary and
social world of binary sectarian characterizations, this dissertation argues that medieval
authors conflated early pro-‘Alid sentiment with Shī‘ism. First, this dissertation examines
both the biographies and literary contributions of pro-‘Alids who were marginalized as too
“Shī‘ī” centuries after their deaths in Sunnī literature. Second, it locates and contextualizes
the literature of anti-‘Alids who historically opposed pro-‘Alid sentiment and criticized ‘Alī as a
heretic and criminal. Each of these studies documents the contributions, declining popularity
and eventual demise of a minority theological tradition in early Sunnism to consider problems
related to the politics of identity, history writing, and the formation of orthodoxy. By the
third/ninth century, an emerging Sunnī orthodoxy sought to minimize early partisan divisions
within the community by actively criticizing pro-‘Alid and anti-‘Alid tendencies among
scholars and rejecting their literary contributions. Furthermore, influential Sunnī scholars
attempted to develop an image of ‘Alī that suited orthodoxy in their ḥadīth collections and
commentaries. This study explores the methods in which these scholars rehabilitated ‘Alī’s
image from the third/ninth to seventh/thirteenth centuries.
The literary contributions of both zealous pro-‘Alids and anti-‘Alids to Sunnī
historiography have largely been suppressed or lost over the centuries. Previous research has
overlooked the “erased” histories of these groups due to a dependency on later Sunnī metanarratives that mostly excluded their perspectives. However, this study demonstrates that
many influential texts possess an understudied undercurrent of early authorities who once
upheld views of ‘Alī contrary to the sect’s later established tenets. This dissertation
contributes to studies of Muslim historiography, Sunnī ḥadīth, Shī‘ism, and the impact of early
theological debates on the formation of communal boundaries in religion.
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For every Sunnī mistaken for a Shī‘ī
And every Shī‘ī made to feel unwelcome
“Those who mind don't matter, and those who matter don't mind”
-B. M. Baruch
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT .............................................................................................. iii!
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................. v!
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 2
CHAPTER 1. A conceptual history of pro-‘Alid sentiment ....................... 15!
I.!
A.!
B.!
C.!
What is pro-‘Alid sentiment in the earliest periods? ...................... 21!
Pro-‘Alid Sentiment in the Second Century ................................... 26!
Pro-‘Alid Sentiment in the Third Century and al-jarḥ waʼl-ta‘dīl .... 31!
Pro-‘Alid Sunnism until the sixth century ..................................... 38!
II.!
al-tashayyu‘ al-ḥasan ....................................................................... 48!
III.! When tashayyu‘ becomes rafḍ .......................................................... 57!
IV.! Conclusions .................................................................................... 72
CHAPTER 1 Appendix. The Vocabulary of tashayyu‘ ................................ 78!
I.!
(1 A-D) Terminology for acceptable tashayyu‘ ................................. 78!
II.!
(2 A-E) Terminology for objectionable tashayyu‘ ............................ 83!
CHAPTER 2. When Ali was without equal: Tafḍīl ‘Alī in Sunnī Islam ........ 88!
I. Topos I: The delay in pledging allegiance to Abū Bakr ........................ 96!
A.! Ḥadīth 1: The segmentation of the community .............................. 97!
B. Ḥadīth 2: ‘Alī’s delay in pledging allegiance ................................ 103!
II. Topos II: ‘Alī's dissatisfaction with the succession
of previous caliphs ........................................................... 109
A.! Ḥadīth 3: ‘Alī and ‘Abbās acknowledge their dissatisfaction
with the first two caliphs ........................................................... 109!
B.! Ḥadīth 4: ‘Alī seeks the caliphate after ‘Umar’s death ................. 115!
C.! Ḥadīth 5: ‘Alī and the ḥadīth al-munāshada .................................. 122!
III.! Topos III: ‘Alī as the best of mankind ........................................... 133!
IV. Conclusions .................................................................................... 147!
CHAPTER 3. Anti-‘Alid Sentiment: a literary survey and
conceptual framework ...................................................... 149
I.!
Part 1: An Introductory Framework .............................................. 149!
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II.!
Anti-‘Alid Sentiment Defined ....................................................... 153!
III.! Surveying Muslim Literature for Anti-‘Alid Sentiment ................. 161!
IV.! Conclusions: Tensions in Developing a Framework for naṣb ......... 168!
V.! Part 2: Two Medieval Texts Summarizing naṣb ............................. 172!
A.! Case 1: al-Jāḥiẓ ............................................................................ 175!
1. ! ‘Uthm āniyya ........................................................................................ 177!
2. ! The Umayyads ..................................................................................... 179!
3. ! The Khārijites ...................................................................................... 180!
B.! Case 2: Ibn Taymiyya ................................................................... 180!
1. ! The beliefs of the nawāṣib .................................................................... 181!
2. ! The beliefs of “ahl al-sunna” ................................................................ 183!
CHAPTER 3 Appendix. Anti-‘Alid Statements and Events
in Historical Texts .............................................................. 188!
I.!
Support for the murder or assault of ‘Alī or his kin ..................... 189!
II.!
Cursing or insulting ‘Alī and his sons ........................................... 192!
III.! Condemnation of ‘Alī and his kin as wicked or sinful ................... 195!
IV.! Mockery of ‘Alid claims to inheritance from the Prophet ............. 202!
V.!
Dismissal of reports about ‘Alī’s unique merits as false ............... 205!
VI.! Condemnation of the actions and opinions of ‘Alī and his sons .... 205!
VII.! Exaltation of individuals who fought ‘Alī and his sons ................. 209!
VIII.!Denunciation and censure of ‘Alī’s close companions .................. 209!
Tensions in the Texts ................................................................... 210!
CHAPTER 4. The Tension Between Anti-‘Alid and Anti-Shī‘ī Sentiment
in Sunnī Islam .................................................................... 213!
I.!
Anti-‘Alid and Pro-‘Alid sentiments as a social phenomenon ....... 214!
A. Group 1 – nawāṣib ......................................................................... 214!
B. Group 2 – Opposition to any special veneration of ‘Alī ................. 214!
C.!!!Group 3 – Opposition to tafḍīl ‘Alī ................................................. 215!
D.!!!Group 4 – Opposition to his veneration as a miraculous imam ..... 216!
E.!!!Group 5 – Opposition to his deification ........................................ 217!
F.!!!Group 6 – ghulāt ............................................................................ 217!
II.!
Al-Bukhārī, Ibn Taymiyya and their detractors ............................ 218
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III.! Literary Portrayals of Anti-‘Alid Sentiment ................................. 224!
Peoples and Parties Associated with Anti-‘Alid Sentiment ........... 225!
A.!!!Leading elders in the tribe of Quraysh ......................................... 225!
B. ‘Āʼisha .......................................................................................... 227!
C. ‘Abd Allāh ibn Zubayr and the Zubayrids ...................................... 231!
D. Umayyads ..................................................................................... 234!
M arwān ibn al-Ḥakam cursing ‘Alī ............................................................ 237!
Al-M ughīra cursing ‘Alī ............................................................................. 240!
M u‘āwiya cursing ‘Alī ................................................................................ 241!
M u‘āwiya cursing ‘Alī in the presence of Sa‘d ibn Abī W aqqāṣ .................. 245!
The Um ayyads and al-Ḥasan ibn ‘Alī ......................................................... 251!
E.! ‘Uthmāniyya .................................................................................. 252!
F.! ‘Abbāsids ..................................................................................... 257!
III. Conclusions ................................................................................... 258!
CONCLUSION. The Evolution of ‘Alī in Sunnī Hadith
and Historiography ....................................................... 260!
I. The Process of Rehabilitation .......................................................... 262!
A.! Rejection ..................................................................................... 263!
B.! Deflection .................................................................................... 263!
C.! Recasting ..................................................................................... 265!
The Curious Case of Abū Turāb ......................................................................................... 265!
D.! Erasure ........................................................................................ 272!
E.! Emendation ................................................................................. 276!
F.! Circulation of Counter Reports .................................................... 277!
G.! The Principle of Charity .............................................................. 280!
II. From Three Caliphs to Four ............................................................ 281!
III. Conclusions .................................................................................... 283!
Summary ................................................................................................... 284!
BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................... 289!
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