Volume 13 | Issue 17 | Number 3 | Apr 27, 2015
The Asia-Pacific Journal | Japan Focus
Making More Enemies than We Kill? Calculating U.S. Bomb
Tonnages Dropped on Laos and Cambodia, and Weighing Their
Implications 我々は殺すよりも多くの敵を産み出してきたのだろうか
ラオス、カンボジアに投下された爆弾のトン数とその意味を考える
Ben Kiernan, Taylor Owen
Debate over the nature and impact of civilian
secret sows anti-Americanism that jihadists use
casualties from U.S. aerial attacks continues. “Are
as a recruiting tool.”5 As discussion continued
we creating more terrorists than we’re killing?,”
over “How Drones Create More Terrorists,”
Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld once asked
Hassan Abbas remarked that in targeted areas,
of the U.S. invasion of Iraq. The rise of Al Qaeda
“Public outrage against drone strikes circuitously
in Iraq and of its offshoot ISIS, suggests the
empowers terrorists.”6 The humanitarian impact
answer there.2 Reflecting in 2012 on U.S. drone
and the political “blowback” can be serious --
strikes in Yemen, the former director of the CIA’s
even from relatively restricted tactical air
1
Counter-Terrorism Center, Robert Greiner,
campaigns.
wrote: “One wonders how many Yemenis may
What of sustained strategic carpet bombing? Is
be moved in future to violent extremism in
there any correlation between bomb tonnage and
reaction to carelessly targeted missile strikes, and
political blowback? During World War Two,
how many Yemeni militants with strictly local
United States aircraft dropped 1.6 million tons of
agendas will become dedicated enemies of the
bombs in the European theater and
West in response to US military actions against
approximately 500,000 tons in the Pacific theater.
them.” 3 That same month a Yemeni lawyer
warned: “DEAR OBAMA, when a U.S. drone
Some 160,000 tons of bombs fell on Japan, nearly
missile kills a child in Yemen, the father will go
all of it in the final six months of the war. Much
to war with you, guaranteed. Nothing to do with
of it targeted civilian industrial areas, beginning
Al Qaeda.”
with the March 10, 1945 firebombing of Tokyo
4
and including the atomic bombs dropped that
In 2013 David Rohde of Reuters reported that
August on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
“Drone strikes do kill senior militants at times,
Decisive victory proved more elusive in regional
but using them excessively and keeping them
1
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APJ | JF
conflicts of the postwar era, even when the U.S.
dropped over Laos at two million
continued to deploy massive bomb tonnages.
tonnes, making Laos the most
During the Korean War of 1950-53, the U.S.
heavily bombed nation on earth.
dropped 635,000 tons of bombs and 32,000 tons
This figure [ . . . has] become iconic
of napalm, mostly on North Korea. And from
in describing the destruction and
1961 to 1972, American aircraft dropped
loss wrecked on Laos. However, this
approximately one million tons of bombs on
tonnage tally has only ever been an
North Vietnam, and much more on rural areas of
estimate . . . Currently emerging
South Vietnam -- approximately 4 million tons of
evidence suggests that the actual
bombs, 400,000 tons of napalm, and 19 million
figure may be more than two and a
gallons of herbicides.8
half times this figure, some 5.7
7
million tonnes.11
On a per capita basis, Laos, with its much smaller
and dispersed population, may have suffered a
However, six years later in the Journal of
yet higher rate of aerial bombardment during
Vietnamese Studies(JVS), High revised back
1964-73 – “nearly a ton for every person in Laos,”
downward that suggested “actual figure” of 5.7
according to the New York Times
.9 The late Fred
million tonnes of U.S. bombs dropped on Laos.
Branfman, who learned Lao and worked with
She now confirms “the conventional figure of
refugees displaced in the country in 1967-69, was
around two million tons.”.12
one of the first to publicize the human toll of that
secret U.S. bombing, in his 1972 Voices from the During 2000-2010 various estimates, including
Plain of Jars: Life under an Air War
. Branfman’s
ours, of the U.S. bombing tonnage dropped on
book was reprinted in 2013, with a foreword by
Cambodia from 1969 to 1973 followed a
Alfred W. McCoy that terms the Laos campaign
“history’s longest and largest air war.”
trajectory similar to High’s up-down estimates
10
for Laos. And for similar reasons: the difficulties
Meanwhile in 2008, anthropologist Holly High
of technical analysis of the Pentagon’s enormous
even suggested that the estimated tonnage of
but antiquated Southeast Asia bombing
U.S. bombs dropped on Laos during the Second
databases. In 1989 one of us (Kiernan) had
Indochina War needed dramatic upward
published an article calculating a figure of
revision:
539,000 tons dropped on Cambodia.13 But in 2000,
just as High did for Laos eight years later, the
The conventional history books
Phnom Penh Postreported a new Cambodia total,
usually place the total tonnage
a dramatic upward revision: “The [data] tapes
2
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show that 43,415 bombing raids were made on
of the original SEADAB and CACTA files
Cambodia dropping more than 2 million tons of
[combined Pentagon databases entitled “Records
bombs and other ordinance.”14 This figure had
About Air Sorties Flown in Southeast Asia,” and
significant implications for the continuing work
“Combat Air Activities”], sorted country by
to clear the Cambodian countryside of the still
country so that each nation received only “its”
widespread, deadly unexploded ordnance
records. The original database is much larger:
(UXO), as well as for a historical understanding
indeed it is simply massive. It is also deeply
of the wartime humanitarian and political impact
flawed (some of the data appears to have been
of the US carpet bombings.
corrupted and there are omissions in certain
months).”
Our 2006 article, “Bombs over Cambodia,” using
the same database and analysis, calculated a
Kiernan wrote back to High on January 18, 2010
figure of 2.7 million tons dropped on Cambodia
stating that “we would urgently like to
in 1965-75.
Our estimate, published in the
incorporate corrections of mistakes that were
Canadian magazine The Walrus, and in 2007 in
based on faulty Pentagon data, and show where
The Asia-Pacific Journal
, was widely quoted.
that data is inaccurate. If it is okay with you, we
15
16
would of course like to credit you and your
But in 2010 we corrected that estimate, here in
skilled research assistant at Sydney Uni’s Faculty
The Asia-Pacific Journal
. We revised it back down
of Information Technology, who has worked on
to around 500,000 tons. 17 In doing so we took
this with you, for bringing the database errors to
account of the mistaken technical analysis that
our attention. Obviously the sooner we correct
had impacted bombing tonnage estimates for
those the better.” In an email of March 1, 2010,
both Laos and Cambodia. Holly High had
High asserted that in the Pentagon’s SEADAB
written to Kiernan on January 4, 2010: “I have
database, the original entries for each sortie
been working with computer scientists here at
under the field of bombing “Load Weight” had
Sydney and we have managed to make a fairly
been incorrectly keyed in, with a zero mistakenly
responsive database and also account for the
added to each figure. Those bombing tonnages
anomalies in the data . . . The database covers all
thus had to be divided by ten.
of Southeast Asia, and contains many more fields
than the data that you were working with, from
In June 2010, therefore, we published our
what I can tell from the data on the Cambodian
downward correction of our 2006 estimate of 2.7
Genocide Project website. It looks like the data
million tons. We stated that “this tonnage data
you and others in the UXO business were
may be incorrect. In new work using the original
provided with was a simplified, distilled version
Air Force SEADAB and CACTA databases, Holly
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High and others have re-analyzed the total
Cambodia was the victim of 2.7 million tons of
Cambodia tonnage figures and argue in a
ordnance, rather than 0.5 million, is becoming the
forthcoming article that the total tonnage
“new normal” in Cambodian studies. This
dropped on Cambodia was at least 472,313 tons,
upward revision has serious implications for the
or somewhat higher.” We concluded: “It remains
reading of regional, military and global
undisputed that in 1969-73 alone, around 500,000
history.”20
tons of U.S. bombs fell on Cambodia.”18
We of course find that statement surprising,
given that in 2010 we actually wrote the opposite,
as High knows. Not only from Kiernan’s prior
emails to her, but her note 26 specifically cites
our “note 38” where, among other places in our
2010 publication, we advocated the figure of
500,000 tons. High’s own 2008 exaggeration of
the Laos bombing, at 5.7 million tonnes, was
entirely understandable, but she has corrected
that only in 2014.
Angkor-era Khmer temple at Phnom Chisor,
Takeo province, Cambodia. Photo: Ben
Kiernan, 1988.
The most important outstanding issue concerns
public access to the different databases we all
have been working on. For some years we have
Now, in their JVS article published in 2014, High
made our Cambodia bombing data files
and two co-authors cite precisely that paragraph
accessible through the Cambodian Genocide
of ours. 19 But they neither quote from it nor
Program
reveal to readers the fact that in it – in 2010 – we
at
Yale
University
(http://gsp.yale.edu).21 On January 4, 2010, High
had publicly revised our estimate back
had written to Kiernan: “I would be happy to
downward, and acknowledged their assistance in
help you access the database that we have
doing so. Instead, in 2014, incomprehensibly,
created . . . Let me know if you would like to
they create the exact opposite impression: “Owen
access this any time.” Kiernan thanked her for
and Kiernan’s revised figure [sic] is nearly five
that offer and posed several questions about the
times higher than conventional estimates …
data. On January 28, she wrote again: “I think the
Owen and Kiernan’s reassessment of the air war
best course of action is for James, Gareth and I to
over Cambodia has also been uncritically cited by
continue to finalize our piece of writing, and then
a number of other scholars… The idea that
share it with you when it is in a near final state
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(close to final draft).” Kiernan did not hear from
bombing data, and ultimately over the—by all
High again, but on February 19, 2010, she kindly
accounts—massive bombardment of Cambodia.
sent Owen a draft of “what I have written for
Our work and that of High and her co-authors on
Cambodia so far (work in progress!).” It included
this topic are based on data originally collected
none of the assertions about us published in 2014,
by the US government. The databases are huge,
quoted above. Despite further requests, neither of
they represent what was at the time an
us heard any more from High after June, 2010 –
unprecedented data collection effort, and they
until March 2015, when the co-authored article
contain significant ambiguity concerning the
published in JVS in 2014 first came to our
collection methodology and the precise nature of
attention.
the data fields. In order for these data to be
In an email to Kiernan on January 7, 2010, High
analyzed, they had to be converted to modern
wrote that “the database is wildly inaccurate
database formats. In the version we and the
itself, if only because it was based on all-too-
Phnom Penh Postobtained for Cambodia, this had
human data entry and was also subjected to
already been done. High and her colleagues, on
falsification, as Shawcross notes [in his 1979 book
the other hand, used the original archived data,
Sideshow]. So I think the database probably
and, working with computer scientists,
underestimates the scale of the bombing, but the
conducted the data cleaning and conversion
database itself can’t tell us by how much or how
themselves. The version of the database that they
to account for this.” We suggest that High and
built appears to be similar, but not identical, to
her co-authors now make publicly accessible the
the one we used for our analysis.
database that is the subject of their 2014 JVS
The insights that High and her co-authors drew
publication, as we did for our 2006 and 2010
from this process and shared with us in email
articles.
exchanges provided a substantial contribution to
In addition, in the interest of the full
our understanding. Of particular relevance to our
transparency of a process that is complex but
analysis, they found errors in what we read to be
historically important, the public record would
the total tonnage field in the Cambodia database.
also benefit from a more detailed accounting of
High detailed their analysis to us via email, and
how High and her colleagues processed the
based on this we revised our tonnage figure
original data files they obtained. In what follows,
downward. For example, on March 1, 2010, in
we outline some of our exchanges with High
response to our question about how they had
because they document the research exercise at
derived their tonnage figures, High explained
the core of the debate over the use of archived
their procedures for each of the two Pentagon
5
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databases in turn.
multiplied by ten. So we had to divide by ten to
get the realfigure. The figures produced have
matched beautifully with other published
figures, such as thetonnage reported for
Linebacker II [the 1972 “Christmas bombing” of
North Vietnam].”
This is a valuable insight into the nature of the
database and the thoughtful analysis that High,
Curran and Robinson have conducted. But it is
simply a window into the process. We do not
Local farmers at Phnom Chisor in 1988
pointed out what they said was 1973 U.S.
bomb damage to the historic site's modern
Buddhist wat, still unrepaired in 1988.
Photo: Ben Kiernan, 1988.
have access to the details of the process that they
used to build their database, nor to the complete
database on which they have made these final
calculations. Without further information we do
First, the CACTA database, High wrote,
not know, for instance, why a zero erroneously
“contains the field ‘LoadQuantity’ which is
added to each bombing load weight could have
composed of [three parts, namely] load
produced an approximately fivefold tonnage
delivered, jettisoned and returned. We made a
over-estimate (from c. 0.5 to 2.7 million tons),
sum ofjettisoned and returned[,] to calculate how
rather than a tenfold error. But we do have here a
many bombs were dropped. It also has a field
glimpse into some of the process of the data
labelled‘Load Weight’. This lists the weight of
analysis that it would be valuable to have fully
each bomb, not the total of the load. It also has a
entered into the public record. This would allow
field'number of aircraft'. We determined that the
us to compare the database they built with the
load quantity referred to the total of all the
one we used for our analysis, which to the best of
aircraft, noteach one.”
our knowledge are similar in structure. To get
this important historical analysis right, we ask
“For SEADAB,” she went on, “the sum is
High and her colleagues to release their database
different. Its ‘Load weight' column represents the
and more fully explain the process by which they
total of all bombs fornumber of aircraft, so in
created it from the Pentagon’s original files.
effect the sum was already done for us. The only
hitch was that allfigures ended in zero!!! A very
unlikely scenario. We did some checking and
deduced thatsomehow, the entire field had been
6
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But neither can Nixon or Kissinger
escape judgement for their role in
the slaughter that was a prelude to
the genocide.” (1989)
22
“The still-incomplete [Pentagon]
database (it has several “dark”
periods) reveals that . . . over 10 per
cent of this bombing was
In 1988, farmers at Phnom Chisor pointed to
an unexploded U.S. bomb still lying where
it had fallen in 1973. Photo: Ben Kiernan,
1988.
indiscriminate, with 3,580 of the
sites listed as having “unknown”
targets and another 8,238 sites
having no target listed at all …The
The complexity of this technical discussion
Cambodian bombing campaign had
should not obscure the fact that, whatever the
two unintended side effects that
precise U.S. bombing tonnage dropped on
ultimately combined to produce the
Cambodia, it was massive. And as we have
very domino effect that the Vietnam
documented in three studies, much of it fell
War was supposed to prevent. First,
indiscriminately on populated rural areas. The
the bombing forced the Vietnamese
bombardment’s humanitarian and political
Communists deeper and deeper into
effects are clear. We stand by the conclusions we
Cambodia, bringing them into
have published on these issues over many years
greater contact with Khmer Rouge
of research:
insurgents. Second, the bombs
drove ordinary Cambodians into the
“The evidence of survivors from
arms of the Khmer Rouge, a group
many parts of [Cambodia] suggests
that seemed initially to have slim
that at least tens of thousands,
prospects of revolutionary success.”
probably in the range of 50,000 to
(2006)23
150,000 deaths, resulted from the US
bombing campaigns . . . The Pol Pot
“Cambodia became in 1969-73 one
leadership of the Khmer Rouge can
of the most heavily-bombarded
in no way be exonerated from
countries in history (along with
responsibility for committing
North Korea, South Vietnam, and
genocide against their own people.
Laos).Then, in 1975-79, it suffered
7
13 | 17 | 3
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genocide at the hands of Pol Pot’s
hundred’ Qaeda members in that country; by
Khmer Rouge communists, who had
2012, the group had ‘a few thousand
been military targets of the U.S.
members’.” 2 6
bombing but also became its
Dropping vast tonnages of bombs has to be
political beneficiaries.” (2010)
24
destructive, and carpet bombing can inflict
comprehensive damage. But understanding the
human toll requires study of the impact on
people on the ground and, as Fred Branfman did
in Laos over 45 years ago, listening to their
voices. And understanding the political
consequences requires taking account of their
responses. Recruiters propagandizing among
bombing victims have adopted varied political
strategies, including genocide in the case of the
Khmer Rouge, Al Qaeda, and ISIS. The question
Unknown US Bombing Targets, Cambodia
whether the United States “creates more
terrorists than it kills” has not gone away.27
During the four years of United States B-52
bombardment of Cambodia from 1969 to 1973,
Ben Kiernan is the author of
How Pol Pot Came to
the Khmer Rouge forces grew from possibly one
Power
thousand guerrillas to over 200,000 troops and
(http://www.amazon.com/dp/0300102623/?tag
militia.
=theasipacjo0b-20), The Pol Pot Regime (1996)
25
(1985)
(http://www.amazon.com/dp/0300144342/?tag
Writing about Yemen in 2013, Albert Hunt
=theasipacjo0b-20), Blood and Soil: A World
reported in the New York Timeson a smaller-scale
History of Genocide and Extermination from
recurrence of such expansion: “There is much
Sparta
evidence . . . that the drone strikes are creating
to
Darfur
(2007)
(http://www.amazon.com/dp/0300144253/?tag
more terrorists. In a report this year for the
=theasipacjo0b-20), and Genocide and Resistance
Council on Foreign Relations, the national
in
security scholar Micah Zenko said that in Yemen,
Southeast
Asia
(2008)
(http://www.amazon.com/dp/1412806690/?tag
the Pentagon had conducted dozens of drone
=theasipacjo0b-20). He is Whitney Griswold
strikes, killing more than 700 people. In 2009, the
Professor of History and Chair of the Council on
Obama administration said there were ‘several
Southeast Asia Studies at Yale University.
8
13 | 17 | 3
APJ | JF
Taylor Owen is the author of
Disruptive Power: The
of
Crisis of the State in the Digital Age (2015)
(http://apjjf.org/-Bret-Fisk/3469/article.html)
:
(http://www.amazon.com/dp/0199363862/?tag
Introduction
Tokyo
and
Its
Legacy
=theasipacjo0b-20). He is Assistant Professor of
(http://apjjf.org/-Bret-Fisk/3469/article.html)
Digital Media and Global Affairs at the University of
•Taylor Owen and Ben Kiernan, Bombs Over
British Columbia.
Cambodia: New Light on US Air War
Recommended citation: Ben Kiernan and Taylor
(http://apjjf.org/-Ben-Kiernan/2420/article.htm
Owen, "Making More Enemies than We Kill? l)
Calculating U.S. Bomb Tonnages Dropped on Laos
and Cambodia, and Weighing Their Implications",
The Asia-Pacific Journal, Vol. 13, Issue 17, No. 3,
April 27, 2015.
Notes
1
Related articles
More
(http://apjjf.org/admin/site_manage/details/,
• Ben Kiernan and Taylor Owen, Roots of U.S.
www.nytimes.com/2013/04/15/us/letter-killing
Troubles in Afghanistan: Civilian Bombing
-terrorists-creating-more.html),” New York Times
,
Casualties and the Cambodian Precedent
April 16, 2013(accessed April 25, 2015).
(http://apjjf.org/-Ben-Kiernan/3380/article.htm
l)
2
The New York Timesreports that by 2007, Al
Qaeda “had taken control of several major cities
• Sahr Conway-Lanz, The Ethics of Bombing
and provinces” in Iraq. Michael S. Schmidt and
Civilians After World War II: The Persistence of
Matt Apuzzo, “Petraeus Reaches Plea Deal…,”
Norms Against Targeting Civilians in the Korean
March 4, 2015, p. A15.
War
(http://apjjf.org/-Sahr-Conway_Lanz/4180/arti
3
cle.html)
Robert Greiner, “Yemen and the US: Down a
Familiar
012/05/201251071458557719.html),” Al-Jazeera,
citizen responses to the US firebombing and
bombing
of
Path
(http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2
• Mark Selden, Bombs Bursting in Air: State and
Atomic
Albert R. Hunt, “Killing Terrorists, Creating
May 10, 2012, (accessed April 25, 2015)
Japan
(http://apjjf.org/-Mark-Selden/4065/article.htm
4
l)
Ibrahim Monthana, “How Drones Help Al
Qaeda
(http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/14/opinion
•Bret Fisk and Cary Karacas, The Firebombing
9
13 | 17 | 3
APJ | JF
/how-drones-help-al-qaeda.html),” New York w w w . w h p - j o u r n a l s . c o . u k / G E / h i g h . p d f
Times, June 13, 2012, (accessed April 25, 2015)
5
(http://www.whp-journals.co.uk/GE/high.pdf).
High cites her source in note 35: “John Dingley,
David Rohde, “Obama’s Overdue Step on
Drones
Senior Technical Advisor at UXO Lao, personal
(ttp://blogs.reuters.com/david-
communication. This figure is based on US Air
rohde/2013/05/24/obamas-overdue-step-on-
Force data provided to UXO Lao. Unfortunately,
drones/),” Reuters, May 24, 2013, (accessed April
the data has many errors, and exact figures are
25, 2015)
6
Hassan
still unclear.”
Abbas,
Atlantic
Holly High, James R. Curran and Gareth
(http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/20
Robinson, “Electronic Records of the Air War
13/08/how-drones-create-more-terrorists/278743/)
,
Over Southeast Asia: A Database Analysis,”
August 23, 2013, (accessed April 25, 2015)
Journal of Vietnamese Studies
, 8:4 (Fall 2013), pp.
7
12
86-124, at 104, 110. This article first appeared in
Bruce Cumings, The Korean War
, New York,
2014
Modern Library, 2010.
8
here
(http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/vs.2014.8.
James P. Harrison, “History’s Heaviest
4.86): note 26 cites a URL “accessed November
Bombing,” in The Vietnam War: Vietnamese and 2013.”
American Perspectives
, ed. Jayne S. Werner and
13
Luu Doan Huynh, Armonk, NY, M.E. Sharpe,
Kampuchea,
1993, 131-32.
9
William Yardley, “Fred Branfman, Who
American_Bombardment_of_Kampuchea.pdf)”
Vietnam Generation
, 1:1, Winter 1989, pp. 4-41,
(http://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/07/us/fred
Table 1, p. 6:
-branfman-laos-activist-dies-at-72.html)” New
York Times, Oct. 6, 2014:(accessed April 25, 2015)
Fred Branfman, Voices from the Plain of Jars: Life
under an Air War, Madison, University of
14
Phnom Penh Post
, April 14, 2000.
15
Taylor Owen and Ben Kiernan, “Bombs over
Cambodia
(http://www.yale.edu/cgp/Walrus_CambodiaB
Wisconsin Press, 2013, xiii.
11
1969-1973,
(http://www.yale.edu/cgp/Kiernan,1989-The_
Exposed Bombing of Laos, Dies at 72,
10
Ben Kiernan, “The US Bombardment of
ombing_OCT06.pdf),” Walrus magazine, October
Holly High, “Violent Landscape: Global
Explosions and Lao Life-Worlds,” Global
Environment 1:1, 2008, 56-79, at 67,
10
2006, 62-69,
16
Taylor Owen and Ben Kiernan, “Bombs Over
13 | 17 | 3
APJ | JF
Kiernan,
“US
Bombardment,
Cambodia
22
(http://apjjf.org/-Ben-Kiernan/2420/article.htm
(http://www.yale.edu/cgp/Kiernan,1989-The_
l),”Asia-Pacific Journal
, May 12, 2007:
American_Bombardment_of_Kampuchea.pdf)” 3
17
2, 36.
Ben Kiernan and Taylor Owen, “Roots of U.S.
Troubles in Afghanistan: Civilian Bombing
23
Casualties and the Cambodian Precedent
(http://www.yale.edu/cgp/Walrus_CambodiaB
(http://www.japanfocus.org/-Ben-Kiernan/338
ombing_OCT06.pdf,) 62-3.
0),” The Asia-Pacific Journal
, 26-4-10, June 28, 2010,
24
box inset, and note 38:
Afghanistan,”
18
0)
Afghanistan: Civilian Bombing Casualties and
Cambodian
Kiernan and Owen, “Roots of U.S. Troubles in
(http://www.japanfocus.org/-Ben-Kiernan/338
Kiernan and Owen, “Roots of U.S. Troubles in
the
Owen and Kiernan, “Bombs over Cambodia,”
Precedent
25
Kiernan, “US Bombardment of Kampuchea,
(http://www.japanfocus.org/-Ben-Kiernan/338
(http://www.yale.edu/cgp/Kiernan,1989-The_
0),” Asia-Pacific Journal
, June 28, 2010, note 38.
American_Bombardment_of_Kampuchea.pdf)”
19
6.
High et al., “Electronic Records of the Air
War,” note 26.
20
High et al., “Electronic Records of the Air
Hunt, “Killing Terrorists, Creating More.”
27
“Jimmy Carter: Drones Create More Terrorists,
(http://
War,” 92.
21
26
www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/03/25/jimmy-c
The CGP geographic data may be downloaded
arter-drones_n_5028275.html)” Huffington Post
,
here
March 25, 2014, (accessed April 25, 2015).
(http://maps.library.yale.edu/images/public/C
GP/) .
11