RACHEL CARSON AND
ENVIRONMENTALISM
SOPHIE KERSHAW
US HISTORY
29 JANUARY 2013
Publishers released Rachel Carson‘s Silent Spring on September 27th 1962. Within a
shocking testimony, Carson attacked the irresponsible use of agricultural chemicals and protested
their adverse effects on the environment. The idea of an ―environmental impact‖ proved new to
most Americans of the time, and, immediately upon publication, Silent Spring evoked an
explosive reaction. The book put the pesticide industry up in arms as it viciously attacked
Carson in an attempt to discredit her as a scientist. Ironically, these attacks on Carson merely
provided the book with more publicity, and, in spite of its negative attention, the book spent
thirty-one weeks on the top seller list and received a mass of support from the public1. Although
Silent Spring received a substantial amount of negative attention from threatened chemical
companies, Carson's bestseller managed to spark the modern environmental movement in
America by provoking a unique and powerful, positive response from the nation that forever
changed the American public's attitude towards its environment and resulted in changes to
federal policy and effectively a new form of American society.
Following the culmination of the Great Depression and World War II, the United Sates
emerged with an unquestionable pride in up-and-coming technology, the American government,
and American capitalism. According to historian Thomas Dunlap, ―Americans assumed that
science was good, that chemicals were necessary, that their use would be governed by experts,
that these experts could be trusted, and that the side-effects of chemical use would be
negligible.‖2 This forward-driven society paid little attention to the environmental impacts of its
endeavors, and very little knowledge concerning the needs of the planet circulated among the
public3. Carson herself, when writing the book, stated that: ―I am pressing ahead…driven by the
1
Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Enviroment and Society Portal
Lear, Rachel Carson: Witness for Nature, [44]
3
Lear, Rachel Carson: Witness for Nature, [44]
2
1
knowledge that…unquestionably what [Silent Spring] has to say will come as news to 99 out of
100 people.‖4
Although she spoke against popular thought and questioned chemical experts, Carson‘s
astounding literary ability effectively aroused public concern. Reporters described her as both
―literarily inciting and scientifically informative‖.5 Additionally, current events and recent health
scares evoked a fear from the public that encouraged them to listen. For example, Carson took
advantage of the growing concern for radioactive substances by explicitly comparing pesticides
to radiation.6 As Walter Sullivan stated in The Times, ―[Carson] tries to scare the living daylights
out of us and…she succeeds.‖7 Also, due to three recent bestsellers, an already established
readership, fifty-five pages of references, and a complete list of expert reviewers, attempts by
chemical companies to disprove her credibility failed.8 All of these factors resulted in an
attentive public open to hearing Carson‘s important message.
Although Carson possessed no illusions concerning the promising potential of her work,
even she failed to predict the vast impact of Silent Spring. The book was a historical turning
point for American society. Carson enlightened thousands about the importance of respecting the
planet, and by changing opinion on such a large scale, she singlehandedly sparked the modern
environmental movement.
Carson‘s revolutionary novel, Silent Spring, changed how the American public viewed its
environment; Carson elevated the earth from its position of ―just an economic resource‖ to a
position of value coequal in meaning with that of humanity. Before Carson, the public viewed
environmental conservation as the least of its concerns. In a letter to The New Yorker, a citizen
4
H. Patricia Hynes, The Recurring Silent Spring (New York: Pergamon Press, 1989), [33]
Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Environment and Society Portal
6
Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Environment and Society Portal
7
Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Environment and Society Portal
8
Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Environment and Society Portal
5
2
wrote: ―We can live without birds and animals, but, as the current market slump shows, we
cannot live without business‖.9 The belief of "business before beauty " proved common during
the years of Silent Spring. Some people, however, did express an urgency to conserve the planet,
but, generally, they did not possess the same motives as Carson. In a statement from the 1960
National Resources Committee, government officials asked the following of the public:
Will there be electricity enough to serve our industries? Will we have sufficient fuel to
power our vehicles? Will there be attractive recreation sites for our families? Are we
doing all we can to ensure the wise utilization of our resources?10
The committee viewed the earth as a warehouse ―stocked‖ with natural resources. They worried
about the ―attractiveness‖ of parks, electricity for industry, and fuel for engines. No one raised
any concern for the preservation of ecosystems, only the preservation of resources. Don
Steffeck, the Chief of Resource Conservation in Portland, Oregon, claimed, ―The predominant
view in the mid-20th century was that man was preeminent in the world and could control any
problems through engineered solutions.‖11Carson found these beliefs abhorrent. The ―control of
nature,‖ she wrote, ―was conceived in arrogance, born of the…age of biology and philosophy
when it was supposed that nature exists for the convenience of man.‖12Carson viewed the world
not as an exclusive human domain, but as a complex planet shared by many living things. Carson
packed the pages of Silent Spring with numerous statements such as the one above, and as
bookstores across the nation sold copy after copy, her ideas began to impact society. In 1992,
Vice President Al Gore stated the following in a reflection of the time: ―Silent Spring had a
profound impact. It was one of the books we read at home at my mother‘s insistence and then
discussed around the dinner table…Rachel Carson was one reason why I became so conscious of
9
Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Environment and Society Portal
Hynes, The Recurring Silent Spring, [138].
10
11
12
Carson, Silent Spring, [51]
3
the environment."13 Al Gore‘s family quickly proved to be just one of thousands that experienced
this profound impact.
Evidence of changing beliefs occurred in the fall of 1969. A conference entitled ―Man
and His Environment‖ took place in San Francisco, and young delegates produced the following
in a Youth Report:
The youth delegates reject the premise that the salvation of mankind depends on the
control of land…we find instead that the salvation of mankind depends on the control of
man…and that life's pursuits can be predicted on equality, and compassion for man and
nature14
This statement simply restated the ideology introduced by Carson seven years prior. It called for
a respect for the planet, and refuted man‘s ―control‖ over nature--something directly addressed
by Carson. This statement differs radically from the one made by the National Resources
Committee in 1960. In the eyes of the youth, the Earth was not a ―warehouse of resources‖ but
an abundant planet deserving ―equality‖ and ―compassion‖. Evidently, Carson‘s revolutionary
ideas infiltrated society and impacted people‘s beliefs.
Another example of the changing American opinion occurred within the establishment of
several environmental interest groups. No government funding occurred; individual Americans
paid for these organizations out of pocket. In 1967, Art Cooley formed The Environmental
Defense Fund. Upon formation, the immediate goal of the agency was to ban DDT, an especially
powerful pesticide, and the center of Carson‘s concern.15 Cooley‘s animosity for this chemical
directly resulted from the work of Rachel Carson, as she researched and publically questioned
this pesticide first. Another group of activists established the National Resources Defense
Council (NRDC) in 1970.16 An article titled ―The Story of Silent Spring‖ exists on the modern-
13
Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Environment and Society Portal
Joan Lee Faust, "All Out for Ecology," New York Times, April 19,1970, accessed September 23, 2012.
15
Robert Paehlke, Environmentalism and the Future of Progressive Politics (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), [110].
16
Natural Resources Defense Council, accessed November 1, 2012, http://www.nrdc.org/
14
4
day NRDC website, and the website deems her as a "milestone" in environmental history.17
Clearly, Carson‘s direct links to these organizations demonstrate her impact on their
development.
Carson‘s published respect for the planet impacted not only political activists, but also the
majority of society and chief industrial companies. A 1970 publication of The Christian Monitor
clearly explains the change of thought that occurred:
Revolutionary…concepts are emerging as a result of the new ecology awareness. For
instance, it was long thought that the production of more and more material goods was
the line of infinite progress for modern man…scientists are now saying there may have to
be a limit put on material wants and that the producer will have to make provisions for
the harmless disposal of material products18.
Within the article, the author described the new emerging ecological awareness of the time. He
also discussed a possible need to place a limit on material production. Carson explicitly criticized
―pointless overproduction‖ several times within Silent Spring.19 Additionally, the article
addressed the idea of companies making provisions for their "harmless disposal of material
products." This 1970 statement greatly contrasts with an account of the chemical companies of
1960: ―Anyone who…watched the...sprayers...at work must have been impressed by the almost
supreme carelessness with which the poisonous substances were dispensed"- Dr. WC
Heuper.20Companies no longer possessed the ability to ignore their waste without opposition.
Before 1962, society possessed a dog-like faith in chemical experts, and waste concerns were
ignored, but Rachel Carson questioned this faith when she claimed, ―I do contend that we have
put poisonous and biologically potent chemicals indiscriminately into the hands of persons
17
Natural Resources Defense Council.
The Christian Science Monitor, "Spring of earth awareness," The Christian Science Monitor (Boston, Mass), April 21, 1970, accessed
September 23, 2012, http://hn.bigchalk.com/hnweb/hn/do/topicmain.
19
Carson, Silent Spring, [70]
20
Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Environment and Society Portal
18
5
largely or wholly ignorant of their potentials for harm…‖21Following her lead, Carson‘s attentive
audience also began to question the chemical industry as well as the government that permitted
its actions. In 1963, The Washington Post published an article entitled What if she’s right?, and
other papers published numerous similar articles possessing doubt and asking questions.22
Carson changed American opinion as she incited a newfound respect for the planet and
encouraged people to question the industries that harmed it. This increased public questioning
quickly led to government intervention.
Immediate government interest resulted from the public‘s reaction to Silent Spring; this
interest led to congressional action, and eventually culminated in adjustments to federal policy.
Politician Bill Moyers stated ―It's impossible to do justice today to Rachel Carson's impact. I was
in government at the time, and I remember all over Washington, people were talking about this
book.‖23 President John F. Kennedy immediately asked the Life Sciences Panel of the
President‘s Science Advisory Committee to investigate the claims within Silent Spring.24 On
August 29th 1962, a reporter questioned Kennedy about whether he had asked ―the Department
of Agriculture...to take a closer look at this.‖ He replied, ―Yes, I—and I know that they already
are—I think particularly, of course, since Miss Carson‘s book but they are examining the
matter.‖25Kennedy directly related the government‘s interest in the environment to the work of
Rachel Carson. Silent Spring also prompted Congressional hearings. On April 4th 1963, the day
immediately following the release of a CBS documentary detailing Carson‘s admonitions to the
public, Connecticut senator Abraham Ribicoff announced future congressional hearings on
21
Hynes, The Recurring Silent Spring, [138].
Lear, Rachel Carson: Witness for Nature, [61]
23
Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Environment and Society Portal
24
Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Environment and Society Portal
25
Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Environment and Society Portal
22
6
pollution and the federal regulation of pesticides.26 Before 1962, the government regulated
pesticides to ensure chemical arrangements were ―effective and not fraudulent‖27. The
Insecticide Act of 1910 and the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act of 1947
(FIFRA) both failed to propose ideas concerning environmental conservation.28Congress finally
amended FIFRA in 1972; the amendments placed restrictions upon agricultural pesticides and
called for the protection of endangered species. Carson explicitly addressed both of these issues
within her book, and can be largely credited with inspiring these amendments.
Silent Spring is also largely responsible for the establishment of the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) in 1970. Within her book, Carson criticized that "the mission to protect
the environment is fragmented among many agencies...and compromised by the government."29
She believed environmental protection should be motivated by a respect for the integrity of
nature, and should belong to an agency of ecologists; ―it should not be impeded by one
monotonal bureaucrat after another assuring the public that pesticide excesses [were] a thing of
the past.‖30 This lofty warning was the mooring from which the Environmental Protection
Agency was launched in 1970. EPA employee Jack Lewis stated that the "EPA today may be
said without exaggeration to be the extended shadow of Silent Spring".31 Later, through the
Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976, the EPA acted to ban, or severely restrict, all of the six
compounds specifically mentioned in Silent Spring including DDT32 The EPA still serves as a
major component of the government today, and continues to advocate for the rights of the planet.
Silent Spring altered popular thought, changed federal policy, and so in turn transformed
American society. As its arguments continued to trickle into popular awareness, its dogmata
26
Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Environment and Society Portal
Environmental Statutes Outline, 4th ed. (Washington, DC: Environmental Law Institute, 2007), [88].
28
Environmental Statutes Outline, [38-40, 52-56].
29
Carson, Silent Spring, [80]
30
Carson, Silent Spring, [81]
31
Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Environment and Society Portal
32
Environmental Statutes Outline, [180].
27
7
filtered into popular culture. Popular Science published an article in June 1963 titled ―How to
Poison Bugs but NOT Yourself,‖ and within the same month Popular Mechanics released an
article titled ―And Was It a Silent Spring?‖33 Dozens of environmental cartoons appeared in
magazines across the nation, and Carson appeared several times in the comic sections of
newspapers. In 1962 and 1963 Charles Schultz mentioned her four separate times in his
overwhelmingly popular ‗Peanuts‘ strip34. The book's ideas also emerged in several hit songs, the
most famous being Joni Mitchell‘s 1969 ―Big Yellow Taxi.‖ The lyrics read: ―Hey, farmer,
farmer / Put away that DDT now / Give me spots on my apples / But leave me the bird and the
bees / Please!‖35 Carson‘s ideas were truly personified in 1970 on the first Earth Day. On April
22, twenty million Americans from all across the nation banded together to protest in defense of
the planet36. Society no longer ignored the needs of the environment, but they valued it as
component of popular culture.
Stances on environmentalism also became major platforms for politicians. In his 1981
State of the Union Message, President Carter stated that: ―Preserving the quality of our
environment has been among the most important objectives of my Administration and of the
Congress‖.37He then continued to list his major environmental achievements. People possessed a
clear respect for the environment; politicians took pride in their environmental achievements,
and made a determined effort to improve them. The people wanted environmental awareness, so
politicians delivered it.
The Organic Food industry was another societal impact of Silent Spring and the
environmental movement. Before 1962, people mocked the organic food industry. However in
33
Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Environment and Society Portal
Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Environment and Society Portal
35
Stoll, "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING," Environment and Society Portal
36
Paehlke, Environmentalism and the Future, [89].
37
Jimmy Carter: State of the Union Message (1981), http://americangovernment.abc-clio.com.
34
8
the decades preceding Carson‘s introduction of environmental issues, the movement grew
dramatically.38 Economists expect the revenue of the organic food industry to exceed $88 billion
in 2015. Markets for organic foods, surprisingly, are not dominated by organic food stores such
as Whole Foods Market; studies attribute 60% of sales to major players such as Kraft, Kellogg‘s,
General Mills, and now Wal-Mart.39 As major companies continue to see potential in the market,
the organic food industry continues to expand rapidly. The increase in the production of organic
foods by major chains clearly reflects a society within which environmental concerns are
becoming a standard.
―A single book changes history only rarely. There was Harriet Beecher Stowe‘s Uncle
Tom’s Cabin, Upton Sinclair‘s The Jungle, and Ralph Nader‘s Unsafe at Any Speed. And then
there was Rachel Carson‘s Silent Spring.”40Carson‘s Silent Spring defines ―turning point‖ in
regards to the American environmental movement. The book altered a pre-established mindset
throughout the country, evoked tangible changes to federal policy, and sparked the development
of a society that values its environment. Society today is significantly more environmentally
conscious than it was in the 1960‘s, but the planet still suffers from pollution and harmful
pesticides are still used in agriculture. Rachel Carson‘s Silent Spring kick-started
environmentalism within America and impacted the nation forever, but a long journey still
precedes the American people.
38
Paehlke, Environmentalism and the Future, [103].
Paehlke, Environmentalism and the Future, [108].
40
Hynes, The Recurring Silent Spring, [3].
39
9
Annotated Bibliography
America‘s Reaction to Rachel Carson‘s Silent Spring
Primary Sources
1. Carson, Rachel. Silent Spring. 40th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2002.
Silent Spring is a primary source book written by Rachel Carson in 1962. The
book argues against harmful chemicals, provides alternatives to those chemicals, and
defends natures delicate balance. Rachel Carson is a renowned and reliable
environmental author. She wrote three best sellers before she published Silent Spring.
She attended John Hopkins University and earned degrees in zoology and natural science.
This source provided a clear demonstration of Carson‘s beliefs, and quotes about her
beliefs.
2. The Christian Science Monitor. "Spring of Earth Awareness." The Christian Science
Monitor (Boston, Mass), April 21, 1970, 18. Accessed September 23, 2012.
http://hn.bigchalk.com/hnweb/hn/do/topicmain.
―Spring of Earth Awareness‖ is a primary source article taken from a 1970
publication of The Christian Science Monitor. The Christian Science Monitor is a
renowned international news organization. The article discusses the growing
environmental awareness that occurred during the time of Rachel Carson. The source
provided evidence of the change of opinion that occurred within American society during
the 60‘s and early 70‘s. It helpfully supported the first impact of the paper that Rachel
Carson changed how Americans felt about the environment.
3. Environmental Statutes Outline. 4th ed. Washington, DC: Environmental Law Institute,
2007.
The Environmental Statutes Outline is a primary source collection of U.S.
environmental laws and documents. It cites and outlines 50 of the most important U.S.
environmental laws. The Environmental Law Institute published the collection. This is an
internationally recognized environmental research and education center. The source
provided exact government documents, and it provided an efficient way to research
Carson‘s impacts on federal policy.
4. Faust, Joan Lee. "All Out for Ecology." New York Times, April 19, 1970, 1. Accessed
September 23, 2012. http://hn.bigchalk.com/hnweb/hn/do/topicmain.
―All Out for Ecology‖ is a primary source article published in a 1970 edition of
The New York Times. The article discusses a conference that occurred in San Francisco
about the environment. Joan Lee Foust graduated from Georgetown University in 1943,
and spent 12 years writing for The New York Times. This source provided more evidence
about the changing American opinion of the environment. It provided evidence for the
10
first impact of the paper that Rachel Carson changed how Americans felt about the
environment.
5. Jimmy Carter: State of the Union Message (1981). http://americangovernment.abcclio.com.
This is a primary source state of the union address given by President Jimmy
Carter in 1981. Jimmy Carter served as the United States president from 1977 to 1981.
Within his address, he discusses what he achieved during his term. He talks solely about
the environment for a substantial amount of time. This source provides evidence of
society‘s clear respect for the environment. It supports the idea that Rachel Carson
changed society.
Secondary Sources
1. Hynes, H. Patricia. The Recurring Silent Spring. New York: Pergamon Press, 1989.
The Recurring Silent Spring is a secondary source book written by Patricia Hynes.
Patricia Hynes worked for the Environmental Protection Agency and was Chief of
Environmental Management at the Massachusetts Port Authority. Her book is about the
life and legacy of Rachel Carson. It provided important primary source quotes. One was
taken from the 1960 National Resources Committee, and the other was a Rachel Carson
quote. The quotes helped explain how drastically American opinions changed. The book
is full of information about every aspect of Carson‘s life, and was an excellent reference
for the entire paper.
2. Lear, Linda J. Rachel Carson: Witness for Nature. New York: H. Holt, 1997.
Rachel Carson: Witness for Nature is a secondary source book written by Linda
Lear. Linda Lear is Research Professor of Environmental History at George Washington
University and a Research Collaborator at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington.
Her book is a detailed biography of Rachel Carson‘s life. The book provided important
primary source quotes. Lear quoted Carson once and historian Thomas Dunlap once.
Thomas Dunlap graduated from Harvard, and he is a respected Historian. The book was
very detailed and an excellent source.
3. Natural Resources Defense Council. Accessed November 1, 2012. http://www.nrdc.org/.
This secondary source is the official National Resources Defense Council
website. It is an informational website not only about the NRDC, but also about the
history of environmentalism. The website explicitly mentions Rachel Carson, and
describes her as monumental component of environmental history. Established in 1970,
the NRDC is nationally and internationally recognized environmental charity. This
source helped provide evidence for the fact that Rachel Carson changed America‘s
feeling about the environment.
11
4. Paehlke, Robert. Environmentalism and the Future of Progressive Politics. New Haven:
Yale University Press, 1989.
Environmentalism and the Future of Progressive Politics is a secondary source
book about the history and the future of environmentalism. It provides a chapter by
chapter timeline of environmental history, and was useful in its provision of specific
facts. Robert Paehlke is a professor of political science and environmental and resource
studies at Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario. He is an expert on environmentalism.
This book provided general facts, and an organized history of the environmental
movement. It placed events in a methodical order.
5. Stoll, Mark. "RACHEL CARSON'S SILENT SPRING, A BOOK THAT CHANGED
THE WORLD." Enviroment and Society Portal. Last modified 2012. Accessed
September 10, 2012. http://www.environmentandsociety.org/exhibitions/silentspring/legacy.
This secondary source online exhibition was written by Mark Stoll. It provides
details about the background of her book, and several impacts particularly cultural
impacts. Mark Stoll is a Columbia University Graduate, and the website is associated
with the LMU Munich and the Deutsches Museum and the Rachel Carson Center for
Environment and Society. It is sponsored by a grant from the German Federal Ministry
for Education and Research. It was helpful in its provision of important primary source
quotes. It provided a quote from EPA employee, Jack Lewis. Jack Lewis worked for the
EPA for twenty years. It provided a quote from Vice President Al Gore and President
Kennedy. Al Gore served as VP from 1993 to 2001, and Kennedy served as President
from 1961–1963. Eye witness reports were collected from Dr. WC Heuper and politician
Bill Moyers. Both these men were alive during the time of Carson. Additionally, a quote
was taken from The New York Times article author Walter Sullivan. Sullivan wrote
articles for The New York Times for 5 years, and graduated from the University of
Michigan. All of these quotes were used as supporting evidence within the paper.
12