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Overlapping
Comprehension:
Semantic
Complement
Kevin
Scott C. Greenwood,
Clues
Gradients
Flanigan
former upper elementary
and
teachers
who
middle-grades
currently
and graduate educa
teach undergraduate
tion literacy methods classes, and we are always aim
favor as they critically examined
shades of meaning
we
sets
of
related
words.
will discuss con
First,
among
ing at the application of best practice. To this end, we
spend a lot of time "out in the field," trying out strate
gies with teachers to ensure that they work Well with
combined
e are both
w
and
Vocabulary
Context
children.
As part of their coursework, our graduate students
delve into the complex connections
between vocabu
and
improved reading comprehension.
lary growth
conversant
research
with
the
(e.g.,
They're
Blachowicz
Anderson,
dividual's
& Fisher, 2006; Davis, 1944; Freebody &
1983) that indicates that the size of an in
vocabulary
is a powerful
predictor of how
They enter our class
well
that person comprehends.
es eager to improve their own vocabulary
instruction
in order to bolster their students' vocabulary
learn
that their
ing. Many students readily admit, however,
current methods
for teaching vocabulary
do not al
ways engage their students, nor do they lead to long
term improvements
in comprehension
of text.
the
clear
and
connections
Despite
longstanding
between
hension,
and reading
compre
to teach
designed
have often had surprisingly
little impact
meaning
vocabulary
the fact is that programs
vocabulary
on overall reading performance
(Blachowicz & Fisher,
reason for this small
2006). We believe one possible
is
that
methods
may not make the
impact
teaching
connection
explicit for
vocabulary-to-comprehension
In other words, students may "learn" words
as discrete meanings,
con
but they don't necessarily
nect these meanings
to
context
of
the
back
the larger
students.
passage. We have developed
to address
that attempts
a teaching
technique
this vocabulary-to
In this article, we detail
disconnect.
comprehension
two strategies, context clues and
how we combined
semantic
gradients,
The Reading Teacher,
DOI:10.1598/RT.61.3.5
to "stack the deck"
61(3), pp. 249-254
in students'
?
Next, we will
text clues.
semantic
explain how we have used
Finally, we will describe how we
gradients.
these two methods
Context
Context
and provide
examples.
Clues
clues are very important for broadly compre
text as well as for specifically
learning new
hending
words.
Instruction
in context problem solving pays
to the old adage about catch
dividends.
It's
akin
great
a
man
as
to teaching
that man
opposed
ing fish for
how to fish. Estimates (Nagy & Anderson,
1984) indi
cate
that school-age
children
learn approximately
4,000 words in a school year, but that only 400 of these
are learned through direct instruction. So if, on aver
age,
are
90% of words
meaningful
sense
makes
encounters
learned
in direct
repeated,
it only
experience,
through
to optimize
this avenue
for learning.
to
Adams
however,
According
(1990),
only 5-10% of
words are learned through a single exposure
in a nat
urally occurring context. This brings us back to the no
context
tion of manipulating
in order to again stack
the deck in the reader's favor.
Because
merit careful
context clues
they are so transportable,
to
Students
need
be sensitized
teaching.
to the various
types of context clues that are available
to them?they
need to gradually become aware that
authors choose
their words carefully. Writers are at
times subtle
and economical
information
on
leaking
at other
purposefully?yet
in a torrent of words.
Students
need
in their word
to
choices,
the
page
carefully,
times gushing information
to see and discuss
various
levels of
so they can eventually determine
explicitness
for themselves
how supportive
the context
is. They
need a lot of practice
in how to use context as they
context
2007 International Reading Association
ISSN: 0034-0561
online
print/1936-2714
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
249
text.
read large amounts of appropriately challenging
of learning a new word
from
Because
the chances
context are slim (Adams, 1990; Stahl & Nagy, 2006),
we teach our university students to "beef up" context
not be thought of as synonyms).
For example,
we
to
ask
children
array the following
initially
might
familiar words: big, little, huge, tiny, and average.
and consensus,
the continuum
Through discussion
it for teaching purposes). We start
(that is,manipulate
context clues that are "thin," or not
by introducing
might
in the sentence,
"The ar
very supportive. For example,
bitrator and the plaintiff discussed
the case at length"
the context is not explicit enough to aid the reader in
sic continuum
should
be huge, big, average, little, and tiny listed from
largest to smallest. Children can later build on this ba
in interrelated
ing to teach words
these continuums
Nagy, 2006),
could be, "Unlike
This context
Rebecca,
Tammy was very morose."
to the reader (e.g., if
could actually be misleading
could
infer that morose
with a richer context
was very enthusiastic,
Semantic
as tall in the story, the student
means short). This sentence
in learning the other words along the contin
uum. It is.the teacher's job to decide whether
the stu
dents have adequate background knowledge, or need
could be, "Unlike Rebecca, who
Tammy was very morose."
to build knowledge,
to begin.
two types of semantic gradi
We have developed
ents that we use with students. The first, and most sup
In selection
portive, is selection.
(see Figure 1), the
Gradients
& Fisher, 2006) is
gradient (Blachowicz
an
of
related
words
array
placed along a con
simply
tinuum (see Figure 1). These groupings help students
shades
of meaning
have explained
that students do not have to "know"
every single word meaning
richly and deeply to get
of a few "anchor words" can aid
started. Knowledge
students
A semantic
to discern
in addition
Some
thin sentence
was described
groupings (Stahl &
are theoretically
to being motivating
for students.
teachers might question what to do if chil
dren do not have adequate background knowledge of
the word meanings.
Teachers we have worked with
sound
the judge who had the final say, awarded
$50,000 to the plaintiff." This enriched context leaves
little doubt as to the word's meaning. A second exam
trator,
Rebecca
with more
specific
words
such
meanings
(e.g., by appropriately
placing
as gargantuan,
and microscopic
colossal, minute,
the
Because
it
is
helpful and reinforc
along
gradient).
of arbitrator. Next, we enrich
identifying the meaning
the context, deliberately stacking the deck in the read
er's favor. We provide a sentence such as, "The arbi
ple of a contextually
by adding words
students are provided with a partially completed
gra
dient and a word box from which they choose words
to place
(e.g., angry and furious
along
that gradient.
In section
Figure 1
Semantic Gradients
1. Semantic gradient with word box supplied. Students
select from supplied
Despondent
list.
Euphoric
I_:_I
Elated
Happy
Glum
2. Completed
Unhappy
Sad
semantic gradient with word box supplied. Students
Glum DespondentSod
Unhappy
select from supplied
Happy
Elated
Euphoric
I
I_I_I_I
250
The Reading Teacher
Vol. 61, No. 3
November
list.
2007
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II
1 of Figure
1,
like to have students working
individually at
we
to
want
be
them
most
often
but
times,
paired or in
their thinking and
and explaining
triads, negotiating
In the early stages the teacher will think
reasoning.
We
are already
and euphoric
despondent
at the two extremes of the gradient. The stu
the words
placed
dents' job is to select words from the word box, place
them in order along the gradient, and justify their
gradient.
thinking. Section 2 shows the completed
regarding her thought processes, but he or she
soon cedes responsibility and control to the students
aloud
less supportive,
type of semantic
In Figure 2, the students were
gradient is generation.
given the extreme ends of the continuum?scalding
and
The second,
(Pearson & Gallagher,
the remaining words in
between selection and
and freezing?and
generated
between. The major difference
Overlapping
and Semantic
the students are not
is that in generation
a
less
makes
This
word
box.
with
generation
provided
but at the same time allows the students
supportive
generation
in the introduction, we have found
gradients alone are not always sufficient
indi
in supporting students as they attempt to connect
back to the larger context of a
vidual word meanings
to comprehen
passage. To address this vocabulary
we
context
clues and se
combined
sion disconnect,
on the needs of
appropriate may be used depending
children. Semantic gradients require children to think
about and explain shades of meaning. When students
mantic
gradients.
in
First, we provided students with a few sentences
a cloze-type situation with a deliberately manipulat
ed context. We typically provide
increasingly more
contextual support in the sentences. For example, we
or group members,
of
their understanding
found that students willingly
their classmates
and broaden
they deepen
these words. We
have
use dictionaries
and
teacher
and justify their points of view.
Figure 2
Semantic Gradient
Scalding
With
Searing
1
Two Words
Hot
Supplied,
Warm
sentence
for the students:
After
was_."
some
"The
discus
sion, and after the students realize that a huge range of
to complete
this sentence, we in
words are possible
in
found
the
troduce
Figure 3.
gradient
has been rich and heat
these puzzles. Conversation
ed at times, as both our students and our students' stu
dents defend
the following
provide
to solve
in order
thesauruses
Gradients
that semantic
creativity, flexibility, and ownership.
for sixth
two gradients were developed
These
are age
more
lists
that
or
challenging
graders. Simpler
persuade
Clues
Context
As we mentioned
more
must
1983).
Others
Generated
Tepid
(No Word
Cool
Box Supplied)
Cold
Freezing
Icy
I
ii^^
Figure 3
Semantic Gradient
Happy
for Use With
Pleased
Context
Clues
Disappointed
Upset
Livid
^
Overlapping
Vocabulary
and Comprehension:
Context Clues Complement
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Semantic Gradients
251
Examples of Manipulated Contexts
That Match Gradients
one another and represent a sequence of instruction. For example,
I, ll#and IIIcomplement
sentence
to be open ended. The same sentence
is
in Set IIby
intended
(a)
(a) is enriched
Sets Set I,
(a)matches
adding information ("He couldn't wait to see his new puppy"). Finally, in Set IIIgradient
previous
Set
the
two contexts.
I:Basic contexts
Jimmy
(many appropriate
Jimmy's
team_
possibilities
mom_
Jimmy's
) _ all the way home.
(a)
.their opponents.
(b)
.during
the movie.
(c)
he got his test back.
(d)
.
when
Jimmy felt.
Jimmy was dressed
Set
in
for the.
properly
(e)
.
weather.
II:Richer contexts
(based on this context,
Jimmy
ismoving
the verb should
indicate that Jimmy
to see his
all the way home. He couldn't wait
quickly)
new puppy.
Jimmy's
(a)
team___their
opponents
Jimmy's mom
the saddest
the movie.
._during
(b)
45 to 3.
Itwas
(c)
film she had ever seen.
.
when
Jimmy felt___
(d)
he got his test back.
He had studied hard and itpaid off!
Jimmy was dressed
wool
Set
hat, mittens,
III:Matching
Dawdled
and
gradients
Ambled
insulated boots were
to go with
Strolled
Beat
by
Defeated
Sobbed
Sniffled
L
Upset
252
Cold
The Reading Teacher
Cool
Strutted
Raced
Jogged
Sprinted
(a)
_1_
Crunched
_I
_i_
Chuckled
Giggled
Sad
Happy
Warm
Balmy
November
(b)
Decimated
Clobbered
Laughed
Ecstatic
Hot
Roared
(c)
J
1
Vol. 61, No. 3
(e)
II
1
Despondent
Frigid
Iand
l
I_
Bawled
Sets
His
just perfect.
ii
i_i
Squeezed
.
weather.
for the.
properly
Elated
Sweltering
2007
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Jubilant
Scorching
(d)
(e)
Figure 4
Student-Developed
Gradient
Ran
Raced
Sprinted
Strutted
the
Jamaal_down
Jamaal
Jamaal_down
Next, we enrich
the sentence
the students
"The teacher
the class was so unruly.
was_because
so hard to help
She felt betrayed
after she worked
the students come to see
them." During discussion,
narrows
context
the choices
appointed, upset, or livid.
is "The teacher was_
The final sentence
so unruly. The students
was
because
the class
to dis
had
In this context, the
students discuss how livid might be the most appropri
ate match for the phrase "out of control." Throughout
this entire sequence,
students talk about their choices,
inmeaning
and nuance. They
the
difference
noting
are reminded
their words care
that authors choose
After several vari
fully in order to convey meaning.
eties of teacher-developed
the students
gradients,
over
in creating contexts
then take
and gradients
themselves.
In Figure 4, seventh graders developed
their own
which
with
three
minicontexts.
they coupled
gradient,
these creations to their peers
They proudly presented
and solution.
dealing with a gradient that
to
speed, but they noted oth
they arrayed according
er shades of meaning. They pointed out that both hob
These
students were
bled and dawdled
one
but that
slow movement,
with purposeful movement
indicated
implied avoidance
while the other was probably
due to handicap or in
also
that
noted
you must often search be
jury. They
yond the sentence with the targeted word in order to
students
Of course, when
fully ascertain meaning.
are able to create the gradients and the
themselves
we're confident
minicontexts,
they have further inter
Overlapping
Vocabulary
nalized
the notion
can clarify word
have progressed
to
ma
cases, doing the
of how context
Our students'
meaning.
the point where
students
they are, inmany
as they develop
new gradients.
of
the
work
jority
different
shades
of meaning
They're discovering
the weather but not
(balmy may be used to describe
a hamburger) and delight in sharing their creations. In
one of our teachers' classrooms,
some fifth graders
the words hobbled,
physically demonstrated
in order to make Figure 4 more
and dawdled
strutted,
explicit.
is so important to reading proficiency, and
the strategies we have described
truly require students
to look carefully at the subtle aspects of words
that
Context
never seen her so out of control."
for discussion
Hobbled
the street. He was extremely proud of the award that he had received.
was_because
this slightly richer context,
narrow the options to happy or pleased.
Next, we provide a different context.
that this different
Crawled
street.
to read, "The teacher
so
the class behaved
well." With
Dawdled
street.
the
frantically_down
Walked
of meaning. We
the construction
help to determine
the real benefit of overlapping
believe
these two
is enabling students to reconnect
individ
strategies
to the text, helping them bridge
ual word meanings
the divide between vocabulary
and comprehension.
that you're not the only teacher in your
Your own students can run with a variety
of strategies if given the time, opportunity,
and initial
instruction.
Remember
classroom.
Greenwood
teaches at West Chester University,
USA; [email protected].
Pennsylvania,
also
teaches at West Chester University;
Flanigan
e-mail k flanigan @wcupa.
edu.
References
to read: Thinking and learning about
M.J. (1990). Beginning
MA: MIT Press.
print. Cambridge,
in all
Blachowicz,
C.Z., & Fisher, P.J. (2006). Teaching
vocabulary
classrooms.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Adams,
Davis,
F.B. (1944).
Fundamental
factors of comprehension
9,185-197.
ing. Psychometrika,
R.C (1983). Effects of vocabulary
Frebody, P, & Anderson,
on reading
and schema
ty, text cohesion,
availability
hension. Reading Research Quarterly,
18,277-294.
and Comprehension:
Context Clues Complement
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
in read
difficul
compre
Semantic Gradients
253
\
Lesson
are there ^
R.C (1984). How many words
Nagy, W.E., & Anderson,
in printed
school
Research
/9,
English? Reading
Quarterly,
<^j
y
304-330.
Pearson,
P.D., & Gallagher,
comprehension.
317-344.
M. (1983).
instruction
Educational
Contemporary
Stahl, S.A., & Nagy, W.E.
NJ: Erlbaum.
The
^
of reading
For a related
lesson plan, ' visit ReadWriteThink.org
fin
click Lessons to >find
and
8,
Psychology,
Solving
(2006).
Teaching
word meanings.
Link
Mawhah,
Word
Vocabulary
Meanings:
Engaging
Strategies
for
Development
Comprehension
Our
is
Mission
Our K-8
Sc?oQksouree
lAR?ST
SEUcnON
0f
^MRMcrs
Libraries
Comprehension
Strategies
instruction
help you successfully introduce comprehension
into your classroom. Every collection features titles specifically
level for their engaging content and the
opportunities
they provide to teach:
chosen by grade
PREDICTING
?
SUMMARIZING
QUESTIONING
INFERRING
CONNECTING
IMAGING
TheBooksource
To request a free Comprehension Strategies Catalog,
or visitwww.booksource.com/compstrat
call 800-444-0435,
254
The Reading Teacher
Vol. 61, No. 3
November
2007
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