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Center for Advanced Human Resource Studies
(CAHRS)
January 1989
Efficiency and Equity as Goals for Contemporary
U.S. Immigration Policy
Vernon M. Briggs Jr.
Cornell University, [email protected]
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Efficiency and Equity as Goals for Contemporary U.S. Immigration Policy
Abstract
As the United states has entered its post-industrial stage of economic development, mass immigration has
again become a distinguishing feature of the U.S. economy. The extant public policies that govern the size and
composition of the immigrant and refugee flows, however, are largely unrelated to emerging economic
considerations.
Immigration is the one aspect of population and labor force growth that public policy should be able to shape
and control. In all of its diverse forms, immigration presently accounts for anywhere from one-quarter to onethird of the annual growth of the U.S. labor force. By the turn of the 21st Century, it could conceivably
comprise all of such growth. Immigration, therefore, is a vital determinant of the nation's economic welfare -regardless of the reluctance of policymakers to view it as such.
Keywords
CAHRS, ILR, center, human resource, studies, advanced, efficiency, equity, U.S., immigration, policy,
economic development, economy, labor force, growth, skill, education
Comments
Suggested Citation
Briggs, V. M., Jr. (1989). Efficiency and equity as goals for contemporary U.S. immigration policy (CAHRS
Working Paper #89-02). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University, School of Industrial and Labor Relations, Center for
Advanced Human Resource Studies.
http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cahrswp/397
This article is available at DigitalCommons@ILR: http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cahrswp/397
Efficiency
and Equity as Goals
for Contemporary
U.S.
Immigration
Policy
Vernon
Working
M. Briggs,
Paper
Jr.
#89-02
Center for Advanced Human Resource Studies
New York state School of Industrial
and Labor Relations
Cornell University
Ithaca, New York
14851-0952
(607) 255-4470
This paper has not undergone
formal review or approval of the faculty of
the ILR School.
It is intended to make the results of Center research,
conferences,
and projects available
to others interested
in human resource
management
in preliminary
form to encourage
discussion
and suggestions.
Abstract
As the United
development,
states
mass
has entered
immigration
of the U.s.
economy.
composition
of the immigrant
unrelated
Immigration
that public
diverse
to one-third
of the
therefore,
-- regardless
with
radical
occupational
is being
workers
with
skill
seekers
without
are being
competitiveness
oriented
it must
of its work
To assist
in this
be designed
labor
There
the
that
it as such.
and
labor
market
favoring
needs
those
for job
supply
side
the United
states
already
for the types
is to maintain
priority
one-quarter
labor
who are ill-prepared
urgent
its
economic
industrial
On the
in its quest
of
By the turn
to view
is increasingly
true,
growth
all of such growth.
are diminishing
If the nation
from
of the nation's
endowments.
but
all
force.
of policymakers
for labor
of adults
give
and
largely
force
In
it is fair to say that
capital
created.
feature
the size
are
and labor
in the nation's
and to be successful
economy,
competency
patterns,
number
however,
comprise
determinant
it is unfortunate,
has a significant
jobs that
conceivably
occurring
human
govern
for anywhere
of the U.s.
and education.
these
of the equation,
growth
The demand
transformed.
that
and control.
accounts
of the reluctance
employment
flows,
to shape
is a vital
changes
of economic
a distinguishing
of population
presently
it could
stage
considerations.
be able
immigration
21st Century,
welfare
should
should
become
policies
and refugee
economic
of the annual
Immigration,
public
is the one aspect
policy
forms,
has again
The extant
to emerging
its post-industrial
its
to be a high
to the issue
of
technology-
of the
force.
effort
to enhance
to be flexible
efficiency,
in order
to respond
immigration
to changing
policy
domestic
economic conditions.
dominated
Currently,
by political
reunification
to provide
the long
motivations
and humanitarian
skilled
run,
equity
is imperative
that
citizen
in the growth
industries
employers
must
derived
workers
from
force
be prepared
better
market
opportunities
shortages.
the nation's
come
economy.
But
in
multi-racial
quality
It
jobs
Immigration,
from
for training
run means
into play.
for the high
pressures
is
can be a short
also
of its post-industrial
these
policy
to family
to fill worker
of the labor
not inhibit
to provide
Immigration
workers
considerations
character
immigration
that give priority
goals.
and educated
and multi-cultural
therefore,
the nation's
encouraging
and employment
of
citizens.
Conversely,
into the nation
who can only
with
and industries.
nation
it is also
can ill-afford
to increase
or to increase
number
of jobs available
labor
market
words,
provides.
adult
immigration
not provide
in the declining
illiteracy
the pool
the competition
problem
of unskilled
among
occupations
already,
and poorly
such workers
for
workers
the
educated
the shrinking
to them.
immigration
adjustment.
the continuation
that
seek employment
a sizeable
workers
In other
essential
policy
otherwise,
of the unguided
needs
there
to become
is little
flow of persons
that
an instrument
justification
immigration
of
for
currently
Efficiency
and Equity
As Goals
for Contemporary
u.s.
Immigration
Policy
Vernon M. Briggs, Jr.
Cornell University
Since
the mid-1960s,
distinguishing
feature
other
industrial
advanced
willingness
to admit
and refugees
each year
u.s.
of contemporary
corporations
proclaimed
that
analysis,
which
economy
continues
"America's
generally
because
stated
from
to flow
Because
recognized
by Congress
other
that
national
interest
the process
as a necessary
(i.e.,
element
of this
finally
from
over
is that
several
ranged
"immigration
decades;
from poor
research
has never
of public
economic
the point
policy
been
process;
primarily
of contemporary
It would
indifference
today
program
has been
of Congress)
impact
analysis.
of this prolonged
reached
have
committees
careful
the current
in the deliberative
element
the cumulative
large
in American
of immigration
the judiciary
deferred
by three
of a comprehensive
effects
Indeed,
in the world".2
to monitor
economic
abuse
Its detailed
nations
occurred
the consequences
has
elsewhere
the importance
lawyers,
has been
however,
industrialized
immigrants
mass
to distinguish
has gradually
the administration
by lawyers,
immigration
data
because
the on-going
to benefIt
of other
in its
team of scholars
is people".1
the one feature
to all
immigrants.
commissioned
"the decline
at a rate unknown
to assess
designed
documents
the process
to non-existent;
import
of legal
of illegal
society
as a
alone
as to tolerate
by an international
biggest
that
those
the relevant
and because
American
stands
of thousands
number
surfaced
In contrast
states
as well
annual
and conducted
exceptionalism,"
U.s.
hundreds
again
states.
the United
settlement
larger
has once
in the United
nations,
for permanent
study
immigration
of life
of its laws by an even
a 1986
mass
where
seem,
to the
it can no longer
2
be ignored.
Having
state
it had rested
(where
underway
stirred
in the
by the nation's
this
sleeping
1960s
reawakened
from the mid-1920s),
political
economic
leaders
giant
The omnipresence
serve
immigration
a variety
of perceived
national
such
human
important
there
public
resource
Regardless
immigration
concerns
development,
economic
is derived
from the fact
under
guise
what
they
or to be supported
and their
the nation.
over
in mass
market
warranted.
a case
for more
liberal
of jobs
be beneficial
uncertain,
prudence
until
time
exist
but
the welfare
that
would
as trends
dictate
economic
admissions
that
can be discerned.
There
of
in the
change
be the cause
or worse
of
for the
are readily
may be
may be the case.
restrictive
workers
conditions
for citizens
not.
themselves
interests
of immigrants
might
role
be the case
areas,
in time,
-- no matter
support
better
geographical
policy
point
economic
the best
such will
jobs
issues.
of immigrant
can themselves
the opposite
a general
with
-- for either
in certain
to
with
family,
relations
way
to
to its obvious
labor,
some
find
upon
intertwined
immigrants
If, for instance,
If jobs are scarce,
~ypes
such
numbers
called
most
Domestic
conditions
of the nation.
available,
could
economy.
for having
at any particular
also be congruent
is no assurance
Immigrants
in labor
citizenry
certain
But there
post-industrial
time.
changes
will
must
is now
past.
The ever present
Ideally,
by others.
dependents
and foreign
ultimately,
--
become
agricultural,
consequences.
entered
a purpose
In addition
has at times
justifications
that,
effort
has been
purposes.
as racial,
its dormant
Effects
policy
humanitarian
of the perceived
are always
emerging
policy
a belated
to find
of Economic
its history,
role,
from
from out of America's
Throughout
population
immigration
If only
a targeted
If conditions
policies
is little
policy
are
be in place
rationale
3
for the prevailing
circumstances
in either
Immigration
that public
be held
responsible
each year
they possess
and refugees
are admitted
less
total
flow.
than
immigrants,
refugees,
for anywhere
U.s.
labor
immigrants
when
force.
for several
boomers"
could,
forms
force
the work
force
labor
of the nation's
economic
policymakers
to view
economic
that
by U.S.
the skills
and education
are
Immigration,
The percentage
included
number
the flow
growth
accounts
of the
of illegal
It is highly
(that have
probable
been
that,
rising
the flow of "baby
(as it soon will),
immigration
all of the annual
therefore,
-- regardless
in the
illegal
workers),
of the annual
comprise
than
to the United
and when
to ebb
is still
Less
immigrants,
rates
stabilize
welfare
it in this
It has yet to
employers.
legal
growth
admitted
immigrants
participation
begins
to view
consequences.3
who are legally
(i.e.,
force
however,
objectives.
to be precise.
force.
is a vital
of the reluctance
growth
determinant
of
it as such.
Immigration
A comprehensive
unwilling
political
by the turn of the 21st Century,
of the nation's
To date,
of a considerable
eventually
to economic
in all of its forms,
to one-third
efforts
labor
and labor
and non-immigrant
The presence
decades)
into
policy,
1% if illegal
asylees,
complicates
been
on the basis
from one-quarter
the female
have
in demand
In all of its diverse
is oblivious
of population
for its sizable
is considerably
that
or long run.
of purely
are actually
immigrant
states
of immigration
by the pursuit
policy
be able to control.
in the United
5% of the immigrants
states
the short
should
The design
dominated
admission
is the one aspect
policy
policymakers
light.
blanket
Policy
discussion
and National
of the history
Goals
of the
immigration
policy
4
of the United
states
is beyond
present
review
of its evolution
is essential
change
from
course
For
had
its present
its first
neither
persons
ceilings
permitted
nation
century
was
dominated
of the labor
were
amount
policy
It was
a pragmatic
enforcement
borders
When
decades
mechanization
labor
did domestic
equity
racial
population
ethnic
immigrants
nation's
immigrants
in 1882.
From purely
of new ethnic
began
sting
an efficiency
groups
during
along
in earnest
introduced
needs.
the
its vast
sublimated
were
standpoint,
the late
in its urban
welcomed
19th Century
Not
freed"
black
some of the recent
world.
however,
any
era.
institutionalized
against
the latter
of
this
"newly
against
the Chinese
taken
were
during
on the
the outside
were
technology
however,
being
during
job openings
but prejudice
steps
economic
did not have
immigration
lock-in
toward
Similar
simply
With
alone).
basic
led to discrimination
the reactionary
sector
70 percent
the nation's
to fill
were
segregation
policies
The economy
an unregulated
immigrants,
of the South,
immigration
to-feel
workers
ideals
The
to try.
the newly
unskilled
industrial
type
settlement.
unpopulated,
process
Not all would-be
The nation's
citizen
group
needed
markets.
more.
only
19th Century,
a
states
and
(as late as 1880,
restrict
inclined
that
development.
The new nation
to effectively
the industrialization
of the
with
position.
if it had been
on the number
of economic
largely
the United
or temporary
in this
was consistent
capacity
even
employed
the thesis
nation,
by agriculture
of land that was
immigration
also
stage
a brief
needed.4
restrictions
for permanent
in its pre-industrial
was overwhelmingly
a vast
is desperately
nor screening
Nonetheless,
to understanding
as an independent
to enter
force
purposes.
in the
The first
who were
banned
the Japanese
the mass
ethnic
as
in 1907.
immigration
and the first
two decades
5
of the 20th
Century
of the nation.
sector
was generally
Agriculture
(accounting
continuing
labor
new employment
required
in English
needs
little
from
came
during
they
reasonably
about
had
a high
so scarce
six percent
school
typically
As the history
required
most
of
of the adult
blood,
the
contraction
the first
sweat,
native
War
in immigration.
in the nation's
negative
social
the
(also known
enacted
Following
history
as the National
that
favored
were
imposed.
(i.e.,
immigrants
of overtly
embodied
Western
amply
the nation
of the ethnic
Origins
of the
this venture
were
to many
of that
times
degrees
were
era asked
jobs
largely
-- as well as
provided
of immigrants
Moreover,
all
three.
a sharp
affairs,
to be
the pervasive
who had entered
mostly
racist
little
force.
into world
Qualitative
and Northern
even
labor
from Eastern
immigration
in the Immigration
Act).
I in 1917,
experienced
groups
As
states
the available
on the number
led to the adoption
actions
those
War
had college
of the immigrants
I, however,
1890 to 1914 period
restrictive
of
--
who
at the time.
in the United
shows,
Most
restrictions
reactions
Southern_Europe)
were
workers
with World
quantitative
clearly
and tears.
born
admitted
These
labor
or fluency
Nonetheless,
into World
from most
The
that
of immigrants
for labor
The technology
endowments
jobs
attributes.
who actually
rare.
resource
of American
Beginning
during
Workers
employment
literacy,
supply
force
needs
emerging
generated
states
labor
single
as the rapidly
these
demand
economic
as late as 1920).
education,
of the United
as to be considered
in the way of human
lacked
the effective
diploma.
largest
and mining
The enormous
force.
late as the eve of the entry
only
as well
in the way of skills,
matched
the basic
of all employment
of manufacturing
years
with
the nation's
of agriculture,
the work
these
remained
for one-third
sectors
very
consistent
Act
screening
Europeans;
and
reforms.
of 1924
standards
disfavored
other
6
Europeans;
banned
this
the expanding
time,
widespread
mass
of workers
to do labor
surpluses.
During
economy.
and the rural
founded.
were
needed,
found
the 1920s,
over
6 million
urban
opportunities
began
their
declined
important
were
was
decade
followed
citizens
barriers
weakened
to provide
new domestic
of the prevailing
1950s,
(with
labor
laws were
the economy
prospered
and the forced-savings
that
to confront
the legacy
of racial
inequality
The Civil
its inception.
antecedents,
and it culminated
equal
as overt
was
launched
in the passage
employment
racism
who
finally
a logical
extension
that
spread
of the Civil
no longer
the
part
States
era.
It was
was finally
the
throughout
Rights
years.
to the pent-
had plagued
with
groups
low quotas
these
although
in earnest
soon
of unemployed
and minority
of the war
Movement,
opportunity
could
during
the United
Rights
This movement
in 1957.
it was only
was
(when previously
Even
due in large
affluence
Just
areas
to these
South
of women
not met
of general
its landmark
labor
the nation
to respond
of the 1940s
supplies).
this period
in Alabama
since
in
rural
to urban
its surplus
to the employment
immigration
for products
intellectual
sectors
massive
of the rural
by the war years
artificial
since
time
numbers
to domestic
moved
of workers
of the 1930s
existing
up demand
turned
for the first
the black
unlimited
industrial
people
Capital
of production.
in the nation's
new supply
by the
exodus.
The depression
In the
employers
By
Africans.
required
In those
were
population
method
no longer
work.
most
was characterized
surpluses
The most
job seekers)
economy
techniques
intensive
workers
These
and ignored
of the assembly-line
production
unskilled
all Asians;
domestic
introduction
intensive
which
virtually
during
forced
the nation
it had
earlier
"bus boycotts"
most
of the South
Act of 1964
(with
provisions).
be tolerated
of principle
that
within
the country,
such practices
had to
7
be purged
from
the adoption
admission
its immigration
of the
system.
politically
Immigration
popular
preference
categories
year
family
members
holder
are exempt
admission
largely
market
the geographic
settlement
labor
Unfortunately,
enlarging
change
the scale
and extended
of legal
are linked
immediate
of each
with
visa
Under
immigrants
stresses
more
family
are
existing
family
to kinship
this
labor
ties,
than
to
needs.
of immigration
flows
of entering
the admission
in 1965,
a new phase
the fact
process
that
and
the U.s.
of fundamental
employment
was unforseen.
the mid-1960s,
of economic
had been
to-decline
its blue
(see Table
collar
year
of the U.s.
the United
sector
1).
since
of the labor
occupational
states
The goods
employment
every
3 percent
Nature
development.
the major
of employment
than
available
automatically.
system
of altering
was on the verge
Since
began
market
six admission
of the total)
compatibility
the legal
patterns
on the concept
and parents)
endowments
in the process
The Changing
stage
because
origins
and a
In addition,
children,
to their
increased
of adult
and admitted
capital
the national
of the current
80 percent
Hence,
world.
primarily
citizens.
minor
regard
based
categories
all quotas
with
local
(i.e.,
spouses,
the human
the external
sharply
Four
are already
Likewise,
needs.
demonstrated
who
from
system,
system
for various
(i.e.,
accidental
economy
of visas
of persons
were
was adopted.
are reserved
relatives
levels
new admissions
reunification
with
Act of 1965 ended
Immigration
of family
each
policies
Labor
has
Agriculture
the late
force.
--has
its post-industrial
the history
of the U.s.
a negative
It provides
manufacturing
been
-- which
industries
has been
1940s.
Likewise,
categories
entered
producing
throughout
Market
in sharp
jobs
source
for less
-- especially
relative
8
TABLE 1
Industrial Employment in the United States, Selected Years (in thousands
of employed persons)
/ndu,ftry
Goods-Producing
Agriculture
Mining
Construction
Manufacturing
Service-Producing
Transportation and
public utilities
Wholesale trade
Retail trade
Finance. insuranc~.
real estate
Personal services
Government
SOVRCES:
EconomicRtf'O" 'if
""
/950
/960
/970
/980
/986-
9.926
901
2,364
15,241
7.057
712
2.926
16,796
4.523
623
3.588
19,367
3,705
1.027
4.346
20.285
3,138
792
4,961
19,961
4.034
4.004
4,515
5,146
5,285
2.635
6.751
3.143
8,248
3,993
11.047
5.275
15,035
5.853
17.976
1.888
5.357
6,026
2.629
7,378
8,353
3,645
11,548
12,554
5.160
17,890
16.241
6,304
23,073
16,738
P,nitl"" (Wa'hington.D.C.: U.S. GovcrnmentPrintingOfficc. 1987).
9
decline
labor
(accounting
force).
Employment
construction
industry
industry
that
technology.
has
shown
modest
employment
in employment
for coordinating,
guiding,
and evaluating
the introduction
of a vast
for the human
neuro-muscular
computer-driven
perform
an enormous
Thus,
and
machines
Secretary
of disguising
that
simply
work
is
there
changes
unskilled
right
under
the growth
our
there
in the legitimate
In the wake
there
of the sharp
have been
feeL
liS
systems
jobs
With
these
that
new
can
aptly
both
for poorly
said
in 1987,
paying
assembly
jobs,
to labor
that
foreseeable
But,
force
unless
"the days
line
job
of
is creating
reward
extensive
future
that
public
policy
preparativeness
to be a chronic
yet, persons
As
The world
The new technology
in the
skilled
of the past.
in occupations
is likely
and, worse
created
substitutes
to link
are soon to be over.
of unskilled
regard
has been
operations.
a thing
a high
It is unlikely
with
admissions,
skill
with
is concentrated
be an abundance
job seekers
employment
sector,
E. Brock
illiteracy
industries
controlled
and electrical
that high paying
William
dramatically
immigration
means
it is an
tasks.
of Labor
a manual
routine
self-regulating
are largely
and education.6
will
into
of work
"mind"
it is now possible
workers
requires
new jobs but
most
producing
of computer
an electronic
educated
functional
changing
training
variety
the new technology
inadequately
former
together
but
fluctuations.
of mechanical
system,
The
increases
of new forms
technology,
of the employed
sharply.
in the goods
computer
array
20 percent
fallen
cyclical
by the introduction
With
for only
has also
to frequent
fall-off
sparked
1980s
in mining
is subject
The dramatic
has been
in the late
excess
discouraged
from
and
supply
of
seeking
labor market.?
declines
dramatic
in employment
increases
in the goods
in the service
producing
producing
10
Responding
industries.
are a distinguishing
of the U.S.
labor
to major
feature
force
is employed
Department
of Labor
will
be created
in the remainder
and that
employment
by the year
restructured.
process
created
jobs
relocate
Thus,
2000.8
20th
of labor
will
and, when
service
economy
on the actual
has
they
physical
economy
stresses
mental,
As a consequence,
opportunities
adverse
Even
has been
within
quite
business
temporary
social,
help,
development,
effects
uneven.
are racial
Four
services
sector,
industry
(which
consulting,
and security
number
computer
guards),
They only
such
the
1920s
of the
of earlier
the service
declining
skills.
job
and good
skills.
who are vulnerable
women
things
opportunities
and drinking,
as building
computer
services
to such
and youths.9
in employment
-- eating
processing,
and medical
had to
set of job requirements
educations
subsets
radically
for newly
between
and communication
the growth
includes
qualifying
for job seekers,
minorities,
of all
eras.
the technology
of those
that
the agricultural
reduced
has meant
lack quality
the service
While
The
the adjustment
But the emergence
linguistic,
to services
who
sharply
skills
from
sector.
different
force.
and manual
a disproportionate
employment
were
but
difficulty
to do so.
labor
the shift
for those
little
an entirely
and potential
stressed
flows
tended
imposed
periods
had
is being
in earlier
workers
70 percent
1980s.
for 75 percent
for labor
as it was
that
will be in the service
adapting
manufacturing
immigration
to the 1960s,
Tragically,
Century
account
is slowly
almost
of the new jobs
Century
the demand
the displaced
in the burgeoning
through
trade,
sector
patterns
in the late
that 90 percent
of the 20th
the service
discussed,
in the early
spending
economy,
in services
is not as easy or as automatic
As previously
sector
projects
The supply
in consumer
of a post-industrial
U.S.
industries
shifts
cleaning,
software
(which
retail
includes
11
doctors,
dentist
for 43 percent
since
1969;
services,
of all of the nation's
and 65 percent
Related
to these
are the derivative
over
one-third
technical
farm
dramatic
groups
laborers,
that,
continue
to be extremely
experience
the most
the most
highly
educated
these
of total
employment
the nation's
declines
and
Without
unduly
demand
the occupational
those
requiring
Department
of Labor
growth
expected
are those
that
accounted
require
workers.
for 25 percent
40 percent
of the century.12
occupations
to
administrators,
support
to constitute
will
in farming
is expected
of
Absolute
and
in the
occupations.
belaboring
the obvious,
by a Department
projections
growth
farmers,
and related
growth
broad
operatives,
executives,
for the remainder
and only marginal
other
and sales
Occupations
categories
skilled
2).11
occupational
include
are expected
for the lower
work,
laborer
summarized
occupational
growth
among
this period
These
1972 to 1982,
in the professional,
The u.s.
3).
and technicians
in 1986 but
employment
household
operative
best
three
are projected
private
over
workers.
Collectively,
was
workers.
(see Table
patterns
Between
and service
of 1986 to 2000,
growth
professionals;
47 percent
faster-than-average
administrators,
household
and managers;
1959;
(see Table
substantially
uneven
rapid
occurred
in employment
for the period
-- accounted
employment
patterns.
classifications
decline
and private
since
in industrial
in employment
were managers,
care)
1979.10
experiencing
projects
job growth
trends
workers
The greatest
and hospital
in occupational
of the growth
this period
workers.
since
changes
and related
occupational
over
laboratories,
of Labor
up to the year
clusters
the least
2000:
projected
amount
the critical
study
of anticipated
"It should
to decline
of education
conclusion
be pointed
or grow
slowly
and training
is
occupational
out that
are generally
and those
,
12
Il'ABLE
2
Employment in the U.S. by Major Occupational Group,
1972-1982
(thousands)
1972-1982
Occupatiollal Group
1972
1982
Absolute
Challge
Percellt
Challge
Total, all occupations
Professional. technical and
kindred workers
Managers and administrators
Sales workers
Clerical and kindred workers
Craft and kindred workers
Operatives, except transport
Transport operatives
Laborers, except farm
Farmers and farm laborers
Service workers, ex. household
Private household workers
81,702
99,526
17,824
+21.8
11,459
8,031
5,354
14,247
10,810
10,340
3,209
4,217
3,069
9,529
1,437
16,951
11,493
6,580
18.446
12,272
9,429
3,377
4,518
2,723
12,694
1,042
5.492
3.462
1,226
4.199
1,462
-911
168
301
-346
3.165
-395
+47.9
+43.1
+22.9
+29.5
+ 13.5
-8.8
+5.2
+7.1
-11.3
+33.2
-27.5
SOURCE:Robert Kutscher. "Employment Growlh in Ihe Uniled Slales." in Job G~II~ralion: U.S. alld El/rop~all P~r.
sp~clil'~', ed. Howaro Rosen (Sah Lake Cily: Olympus. 1986). p. IS.
13
TABLE
3
Employment by Broad Occupational Group, 1986 and Projected to 2000 and Percent Change in
Employment for Selected Periods (numbers in thousands)
Proj~ct~d. 2000
/986
Occupation
Total employment
Executive. administrative. and managerial workers
Professional workers
Technicians and related support workers
Salesworkers
Administrative support workers. including clerical
Private household workers
Service workers. except private household workers
Precision production. craft. and repair
workers
Operators. fabricators. and laborers
Farming. forestry. and fishing workers
The
projected
data
is based
SOURCE: U.S. Department
on the moderate
of Labor.
Number
Percent
Number
Percelll
111.623
100.0
133.030
100.0
10.583
9.5
13.616
13.538
3.726
12.606
19.851
12.1
3.3
11.3
17.8
981
16.555
P~rc~nr chtrng~
/972-79
/979~6
/972~6
/986-2000
20.3%
10.9<;f
33.4<;f
19.2%
10.2
34.9
28.7
73.7
28.7
17.192
5.151
16.334
22.109
12.9
3.9
12.3
16.6
29.8
39.9
24.3
23.5
21.4
24.7
24.4
9.5
57.5
74.5
54.6
35.2
27.0
38.2
29.6
11.4
.9
14.8
955
21.962
.7
16.5
-23.0
25.7
-11.5
16.0
-31.9
45.9
-2.7
32.7
13.924
12.5
15.590
11.7
21.7
6.5
29.6
12.0
16.300
3.556
14.6
3.2
16.724
3.393
12.6
2.6
8.7
-5.1
alternative
model
used
by the U.S.
Department
of Labor.
-9.2
-5.6
-1.3
- 10.4
2.6
-4.6
14
projected
Thus,
to grow
the fastest
the occupational
trends
The question
apparent.
require
the most
of the present
is the ability
education
and training."13
and the near
of the
supply
future
of labor
are
to adequately
respond.
A Positive
By the late
of the U.S.
economy
of affecting
admit
only
demand
1980s,
the industrial
states
there
that
have
may be as many
As immigration
of the supply
policy
who complement
75 percent
of the unemployed
needs
is a way
of workers,
of persons
illiteracy
is immigration
refugees,
16
there
it should
emerging
labor
trained,
shortages
presently
be a parallel
all such persons
force.
Such
or to tolerate
adjustment
would
burdens
admit
in growth
sectors
refugee
by the Federal
and language
facilitate
should
and
political
illegal
who have
and who
are
for which
government
entry
local
status,
to entitle
assistance
not fallon
entry
minimal
people
and asylee
their
of adult
require
only
in occupations
granted
education,
Such policies
jobs that
should
experience
obligation
to training,
skills.
legally
For those
exist.
immigrants
of legitimate
for low skilled
and who have
adults
to the growth
exception
employment
in
It is also believed
illiterate
factors
by illegal
immigration
of finding
educated,
should
lack such
qualify
persons
who are only marginally
contributing
to admit
To the contrary,
probability
number
the possible
14
problems.
functionally
-- especially
is no reason
who can only
education.
a high
with
writing
as 23 million
One of the major
Thus,
by persons
and
and an equal
15
refugees.
about
reading
illiterate.
labor
employment
patterns.
in the U.s. population
there
clear.
and types
Policy
and occupational
the size and composition
the number
United
that
for Immigration
are crystal
It is estimated
the
Role
if they
into the
and
state
15
governments
without
who have
need
for elaboration
the Immigration
illegal
that
Reform
to this Act
The gaping
With
adequate
should
persons
for more
highly
is seldom
projections
needs
skilled
case
enforcement
and educated
and the future
forces
should
be able
to guide
vacant
unskilled
jobs.
This
is not sabotaged
non-immigrant
readily
skilled
jobs
at great
for retraining
for the economy
financial
and relocation
educational
adults
trained
to be most
in demand
cost
or with
foundations
for the types
in the next
decade.
with
market
workers
to
the operation
of
designed
to admit
illegal
workers
cannot
with
that
are
fill
productivity
In many
will prevent
entry.
significant
significant
of jobs
and
of normal
workers
operations.
in
workers
to tolerate
associated
It
Hence,
trends
and educated
Unskilled
be created.
possible
work.
of skilled
policy
and poorly
work.
force
that
continues
due to inefficient
ever being
supply
the last
It is always
the operation
If skilled
the lack of sufficient
from
against
true meaning
unskilled
is for unskilled
of course,
or that
is not possible.
except
demand
the excess
workers
they cannot
losses
of
legislation
adults,
to do unskilled
on labor
workers,
assumes,
educated
states.
by an immigration
needed,
delays
in this
to do skilled
that all of the experts
for skilled
time
enforcement
to give
to allow
persons
workers
of need
But the reverse
and poorly
into the United
a contraction
unskilled
measures
is to continue
for unskilled
are wrong
the market
goes
its strictures
loopholes
identification
to immigrate
possible
the unlikely
be strict
Act of 1986 with
of unskilled
the nation
educated
should
It also
be closed.
an abundance
that
of such persons.
that there
and Control
immigration.
do not provide
thing
no say in the entry
instances,
many
unskilled
are projected
16
On the positive
the types
side,
of experienced
immigration
workers
circumstances,
these
education
for whatever
and,
homelands.
involve
Such
computer
education
to fill
development
imposed
by means
of meeting
this
function
on it by the disproportionate
principles
and massive
is becoming
educated
17
workers
Indeed,
labor policy
issue
to allow
for the admission
Eventually,
It is not intended
of foreign
worker
dependency.
by misguided
family
reunification
two occupational
(but which
preference
account
the non-immigrant
to find experienced
for only
system
workers
immigration
the topic
20 percent
of the annually
are otherwise
of non-
is supposed
spot
homelands.
or a means
system
and massive
are based
and
policy
immigration
to be the new way
system
be the major
to their
that
that
reunification
temporary
the legal
objectives
resource
burdens
for skilled
to fill
for permanent
a
system
to family
will
to return
higher
demand.
categories
seems
the human
Non-immigrant
But because
of long term
that
that
method
~
The non-immigrant
workers
are expected
to be an avenue
as a short
workers")
of the 1990s.
they
can find
given
likely
foreign
in fields
immigration
into the country
it is very
(or "temporary
domestic
shortages.
route
their
the self-defeating
priority
and
and; provide
emerging
accommodation.
the new immigrant
workers.
immigrant
refugee
skills
present
research
the current
despite
Under
are
can enact
this
of providing
to leave
who
can serve
the nation
of circumvention,
to perform
that
policy
have
wish
scientific
capacity
of jobs until
capable
already
voluntarily
conduct
Immigration
policies
Largely
is trying
types
that
needed.
the case of workers
It is in this
purpose.
these
reason,
technology;
as a means
that are actually
are those
is especially
itself.
justifiable
workers
can be used
is hindered
backlogs
on labor
market
available
for American
unavailable
in the
needs
visas),
employers
or for whom
17
they
do not wish
born
pool.
policy.
annual
to actively
This
is, of course,
For most
ceilings
for many
Thus,
supply
Immigration
No where,
the case
important
Policy
same
set
since
in
production
(from
4, the sharpest
percent
recipients
1970s
are no
in the country
workers
system
could
in terms
in 1962
awarded
been
it was
nationals
Some of these
has
than
25 years
Ph.Ds
disclosed
remained
on temporary
non-immigrant
in Table 5, do find jobs in the United States.
jobs
issued
the number
last
has declined
of Ph.D.
10 years)
dramatically
As shown
in Table
of engineering
Many
the
of 33,755
state"
the
and the physical
in 1986).
for
year
"steady
in 1986).16
in the fields
in
that
for anyone
the
than
virtually
(especially
to citizens
in 1962 to 62.5 percent
are foreign
In a report
the high
in 1986)
obvious
teaching.
to 72.3 percent
have
more
Force
with
significance
the past
Labor
of workers
of 31,770)
and well below
greater
declines
homelands.
immigrant
shortage
Council,
(a total
in 1962 to 40.8 percent
84.8 percent
their
Research
of doctorates
85.6 percent
there
to remain
Educated
is the skill
is the fact over
the proportion
the citizenof immigration
non-immigrant
the legal
and university
in 1986
Of even
1973.
than
element
categories,
workers
that
and preparation
development,
the mid
permit
and the Highly
for example,
awarded
of this
from
implications.
in 1987 by the National
of Ph.Ds
or to train
non-immigrant
it is conceivable
of the training
in research,
a perversion
of the relevant
as or more
of its labor
to hire
and some categories
years.
soon become
compete
(from
sciences
of these
76.5
(from
new doctorate
visas
who will
return
Ph.D.
recipients,
to
as shown
A growing number of Ph.Ds
in every field are being granted to people who have permanent visas (i.e.,
resident aliens).
U.S.
although,
Most of these persons will stay and seek jobs in the
as also
shown
in Table
5, there
is a small
counter
trend
18
TABLE~:
Percentage
Distribution
Citizenship
and Broad
of Doctorate
Recipients,
Field, 1962-1986*
by
Y~ar of Doctorate
1970
1974
1978
1982
1986
83.4
3.5
10.6
84.5
79.7
5.5
10.2
81.9
4.4
11.1
78.4
72.3
5.3
8.7
84.8
2.2
11.9
82.0
3.4
11.9
82.2
6.3
10.1
73.8
7.5
14.8
Enginecing
U.S. Cirizens
Pennanent Visas
TemporAI)'Visas
76.5
4.9
17.9
73.4
6.3
16.7
73.2
12.5
13.7
Life Sciences
U.S. Cirizens
Permanent Visas
TemporAI)'Visas
79.8
2.7
16.7
77.3
3.3
18.0
Social Sciences
U.S. Cirizens
Permanent Visas
TemporAI)'Visas
85.4
2.1
10.5
Humaniries
U.S. Cirizens
Permanent Visas
Temporary Visas
Field
1962
1966
Total. All Fie}ds
U.S. Cirizens
Pennanent Visas
Temporary Visas
85.6
2.4
10.8
Physical Sciences
U.S. Cirizens
Pennanent Visas
TemporAI)'Visas
Educarion
U.S. Citizens
Permanent Visas
TemporAI)' Vis2.S
3.9
4.5
13.5
16.6
76.3
6.1
15.4
72.7
4.7
19.5
62.5
5.0
26.2
55.7
16.4
22.4
52.0
13.4
31.7
44.2
11.2
38.9
40.8
10.2
40.6
80.2
5.2
13.9
74.3
6.4
14.7
79.9
4.3
13.3
80.8
3.2
13.1
75.9
3.6
15.2
83.4
85.1
3.7
4.9
10.2
8.7
82.7
3.6
8.8
84.8
3.5
8.1
82.2
3.4
9.2
77.9
3.8
11.5
90.7
2.4
88.3
4.3
89.6
4.7
87.4
4.3
89.3
3.3
84.9
78.8
4.6
4.5
3.8
4.2
4.7
3.9
6.4
4.4
9.3
94.5
0.8
4.3
94.6
1.0
3.5
94.6
1.2
3.4
90.6
1.4
4.2
90.3
1.8
5.7
86.6
2.0
7.9
84.7
2.5
7.1
82.5
2.2
13.3
81.9
3.9
9.6
78.2
5.5
12.7
80.3
4.8
9.5
80.0
3.9
13.7
76.5
3.7
14.0
70.8
4.8
15.6
Professionaland Other
U.S. Citizens
Permanent Visas
TemporAI)' Vis2.S
-Details do not add to 100 percent where citizenship is unknown.
.
.
Source:
National Research Council,
Report
1986,
Survey of Earned Doctorates:
Summary
p. 6.
".
'. .
19
TABLE 5:
Percentage
of Doctorate
Recipients
in the U.S.. by Citizenship
and Broad
Field
u.s. Citizen
1977 1986
ToW. All Fields
94.9
Physical Sciences
with Employment
Field. 1977 and
Permanent VISa
1977
1986
92.4
85.4
74.5
97.1
96.0
84.0
Engineering
96.3
95.3
Life Sciences
94.1
Social Sciences
Commitments
1986*
Temporary V1S8
1977 1986
.
23.7
35.6
80.9
25.5
49.6
94.1
84.3
48.6
53.7
93.9
75.4
56.1
9.2
13.1
94.3
92.6
85.1
74.7
21.6
28.2
Humanities
92.7
89.6
87.3
74.2
21.1
27.1
Education
95.2
90.8
62.2
52.8
8.1
8.2
Professional Fields
95.5
92.8
85.4
80.0
21.4
48.4
* Percentage based on total reporting defmite postgraduarlon plans (1',215 doctorate
recipients in 1977 and 15,981 in 1986).
Source:
National Research Council, Survey of Earned Doctorates: Summary
Report
1986,
p. 7.
20
for some of them
of citizen
to leave
doctorate
recipients
demographics
(See Figure
alternatives
available
after
they
receive
undergraduates
when
of many
(especially
when
dangers.
level
oriented
of native
cultural
market
to prepare
and to qualify
fixed
fashion
that
development
policies
The most
the U.S.
does
quality
Department
of many
Given
labor
emerging
will
force,
depend
of being
and equal
employment
candidate
for this
which,
directly
along
should
rulings
opportunity
administrative
in fact,
that
did have
a labor
and education
multi-
opportunities
jobs.
upon
The social
the avoidance
racial
lines.
be administered
agency
and not by
of courts.
with
the
it is essential
skilled
labor
its
economic
training
be given
force
coordinated
both
to assure
administrative
or by arbitrary
adjust
have
the increasingly
high
immigrant
does
to changing
in particular
by a responsible
policy
however,
of the labor
of skilled
Equity
not forestall
of the U.S.
in the future
of Labor
flows
study
applicants).
can readily
jobs.
for these
is capable
likely
that
also be taken,
policy
provisions
be a policy
student
immigration
of the immigrant
polarization
the importation
statutory
policy
that minorities
of the nation
in a flexible
foreign
oriented
character
reasons
Hence,
with
qualify
Need to Tailor Policy to Assure
Opportunities
for Citizens
for these
of an occupational
indebtedness
for graduate
for equity
cohesion
financial
job
immediately
who cannot
immigration
and racial
students
undergraduates
care must
citizens
the high
in the attractive
educational
and the composition
market
is rooted
undergraduate
number
by population
and the inadequate
be a flexible
Great
be explained
The problem
degrees;
for the declining
they graduate;
to a labor
conditions.
cannot
in competition
It must
The explanation
to qualified
The Parallel
A shift
1).
their
preparation
as well.
other
It must
human
resources
objectives.
mission
would
responsibility
be
for
21
FIGURE 1
Trends in the number of U.S.
and
permanent-resident
Ph.D.s and
in the comparable U.S. population. 1962-1986.
400
'.,
.6: 300
I
0
1
-
200
~=
c:
100
0
1862
NOTES: Index year.
of education.
Source:
..
...
1866
1870
1874
Yea,
U.S. Population
PhD Population
1878
1962. Comparable U.s. population.
National Research Council,
Report 1986, p. 7.
Survey
1882
.
1886
25. to 34.ye:ar-oJds having 16 or more years
of Earned
Doctorates:
Summary
22
the implementation
was
shifted
of immigration
to the U.S.
just prior
to the entry
suggested
the labor
change
resource
prepared
a political
for the high
industrial
skilled,
should
the findings
of the numerous
in the nation
at every
problems
matters
to
committees
of immigration
it as purely
than to reverse
for a way
have
There
juncture,
to fill many
trends
that
teachers,
are
Unfortunately,
on the
status
that
is no greater
require
of
the nation
national
these
the nation
that
requires
and equipment
and to address
of the jobs
the post-
concluded
sad to say,
citizens
qualified
States.
already
born
development
aids
commissions
level.19
these
jobs
resource
instructional
1980s
educational
its native
in the United
educational
must
look
high
skills
policy
that
and
education.
Concluding
The United
consistent
immigration
enhance
of transferring
to view
Providing
presidential
in the
But at this
deficiencies.
advanced
seem
measure
The
II.
These
role
status
But human
and up-to-date
educational
other
and high
to be successful.
all critical
elsewhere
who
War
the effect
the economic
function
security
of immigration
be preparing
is generating.
facilities,
priority
have
of Congress.
committees
high paying,
a long term perspective
is failing
also
into World
for oversight
to understand
the nation
economy
education
would
This
toy.
Obviously,
adequate
1914 to 1940.
as a national
states
committees
than are the judiciary
from
of Justice
of the United
responsibility
and human
are far better
policy
Department
administrative
the congressional
policy
states
needs
to its rapidly
policy
economic
to formulate
changing
can provide
efficiency
Observations
labor
an immigration
market
a valuable
and to achieve
tool
trends.
If congruent,
to national
societal
equity.
efforts
If
to
is
23
contradictory,
immigration
accomplishment
of either
The United
system
states
to provide
policy
or both
needs
highly
skilled
Due
to its own negligence
higher
will
change
that
scarecrows
needs
that
but,
"logical
(the skilled
paradise"
nepotistic,
political
mechanistic,
the nation
the nation
system.
how to acquire
and legalistic
could
is an old
and the
that
can
it
it does
admission
end the
system
characteristics
Eventually
the workers
immigration
irmnigration
or
in time
out those
situations
the existing
men
at this point
A flexible
economic
There
to wise
and how to keep
requires
is willing
and training
system
resources,
system
"fools
with
its
and its highly
orientation.
determined
of allowing
on purely
political
and to achieve
for simply
a human
than
such workers.
of its human
to maintain
are the beacons
and uneducated).
describes
aspires
needs
it is the reality.
The immigration
that best
to the
In certain
desperately
education
consequences
to changing
The luxuries
groups)
the U.s.
at the present,
respond
immigrants.
economy
standards
and educated)
(the unskilled
could
that
-- a way of showing
barrier
of its immigration
in the development
on its extant
of fools."
be a beacon
the U.s.
and training
of imposing
saying
not
economy
educational
capable
this
technology
the priorities
and educated
and industries,
the high
a major
goals.
to shift
occupations
in part
can present
it now lacks:
policy
(i.e.,
social
dreams
can ill be afforded.
development
economic
criteria
idealistic
its own sake)
resource
immigration
policy
would
accountability
give
for what
to continue
to placate
(i.e.,
Making
to be
special
interest
to pursue
diversity
immigration
policy
immigration
it does.
policy
what
24
Endnotes
1.
Oxford
1986),
2.
Ibid.
3.
Vernon M. Briggs, Jr., Immigration
Policy
(Baltimore:
The Johns Hopkins University
4.
Ibid.
5. William
Press
Analytica,
p. 20.
America
in Perspective,
(Boston:
Houghton
and the American
Press, 1984).
Mifflin,
Labor
Force,
E. Brock, U.S. Secretary of Labor, "Address to the National
Club," Washington,
D.C. (March 5, 1987), p. 8.
6.
Richard M. Cyert and David C. Mowery (eds.), Technology
and Employment,
(Washington,
D.C.: National Academy Press, 1987), Chapter 4.
7.
See Louis Uchitelle,
"America's Army of Non-Workers,"
New York Times
(September 27, 1987) pp. F-1 and F-6, and William J. Wilson, The Truly
Disadvantaged:
The Inner City, the Underclass,
and Public Policy,
Chicago:
University
of Chicago Press, 1987.
8. Valerie
A. Personick,
End of the Century,"
"Industry Output and Employment
Monthly Labor Review, September
Through the
1987, pp. 30-
45.
9.
Cyert
and Mowery,
2E.
10. Ronald E. Kutscher,
Generation:
(Salt Lake
11.
U.S.
City:
Ibid., pp. 14-15;
Losers:
Who Were
1982, pp. 18-28.
cit.,
Chapter
5.
"Employment
Growth in the United States"
and European Perspectives
edited by Howard
Olympus Publishing
Company, 1986), p. 8.
see also Carol Leon, "Occupational
Winners and
They During 1972-80?" Monthly Labor Review, June
12. George T. Silverstri
Employment
1987), pp.
Trends
46-63.
in Job
Rosen
and John M. Lukasiewicz,
to the Year 2000," Monthly
"A Look at Occupational
Labor Review (September,
13. Ibid., p. 62.
14.
"Hearings
Reporter,
15.
Jonathan Kozol,
Press/Doubleday,
Accents Problem of Work Force Illiteracy,"
No. 149 (2 August 1985), p. A-10.
Illiterate America,
1985), pp. 7-12.
(Garden
City,
Daily
N.Y.:
16. "Hearing Accents Problem of Work Force Illiteracy", 2E.
10.
Labor
Anchor
cit.,
p.
A-
25
17. Anne T. Farley, "U.S. Immigration Policy:
An Assessment
of the
Provision
for the Admission
of Temporary
Workers
of Distinguished
Merit
and Ability",
Unpublished
M.A. Thesis,
Cornell
University
(1988);
Vernon M. Briggs,
Jr.,
"The 'Albatross'
of Immigration
Reform:
Temporary
Worker Policy
in the United
states,"
International
Migration
Review,
(Winter,
1986),
pp. 995-1019.
18.
National
Research
Council,
Office
of Scientific
and Engineering
Personnel,
The Survey of Earned Doctorates:
Summary Report
1986,
Washington,
D.C.
National
Academy Press,
1987.
19.
National
Commission
on Excellence
in Education,
Nation
at Risk;
see
also Thomas Sizer
Horace's
Compromise:
The Dilemma of American
High
Schools
(Boston:
Houghton
Mifflin
Co., 1984);
National
Board of
Inquiry,
Barriers
to Excellence:
Our Own Children
at Risk (Boston:
National
Coalition
of Advocates,
1985);
Association
of America
Colleges,
Integrity
of the College
Curriculum
(Washington,
D.C.:
Association
of American
Colleges,
1985); Ernest L. Boyer, High School:
A Report
on Secondary
Education
in America
(New York: Harper
& Row,
1983); National Institute of Education, Excellence in American Higher
Education (Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Education, 1984);
National Science Board, Commission on Precollege
Education in
Mathematics, Science and Technology,
Educating Americans for the 21st
Century, (Washington, D.C.: National Science Board, 1983); National
Commission on Student Financial Assistance, Signs of Trouble and
Erosion: A Report
on Graduate Education in America (Washington, D.C.:
National Commission on Student Financial Assistance, 1983).