I Fear the Path is Fraught with Peril’s Strife – Samantha Moore | Ambra Michelli
A 17th Century English Sonnet
By HL Ambra Michelli | Samantha Moore
The Title Page from Shakespeare’s First Folio
From Mr. William Shakespeare’s Comedies, Histories, & Tragedies [the First Folio] (London, 1623).
Image courtesy of Folger Digital Image Collection, Folger Shakespeare Library.
ID #: 11251982SM
Category & Division: Masterwork, Performance, Poetry
Title of Entry: I Fear This Path is Fraught with Peril’s Strife
Country or Region Item is From in Period: England/Europe
Time Period of Item (within 50 years): 17th Century
Intended Setting of Item: Written at a Desk
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I Fear the Path is Fraught with Peril’s Strife – Samantha Moore | Ambra Michelli
Table of Contents
4 | Summary Introduction
Origins of the Art
Time Frame and Style
Geographic/Cultural Origin of the Sources of Inspiration
Elizabethan Spelling/Handwriting – Summarized
Meaning and Idea
9 | Inspiration
Subject
Examples
17 | Style and Creativity
The Music of Poetry
Rhyme and Meter
Denotation and Connotation
Literary Complexity
21 | Materials and Ingredients
32 | Tools and Equipment
Imagery & Figurative Language
Imagery
Metaphor
Simile
Hyperbole
Alliteration
Personification
Repetition
37 | Bibliography
39 | Appendix I - 17th Century Printing and Writer's tools
A Writer’s Tools
Note to the Judges
Period Writing Samples
Writer’s Box/Desks
Binding and Paper Use
Ink and Writing Implements
Printing Press
47 | Appendix II
A Folio and Quarto
Orthography
Pronunciation
Thou and Ye
Grammar
Vocabulary
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I Fear the Path is Fraught with Peril’s Strife – Samantha Moore | Ambra Michelli
I Fear This Path is Fraught with Perils ſtrife
J fear this path is fraught with perils ſtrife,
And yet J know no word wilt bid ye yield.
Though J for thee would ſacrifice my life,
J loath to ſee thee lain vpon thy ſhield.
Thou ſayeſt, “Truſt,” and J can but obey,
For what courſe other may theſe ſhackles chart.
“J come for thee!” thy wraithly vow doth weigh.
'tis comfort not to liue, and loſe mine heart.
ſo fearful each new dawn that I draw breath my hero will a heros end ſoon ſee.
J tempt no longer thy moſt valiant death.
Come not for loue, my own, and not for me;
Though heauens gates forthwith may know me not,
My death ends now the risk thy love hath wrought.
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I Fear the Path is Fraught with Peril’s Strife – Samantha Moore | Ambra Michelli
I Fear This Path is Fraught with Peril’s Strife
I fear this path is fraught with peril’s strife,
And yet I know no word will bid thee yield.
Though I for thee would sacrifice my life,
I loath to see thee lain upon thy shield.
Thou sayest, “Trust,” and I can but obey,
For what course other may these shackles chart?
“I come for thee!” thy wraithly vow doth weigh
'tis comfort not to live, and lose my heart.
So fearful each new dawn that I draw breath
My hero will a hero’s end soon see
I tempt no longer thy most valiant death.
Come not for love, my own, and not for me;
Though heaven's gates forthwith may know me not,
My death ends now the risk thy love hath wrought.
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I Fear the Path is Fraught with Peril’s Strife – Samantha Moore | Ambra Michelli
Summary Introduction
Poetry employs many tools to work its magic. In
‘Sound and Sense – An Introduction to Poetry’ by
Thomas R. Arp, a poem by Alexander Pope from
An Essay on Criticism published in 1711 (post
period) puts it best:
True ease in writing comes from art, not chance,
As those move easiest who have learned to dance
‘Tis not enough no harshness gives offense,
The sound must seem an echo to the sense.
Though this sentiment was penned out of period,
it most succinctly defines the purpose and
achievement sought to define one’s poetry as
‘good’ or ‘successful’.
Public Domain. Portrait of '''Alexander Pope''', oil
on canvas.
The Following Section Contains a Summary of the Following:





Origins of the Art
Time Frame and Style
Geographic/Cultural Origin
Elizabethan Spelling/Handwriting – Summarized
Meaning and Idea
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I Fear the Path is Fraught with Peril’s Strife – Samantha Moore | Ambra Michelli
Origins of the Art
Overall Authenticity speaks to where the piece ‘feels’ like an historic piece, all documentation aside. In
this entry, I have worked to compile many elements to aid in this.
An Example of a Petrarchan Sonnet:
Itallian poet Giacomo Da Lentini in the 13th
century is credited with inventing the sonnet
though Petrach in the 14th century truly
established it as a love poem staple. The
word ‘sonnet’ comes from the italian word
‘sonetto’ meaning little poem and from the
latin sonus meaning sound. Lentini created
the Petrarchan sonnet, from which other
forms evolved. Lentini penned the original
sonnet derives from a 13th century creation.
For more on this artist’s work, check out
“The Poetry of Giacomo Da Lentino”
[https://archive.org/details/cu31924006516
383]
Petrarch 14th Century Poem
http://authors.avoaltd.com/
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I Fear the Path is Fraught with Peril’s Strife – Samantha Moore | Ambra Michelli
Time Frame and Style
For my purposes, though I’ve a passion for the 13th century troubadours and can seek from their
example inspiration, my piece centers on courtly love in this vein but is a rendition of a 17th century
Shakespearian sonnet.
Sonnets were created as a major form of love poetry, beginning in the 13th century, being more
established in the 14th. In the 17th century John Donne extended this to religion and Milton extended
this to politics. [http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/sonnet.htm]
As I chose the 17th Century English sonnet, also known as the ‘Shakespearian Sonnet’, this consists of 3
quatrains of alternating rhyme and a couplet. What is a quatrain and a couplet? Glad you asked.
According to Webster’s dictionary, the word quatrain originates in the late 16th century from the
French word for four, quatre, and “is a stanza of four lines, especially one having alternate rhymes.” My
14th century Italian persona would not have used this word, though in the late 16th century, it would
have been referenced in Italian as: quartina. For the purpose of this paper, we will be reviewing the 16th
century English sonnet, and what a poet in this time and culture would have employed to create it.
A couplet is defined by “two lines of verse, usually in the same meter and joined by rhyme that form a
unit.” This word is derived from the Old French word ‘cople’ and the English ‘couple’, refined in the late
16th century. In Italian (again, irrelevant to this paper but of interest to me): ‘distico’. A Volta is known
as ‘the turn’ – often found in English sonnets, influenced by early Italian poets. This is when the second
idea is introduced in sonnet, and/or is accompanied by a shift in rhyming pattern.
Iambic pentameter (5 iambs to a line), ababcdcdefefgg rhyming scheme:
The Rhyming Pattern
The Sonnet:
I Fear This Path is Fraught with Peril’s Strife
abab
Quatre 1
I fear this path is fraught with peril’s strife, [a]
And yet I know no word will bid ye yield. [b]
Though I for thee would sacrifice my life, [a]
I loath to see thee lain upon thy shield. [b]
cdcd
Quatre 2,
Thou sayest, “Trust,” and I can but obey, [c]
For no course other may these shackles chart. [d]
“I come for thee!” thy wraithly vow doth weigh [c]
'tis comfort not to live, and lose mine heart. [d]
efef
Quatre 3
So fearful each new dawn that I draw breath, [e]
My hero will a hero’s end soon see. [f]
I tempt no longer thy most valiant death; [e]
Come not for love, my own, and not for me. [f]
gg
A couplet often including a rhyming
pattern deviation – a volta
Though heaven's gates forthwith may know me not, [g]
My death ends now the risk thy love hath wrought… [g]
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I Fear the Path is Fraught with Peril’s Strife – Samantha Moore | Ambra Michelli
Geographic/Cultural Origin of the
Sources of Inspiration
The English/Shakespeare’s sonnet, one more akin
to the style I used, derives from a 16th century
adaptation, deviating, as many artists did over the
years, into his own style (ababcdcdefefgg).
Edmund Spenser adapted this further
(ababbabccdcdee).
Itally began penning the sonnet as early as the
13th century – though more so in the 14th.
England, Spain, and France all adopted the sonnet,
a form of love poetry, in the 16th century, and
Germany in the 17th.
[University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign |
http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/sonnet.htm]
1559 A. D., Venice. Giolito edition
of Petrarch’s sonnets
Elizabethan Spelling/Handwriting - Summarized
Weird Elizabethan
Spelling Rules of Thumb:
(See deeper breakdown of language in Appendix A, titled,
“U’s and V’s? What is This Madness?!”)
l
S’s to except when the word ends in an s-stop (kiss vs.
killed)
V’s start the word, all other V’s become U’s
I’s and J’s can be consonants or vowels.
J’s remain as they are, but I’s can be J’s, as J’s were
often decorative renditions of I’s.
The Elizabethan alphabet also had a letter similar in
appearance to ‘y’ that denoted the ‘th’ sound, but as
my ‘inspirational’ research did not exhibit this, I did
not include it in the poem above.
J fear this path is fraught with perils ſtrife,
And yet J know no word wilt bid ye yield.
Though J for thee would ſacrifice my life,
J loath to ſee thee lain vpon thy ſhield.
Thou ſayeſt, “Truſt,” and J can but obey,
For no courſe other may theſe ſhackles chart.
“J’ll come for thee!” thy wraithly vow doth weigh
'tis comfort not to liue, and loſe mine heart.
ſo fearful each new dawn that I draw breath
My hero will a heroſ end ſoon ſee,
Come not for loue, my own, and not for me;
J tempt no longer thy moſt valiant death.
Though heauens gates forthwith ſhall know me not,
My death ſhall end the riſk thy loue hath wrought
[A deeper review of Elizabethan language and spelling is included in the ‘Methods and Technique’
section of this article.]
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I Fear the Path is Fraught with Peril’s Strife – Samantha Moore | Ambra Michelli
Meaning and Idea
The Sonnet was created as a form of love poetry, in line with courtly love and the prose of the
troubadours. But the bards will sing of each love uniquely. So too, did poets of the time offer different
types of love poetry. Some were in friendship, others in lust, some in wanting what they could not have,
some in debating why they should be granted entreaty.
Each word in a sonnet is chosen delicately, not only for what it literally says or emotionally infers, but
for a constant thread of logic and even hidden or double meanings – a crafty tool once again employed
by early troubadours. To that end, we find it helpful, from the poetry, to translate the meaning of a
Sonnet, to better understand it ~ for the math is such that little says much.
Translating the Sonnet
What are we talking about?
No matter what I say, I know you are set on this
course, and like to die. Though I would sacrifice
my life for yours, to think you will die in the effort
to save me frightens me.
I fear this path is fraught with peril’s strife,
And yet I know no word wilt bid ye yield.
Though I for thee would sacrifice my life,
I loath to see thee lain upon thy shield.
Why the Protagonist is Angst-ful
You tell me to trust in your strength and cunning,
to free me, live, and win the day. But I have no
choice, do I? Imprisoned I could not stop you if I
wanted. Your vow to free me weighs heavily on my
soul, knowing your love of me will be what costs
you your life. My freedom is not worth your life.
Thou sayest, “Trust,” and I can but obey,
For no course other may these shackles chart.
“I come for thee!” thy wraithly vow doth weigh
'tis comfort not to live, and lose mine heart.
How the Protagonist Comes to a Conclusion
If you are yet living, I can endure any worldly
grief. To spare you your fate, I will do the only
thing in my power to stop you from trying to rescue
me in the name of love.
So fearful each new dawn that I draw breath,
My hero will a hero’s end soon see.
I tempt no longer thy most valiant death;
Come not for love, my own, and not for me.
What the Protagonist Does to Resolve the Conflict
[As a suicide, most Christian faiths (which the
writer of this piece would have at least claimed to
be) believed heaven would be denied them.]
Though heaven's gates forthwith may know me not,
My death ends now the risk thy love hath wrought…
So to save you your life, I damn my soul, knowing
that with my end, your fate can change; you can
survive. If you loved me less, I might not grieve
you so, but as I love you truly, I sacrifice my life
for yours.
As a side note, an impending project will be to answer this sonnet, damning and grieving his lost love.
I find it easiest to consider sonnets like one arguing against oneself, and then coming to or questioning a
conclusion. This is evident in the breakdown and review of the pieces selected in this article.
Shakespeare often delayed the volta, extoling several ideas of his ideal and in the end defining the
alternate ‘I shall never obtain my heart’ perspective for the ‘tragedy’ and drama of it all. An often
compelling strategy evoking emotion.
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I Fear the Path is Fraught with Peril’s Strife – Samantha Moore | Ambra Michelli
Inspiration
Subject: Suicide for the Sake of Honor, Trauma, or Spite:
Death of Dido 1500 Artist Unknown Illuminated manuscript
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, France
XLVIII-Suicide de Lucrèce, Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375), Le
Livre des cleres et nobles femmes, v. 1488-1496, Cognac (France),
traducteur anonyme. -- Illustrations painted by Robinet Testard -BnF Français 599 fol. 42v
Sirani, Elisabetta, Portia Wounding Her Thigh, 1664.
Cleopatra Committing Suicide Claude Vignon 17th Century
Italy, Lazio, Rome, Galleria Spada; Detail; Woodpile with Queen
Dido commits Suicide, Mondadori Portfolio (Getty Images)
Netherlands - Bruges - London, British Library - Harley 4425:
Roman de la Rose by Guillaume de Lorris and Jean de Meun, fol. 54v
- (1490-1500). Virginius about to decapitate his daughter Virginia, “to
preserve her honour”
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Subject: Imprisonment Poetry Inspiration
“Many readers have noticed that the fifteenth century saw a remarkable flourishing of poems written either in
conditions of physical captivity or on the subject of imprisonment. The largest body of this poetry (6,530 lines) is
from the pen of Charles of Valois, duke of Orléans, who was captured by the English at the battle of Agincourt in 1415
and not released until 1440, a full twenty-five years later. The longest single poem on the subject, 1,379 lines, is James
I of Scotland's The Kingis Quair, purportedly written at the time of his release from an eighteen-year imprisonment in
England.1 This volume reflects the wide scope of these "prison poems" by bringing together a new edition of The
Kingis Quair, a selection from Charles d'Orléans' Fortunes Stabilnes, a poem by George Ashby, who was imprisoned
in London's Fleet prison, and the poems of two other poets, both anonymous, who wrote about physical and/or
emotional imprisonment.” http://d.lib.rochester.edu/teams/text/mooney-and-arn-kingis-quair-and-other-prisonpoems-introduction
CHARLES OF VALOIS, DUKE OF ORLÉANS
1394-1465
GO FORTH, MY HERT
Go forth, my hert, with my lady;
Loke that we spare no business
To serve her with such lowliness,
That ye get her grace and mercy.
Pray her of times prively
That she keep trewly her promise
Go forth my hert, with my lady;
I must as a hertless body
Abide alone in hevyness,
And ye shal do wel with your maistress
In plesans glad and mery.
Go my hert, with my lady;
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Form: Inspirational Love Sonnets
The pieces below were selected as these authors have been most compelling to me in my reading and
have moved me in some way.
WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE
1564-1616
William_Shakespeare_portrait_section.JPG ‎
(238 × 253 pixels, file size: 25 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg)
MODERN TRANSLATION
From fairest creatures we desire increase,
That thereby beauty's rose might never die,
But as the riper should by time decease,
His tender heir might bear his memory:
But thou contracted to thine own bright eyes,
Feed'st thy light's flame with self-substantial fuel,
Making a famine where abundance lies,
Thy self thy foe, to thy sweet self too cruel:
Thou that art now the world's fresh ornament,
And only herald to the gaudy spring,
Within thine own bud buriest thy content,
And, tender churl, mak'st waste in niggarding:
Pity the world, or else this glutton be,
To eat the world's due, by the grave and thee.
Above Sonnet Printed in 1605
THE 1609 QYARTI VERSUIB
From faireſt creatures we deſire increaſe,
That thereby beauties Roſe might neuer die,
But as the riper ſhould by time deceaſe,
His tender heire might beare his memory:
But thou contracted to thine owne bright eyes,
Feed'ſt thy lights flame with ſelfe ſubſtantiall fewell,
Making a famine where aboundance lies,
Thy ſelfe thy foe,to thy ſweet ſelfe too cruell:
Thou that art now the worlds freſh ornament,
And only herauld to the gaudy ſpring,
Within thine owne bud burieſt thy content,
And tender chorle makſt waſt in niggarding:
Pitty the world,or elſe this glutton be,
To eate the worlds due,by the graue and thee.
Collection of Sonnets Printed in 1609
William Shakespeare - Shake-Speare's Sonnets, quarto published
by Thomas Thorpe, London, 1609
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SIR THOMAS WYATT
1503-1542
Engraving of Sir Thomas Wyatt. Photograph: Bridgeman Art Library
I FIND NO PEACE
I find no peace, and all my war is done.
I fear and hope. I burn and freeze like ice.
I fly above the wind, yet can I not arise;
And nought I have, and all the world I season.
That loseth nor locketh holdeth me in prison
And holdeth me not—yet can I scape no wise—
Nor letteth me live nor die at my device,
And yet of death it giveth me occasion.
Without eyen I see, and without tongue I plain.
I desire to perish, and yet I ask health.
I love another, and thus I hate myself.
I feed me in sorrow and laugh in all my pain;
Likewise displeaseth me both life and death,
And my delight is causer of this strife.
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HENRY HOWARD, EARL OF SURREY
1517-1547
Painting of Henry Howard in Tudor and Jacobean England 1530-1630. New York: Rizzoli, 1995
ALAS, SO ALL THINGS NOW DO HOLD THEIR PEACE!
Translated by Henry Howard
Alas, so all things now do hold their peace!
Heaven and earth disturbèd in no thing;
The beasts, the air, the birds their song do cease,
The nightès car the stars about doth bring;
Calm is the sea; the waves work less and less:
So am not I, whom love, alas! doth wring,
Bringing before my face the great increase
Of my desires, whereat I weep and sing,
In joy and woe, as in a doubtful case.
For my sweet thoughts sometime do pleasure bring:
But by and by, the cause of my disease
Gives me a pang that inwardly doth sting,
When that I think what grief it is again
To live and lack the thing should rid my pain.
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JOHN DONNE
1572-1631
Oil Painting, John Donne (1573-1631), at the age of 49.
Anon. British School, 1622. Image courtesy of the Victoria and Albert Museum.
HOLY SONNETS: BATTER MY HEART, THREE-PERSON'D GOD
Batter my heart, three-person'd God, for you
As yet but knock, breathe, shine, and seek to mend;
That I may rise and stand, o'erthrow me, and bend
Your force to break, blow, burn, and make me new.
I, like an usurp'd town to another due,
Labor to admit you, but oh, to no end;
Reason, your viceroy in me, me should defend,
But is captiv'd, and proves weak or untrue.
Yet dearly I love you, and would be lov'd fain,
But am betroth'd unto your enemy;
Divorce me, untie or break that knot again,
Take me to you, imprison me, for I,
Except you enthrall me, never shall be free,
Nor ever chaste, except you ravish me.
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Form: Inspirational Love Sonnets
LADY MARY WROTH
(1587 - 1652)
Example of a Female Author of the Time
P A M P H I L I A, T O A M P H I L A N T H V S
http://www.luminarium.org/renascence-editions/mary.html
When night's blacke Mantle could most darknesse proue,
And sleepe (deaths Image) did my senses hyre,
From Knowledge of my selfe, then thoughts did moue
Swifter then those, most [swiftnesse] neede require.
In sleepe, a Chariot drawne by wing'd Desire,
I saw; where sate bright Venus Queene of Loue,
And at her feete her Sonne, still adding Fire
To burning hearts, which she did hold aboue,
But one heart flaming more then all the rest,
The Goddesse held, and put it to my breast,
Deare Sonne now [shoot] {6}, said she: thus must we winne;
He her obey'd, and martyr'd my poore heart.
I waking hop'd as dreames it would depart,
Yet since, O me, a Lover I haue beene.
First published as part of The Countess of Montgomery's Urania in 1621
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ANNE BRADSTREET
(1612-1672)
Example of a Female Author of the Time
A LETTER TO HER HUSBAND
ABSENT UPON PUBLIC EMPLOYMENT
https://poemshape.wordpress.com/tag/anne-bradstreet/
Note the use of
‘my’ and ‘mine’
together. I apply
this similarly in
my sonnet.
My head, my heart, mine eyes, my life, nay more,
My joy, my magazine, of earthly store,
If two be one, as surely thou and I,
How stayest thou there, whilst I at Ipswich lie?
So many steps, head from the heart to sever,
If but a neck, soon should we be together.
I, like the Earth this season, mourn in black,
My Sun is gone so far in's zodiac,
Whom whilst I 'joyed, nor storms, nor frost I felt,
His warmth such fridged colds did cause to melt.
My chilled limbs now numbed lie forlorn;
Return; return, sweet Sol, from Capricorn;
In this dead time, alas, what can I more
Than view those fruits which through thy heart I bore?
Which sweet contentment yield me for a space,
True living pictures of their father's face.
O strange effect! now thou art southward gone,
I weary grow the tedious day so long;
But when thou northward to me shalt return,
I wish my Sun may never set, but burn
Within the Cancer of my glowing breast,
The welcome house of him my dearest guest.
Where ever, ever stay, and go not thence,
Till nature's sad decree shall call thee hence;
Flesh of thy flesh, bone of thy bone,
I here, thou there, yet both but one.
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Style and Creativity
Maître de Jean de Papeleu, Marie de France writing. Fables of Marie de France, Paris, between 1285 and 1292
(Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal, Ms. 3142, fol. 256).
The Following Section Contains a Breakdown on the Following:




The Music of Poetry
Rhyme and Meter
Denotation and Connotation
Literary Complexity
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The Music of Poetry
‘Sound and Sense’ will advise: “the essential element in all music is repetition. In fact, we might say that
all art consists of giving structure to two elements: repetition and variation… if we get too much
sameness, the result is monotony and tedium; if we get too much variety, the result is bewilderment and
confusion. The composer of music, therefore, repeats certain musical tones; repeats them in certain
combinations, or chords; and repeats them in certain patterns, or melodies. The poet likewise repeats
certain sounds in certain combinations and arrangements, and thus adds musical meaning to the verse.”
Rhyme and Meter
Keeping the Beat
The Sonnet
Words have a natural rhythm and a meter. A
type of music. See the denoted Shakespere at
the end of this booklet that exemplifies this
same style.
u/
You use this without knowing it every day –
accenting each word by placing the correct
emPHAsis on the right syLAble. Switch it up,
and people start looking at you funny. Poets
who shoe-horne words into place despite this
finight reality can unintentionally make their
piece feel ‘wrong’, though a good performer
will try to hide it. Still, no matter how well
you think you’ve done this, in metered poetry,
your listeners will take that half second of
confusion and miss your next complex line, its
meaning, and perhaps become lost and thus
mentally disengage.
Though I for thee would sacrifice my life
In this example, I’ve used Iambic pentameter.
An iamb is a type of foot. An unaccented
syllable followed by an accented sylable. The
way you define if something is written in
iambic pentameter (the style used most
prevalently by Shakespear) is by the count of
Iambs used in a line. In the below likened
style, there are 5 Iambs, and ‘pente’ is the
ancient greek word for ‘five’. So if you have 5
Iambs in each line of your poetry, you are
writing in ‘iambic pentameter’.
u
/
u
/
u
/ u
/
I fear this path is fraught with Peril’s strife
u
/
u /
u
/
u
/
u
/
/ u /
u
And yet I know no word wilt bid ye yield
u
/u /
u/
u /
u
u
/
u/
u
/
/
I loath to see thee lain upon thy shield
u
/ u
/
u
/u
/
u/
Thou sayest, “Trust,” and I can but obey
u
/
u
/u
/
u
/ u
/
For no course other may these shackles chart
u /
u
/
u
/
u
/
u /
u
u /
u
/
“I come for thee!,” thy wraithly vow doth weigh
u
/
/
u
/
‘tis comfort not to live, and lose mine heart
u
/
u
/
u
/
u
/u
/
So fearful each new dawn that I draw breath
u
/
u /
u / u
/
u
/
My hero will a hero’s death soon see
u /
u /
u
/
u /
u
u
/ u
/
I tempt no longer thy most valiant death
u
/
/
u
/
u /
Come not for love, my own, and not for me
u
/
u
/
u
/
u
/
u
/
Though heaven’s gates forthwith shall know me not
u
/
u
/
u
/
u
/
u
/
My death ends now the risk thy love hath wrought…
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Denotation and Connotation
Denotation simply put is what a word literally means. Connotation is what the word suggests. For
example, when a woman says she is ‘fine’, she is not fine. The denotation of the word infers all is well.
However, any youth out of grade school learns the connotation of this word is, ‘you know what you did
and when you are ready to cop to it, you’d best keep your head down and bring chocolate in penance…’
The above is a more abstract reflection of this poetic tool. More commonly, you see this reflected in
examples like: a dog denotes a four legged canine, but connotes someone who might be unattractive. By
a similar token a cur connotes someone wild and without the honors due a man; an insult. Home denotes
a dwelling but connotes family, safety, comfort, love, peace… you get the idea.
In William Shakespear’s Sonnet 1 (1609 - see sources for inspiration section further down for full poem),
there is a line:
From faireſt creatures we deſire increaſe,
That thereby beauties Roſe might neuer die
This might literally denote a flower owned by Beauty, but in the author’s intent connotes we desire
beauty to be everlasting with an inference on ownership.
In my poem, I include this tool as evidenced by, for 1 example, this line:
J fear this path is fraught with peril’s ſtrife,
Peril does not literally own strife. Rather strife is the consequence of the perilous path or decision her
lover attempts.
Thou ſayeſt, “Truſt,” and I can but obey,
For no courſe other may theſe shackleſ chart.
I do not truly posit that the chains of a prisoner could chart any course, or path, let alone one that leads
away from this ill fate.
“I come for thee!” thy wraithly vow doth weigh
'tis comfort not to live, and loſe mine heart.
One cannot lose their heart and live, so once again this is not and example of rigid denotation. The
connotation is her love ‘has’ her ‘loving favor’ ~ inferring rescue is no relief if he were to die.
Also, a vow cannot weigh physically. The connotation is that it weighs upon the soul, increasing in
guilt, anxiety, and concern for the well being of he who would risk his life for her safety. What’s more, a
wraith is a ghostly creature, often malevolent and haunting - for fear of her lover’s death being her
hands, for the reason he would risk his life is for her safety. To resolve her impending guilt, she takes
her life that her sacrifice might spare his, knowing that even for her valiant hero, the likelihood of him
dying in the pursuit of her freedom is too great.
Literary Complexity
Building on our understanding of detonation and connotation, the complexity in this piece lies in the use
of figurative language (defined in the ‘Tools and Equipment’ portion of this article) and to the meaning
one can draw from it. Like most literary works, the piece is lovely enough at face value, but though
‘Translating the Sonnet’ spoke to the translated meaning of the poetry, let’s now take a deeper dive into
what complexity we might pull from these few lines of verse.
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I Fear the Path is Fraught with Peril’s Strife – Samantha Moore | Ambra Michelli
Literary Complexity - Continued
I Fear This Path is Fraught with Peril’s Strife
I fear this path is fraught with peril’s strife,
And yet I know no word wilt bid ye yield.
Though I for thee would sacrifice my life,
I loath to see thee lain upon thy shield.
Thou sayest, “Trust,” and I can but obey,
For no course other may these shackles chart.
“I come for thee!” thy wraithly vow doth weigh
'tis comfort not to live, and lose mine heart.
So fearful each new dawn that I draw breath
My hero will a hero’s end soon see.
I tempt no longer thy most valiant death.
Come not for love, my own, and not for me.
Though heaven's gates forthwith may know me not,
My death shall end the risk thy love hath wrought…
“Peril’s strife” refers to risk and the inherent difficulty of the task that will not be a single effort but
rather, enforced by ‘path’, a lingering trial. This is later brought full circle in the last few lines: “I tempt
no longer thy most valiant death” and “My love [read suicide/sacrifice] shall end the RISK thy love
hath wrought”. This further supports this circle of concept, inferring she will no longer be used as fate’s
bait to his untimely end, but also once again with ‘valiant death’, inferring the task is great and her fear
valid.
Let us examine the last two lines, “Though heaven’s gates forthwith may know me not,” (inferring that
as a practicing Christian she very well knows the mortal and immortal price of her actions), “My death
shall end the risk thy love hath wrought…” acknowledging that though she sacrifices everything for his
safety, she knows she only does so because he loves her just as much and would risk the same. Digging
into the word selection, “wrought”, this word often comes with bitter connotation in early composition.
Almost as if she is damning him for loving her so much. Had he loved her less, she might have died not
at her own hand [though in that vein she would neither be saved]. It puts her in a precarious and
emotionally stricken state of resolve, one way or the other.
Let us now backtrack a little bit. You’ll note prevailing themes throughout the sonnet. For instance,
“Yield”, “Lain upon thy Shield”, “Valiant” ~ these words all give you a visual of a warrior on the field, a
hero or at least a combatant or soldier.
The words/phrases, “Trust”, “Obey”, “Vow” have an arguably marital vibe, and "Would sacrifice my
life”, “My death shall end the risk”, “Come not for love, my own, and not for me”, “Though I… loath to
see thee lain upon thy shield”, i.e., I’d die for you but can’t bear to have you die for me – all denotes the
character has put her lover’s life and wellbeing above her own. This is both an irrefutable act of love, but
also self-deprecating. Though this latter concept was introduced, I did not build on it, as though an
element of the act, I did not want it to overshadow the message, which was more intended to be “I love
you” instead of “I don’t matter”; having early on defined that she already knows, “no word will bid ye
yield”.
For captivity I littered in, “shackles” and “fraught” (freighted, laden, loaded). “thy wraithly” infers she
already fears the haunting guilt of his death on her behalf, along with the visual reference to, “thy most
valiant death.” Along the ‘haunting’ lines, I reference that “heaven’s gates shall know me not”,
referencing her acknowledgement that someone’s going to die, and she won’t have his death on her
hands.
It can be organic to bleed from one metaphor or literary visual to another. The trick is no matter how
far you wander, to keep the thread consistent and alive, as best you can.
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Materials and Ingredients
and
The Following Section Contains a Glossary of Terms Used in the Sonnet
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Word Selection and Glossary
I Fear This Path is Fraught with Peril’s Strife
I fear this path is fraught with peril’s strife,
And yet I know no word wilt bid ye yield.
Though I for thee would sacrifice my life,
I loath to see thee lain upon thy shield.
Thou sayest, “Trust,” and I can but obey,
For no course other may these shackles chart.
“I come for thee!” thy wraithly vow doth weigh
'tis comfort not to live, and lose mine heart.
So fearful each new dawn that I draw breath
My hero will a hero’s end soon see.
I tempt no longer thy most valiant death.
Come not for love, my own, and not for me.
Though heaven's gates forthwith may know me not,
My death shall end the risk thy love hath wrought…
The Following is Derived from “A Shakespeare Glossary” and “The Online Etymology Dictionary”
I
12c., a shortening of Old English ic, the first person
singular nominative pronoun, from ProtoGermanic *ek (source also of Old Frisian ik, Old
Norse ek, Norwegian eg, Danish jeg, Old High
German ih, German ich, Gothic ik), from PIE *eg- "I,"
nominative form of the first person singular pronoun
(source also of Sanskrit aham, Hittite uk,
Latin ego (source of French Je), Greek ego, Russian ja,
Lithuanian aš).
fear
Old English færan "to terrify, frighten," from a ProtoGermanic verbal form of the root of fear (n.). Cognates:
Old Saxon faron "to lie in wait," Middle Dutch vaeren
"to fear," Old High German faren "to plot against," Old
Norse færa "to taunt."
Originally transitive in English; long obsolete in this
sense but somewhat revived in digital gaming via "fear"
spells, which matches the old sense "drive away by
fear," attested early 15c. Meaning "feel fear" is late 14c.
Related: Feared; fearing.
this
Old English þis, neuter demonstrative pronoun and
adjective (masc. þes, fem. þeos), probably from a North
Sea Germanic pronoun *tha-si-, formed by combining
the base *þa- (see that) with -s, which is probably
identical with Old English se "the" (representing here
"a specific thing"), or with Old English seo, imperative
of see (v.) "to behold." Compare Old Saxon these, Old
Frisian this, Old Norse þessi, Middle Dutch dese, Dutch
deze, Old High German deser, German dieser.
Once fully inflected, with 10 distinct forms (see table
below); the oblique cases and other genders gradually
fell away by 15c. The Old English plural was þæs
(nominative and accusative), which in Northern Middle
English became thas, and in Midlands and Southern
England became thos. The Southern form began to be
used late 13c. as the plural of that (replacing Middle
English tho, from Old English þa) and acquired an -e
(apparently from the influence of Middle English
adjective plurals in -e; compare alle from all, summe
from sum "some"), emerging early 14c. as modern
those.
path
Old English paþ, pæþ "path, track," from West
Germanic *patha- (source also of Old Frisian path,
Middle Dutch pat, Dutch pad, Old High German pfad,
German Pfad "path"), of uncertain origin. The original
initial -p- in a Germanic word is an etymological puzzle.
Don Ringe ("From Proto-Indo-European to ProtoGermanic," Oxford 2006) describes it as "An obvious
loan from Iranian ..., clearly borrowed after Grimm's
Law had run its course." Watkins says the word is
"probably borrowed (? via Scythian) from Iranian
*path-," from PIE root *pent- "to tread, go, pass"
(source of Avestan patha "way;" see find (v.)), but this is
too much of a stretch for OED and others. In Scotland
and Northern England, commonly a steep ascent of a
hill or in a road. Also footpath 1520s, from foot (n.) +
path.
is
Third person singular present indicative of be, Old
English is, from Germanic stem *es- (source also of Old
High German, German, Gothic ist, Old Norse es, er),
from PIE *es-ti- (source also of Sanskrit asti, Greek
esti, Latin est, Lithuanian esti, Old Church Slavonic
jesti), from PIE root *es- "to be." Old English lost the
final -t-.
Until 1500s, pronounced to rhyme with kiss. Dialectal
use for all persons (I is) is in Chaucer.
fraught
late 14c., "freighted, laden, loaded, stored with supplies"
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(of vessels); figurative use from early 15c.; past
participle adjective from obsolete verb fraught "to load
(a ship) with cargo," Middle English fraughten (c.
1400), which always was rarer than the past participle,
from noun fraught "a load, cargo, lading of a ship"
(early 13c.), which is the older form of freight (n.).
next," from Proto-Germanic *unda (source also of Old
Saxon endi, Old Frisian anda, Middle Dutch ende, Old
High German enti, German und, Old Norse enn), from
PIE *en; cognate with Latin ante, Greek anti (see ante).
peril’s
c. 1200, from Old French peril "danger, risk" (10c.),
from Latin periculum "an attempt, trial, experiment;
risk, danger," with instrumentive suffix -culum and first
element from PIE *peri-tlo-, suffixed form of
Old English word "speech, talk, utterance, sentence,
statement, news, report, word," from Proto-Germanic
*wurdan (source also of Old Saxon, Old Frisian word,
Dutch woord, Old High German, German wort, Old
Norse orð, Gothic waurd), from PIE *were- (3) "speak,
say" (see verb).
root *per- (3) "to try, risk" (source also of Latin experiri
"to try;" Greek peria "trial, attempt, experience,"
empeiros "experienced;" Old Irish aire "vigilance;"
Gothic ferja "watcher;" Old English fær "danger,
calamity"). According to Watkins, this is "A verbal root
belonging to the group of" *per- (1) "forward, through"
The meaning "promise" was in Old English, as was the
theological sense. In the plural, the meaning "verbal
altercation" (as in to have words with someone) dates
from mid-15c.
yet
Old English get, gieta "till now, thus far, earlier, at last,
with
also," an Anglo-Frisian word (cognates: Old Frisian
Old English wið "against, opposite, from, toward, by,
ieta, Middle High German ieuzo), of unknown origin;
near," a shortened form related to wiðer, from Protoperhaps connected to PIE pronominal stem *i- (see
Germanic *withro- "against" (source also of Old Saxon yon). The meaning in other Germanic languages is
withar "against," Old Norse viðr "against, with, toward, expressed by descendants of Proto-Germanic *nohat," Middle Dutch, Dutch weder, Dutch weer "again,"
(source of German noch), from PIE *nu-qe- "and now."
Gothic wiþra "against, opposite"), from PIE *wi-tero-,
As a conjunction from c. 1200.
literally "more apart," suffixed form of root *wiknow
"separation" (source also of Sanskrit vi, Avestan viOld English cnawan (class VII strong verb; past tense
"asunder," Sanskrit vitaram "further, farther," Old
cneow, past participle cnawen), "perceive a thing to be
Church Slavonic vutoru "other, second").
identical with another," also "be able to distinguish"
Sense shifted in Middle English to denote association,
generally (tocnawan); "perceive or understand as a fact
combination, and union, partly by influence of Old
or truth" (opposed to believe); "know how (to do
Norse vidh, and also perhaps by Latin cum "with" (as in something)," from Proto-Germanic *knew- (source also
pugnare cum "fight with"). In this sense, it replaced Old of Old High German bi-chnaan, ir-chnaan "to know").
English mid "with," which survives only as a prefix (as
in midwife). Original sense of "against, in opposition" is no
As an adjective meaning "not any" (c. 1200) it is
retained in compounds such as withhold, withdraw,
reduced from Old English nan (see none), the final -n
withstand. Often treated as a conjunction by
omitted first before consonants and then altogether. As
ungrammatical writers and used where and would be
a noun from c. 1300.
correct. First record of with child "pregnant" is
recorded from c. 1200.
word
strife
c. 1200, "quarrel, fight, discord," from Old French estrif
"fight, battle, combat, conflict; torment, distress;
dispute, quarrel," variant of estrit "quarrel, dispute,
impetuosity," probably from Frankish *strid "strife,
combat" or another Germanic source (compare Old
High German strit "quarrel, dispute"), related to Old
High German stritan "to fight;"
and
Old English and, ond, originally meaning "thereupon,
wilt
Old English *willan, wyllan "to wish, desire; be willing;
be used to; be about to" (past tense wolde), from ProtoGermanic *willjan (source also of Old Saxon willian,
Old Norse vilja, Old Frisian willa, Dutch willen, Old
High German wellan, German wollen, Gothic wiljan "to
will, wish, desire," Gothic waljan "to choose").
Old English hæsl, hæsel, from Proto-Germanic *hasalaz
(source also of Old Norse hasl, Middle Dutch hasel,
German hasel), from PIE *koselo- "hazel" (source also
of Latin corulus, Old Irish coll "hazel"). Shakespeare
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("Romeo and Juliet," 1592) was first to use it (in print)
in the sense of "reddish-brown color of eyes" (in
reference to the color of ripe hazel-nuts), when
Mercutio accuses Benvolio:
Thou wilt quarrell with a man for cracking Nuts,
hauing no reason, but because thou hast hasell eyes.
bid
An early Middle English mutual influence or confusion
of two old words: The sense in bid farewell is from Old
English biddan "to ask, entreat, beg, pray, beseech;
order" (class V strong verb, past tense bæd, past
participle beden), from Proto-Germanic *bidjan "to
pray, entreat" (source also of German bitten "to ask,"
attested in Old High German from 8c., also Old Saxon
bidjan, Old Frisian bidda, Old Norse biðja, Gothic
bidjan). This, according to Kluge and Watkins, is from a
PIE root *gwhedh- "to ask, pray"
ye
old or quaintly archaic way of writing the, in which the
-y- is a 16c. graphic alteration of þ, an Old English
character (generally called "thorn," originally a
Germanic rune; see th-) that represented the -th- sound
(as at the beginning of thorn). The characters for -yand -þ- so closely resembled each other in Old English
and early Middle English handwriting that a dot had to
be added to the -y- to keep them distinct. In late 15c.,
early printers in English, whose types were founded on
the continent, did not have a þ in their sets, so they
substituted y as the letter that looked most like it when
setting type. But in such usages it was not meant to be
pronounced with any of the sounds associated with -y-,
but still as "-th-."
yield
"yield," mid-15c., from Middle French déférer (14c.) "to
yield, comply," from Latin deferre "carry away, transfer,
grant," from de- "down, away" (see de-) + ferre "carry"
(see infer). Main modern sense is from meaning "refer (a
matter) to someone," which also was in Latin.
though
c. 1200, from Old English þeah "though, although, even
if, however, nevertheless, although, still, yet;" and in
part from Old Norse þo "though," both from ProtoGermanic *thaukh (source also of Gothic þauh, Old
Frisian thach, Middle Dutch, Dutch doch, Old High
German doh, German doch), from PIE demonstrative
pronoun *to- (see that). The evolution of the terminal
sound did not follow laugh, tough, etc., though a
tendency to end the word in "f" existed c. 1300-1750
and persists in dialects.
for
From late Old English as "in favor of." For and fore
differentiated gradually in Middle English. For alone as
a conjunction, "because, since, for the reason that; in
order that" is from late Old English, probably a
shortening of common Old English phrases such as for
þon þy "therefore," literally "for the (reason) that."
thee
Old English þe (accusative and dative singular of þu
"thou"), from Proto-Germanic *theke (source also of
Old Frisian thi, Middle Dutch di, Old High German
dih, German dich, Old Norse þik, Norwegian deg,
Gothic þuk), from PIE *tege-, accusative of root *tu-,
second person singular pronoun (see thou).
would
Old English wolde, past tense and past subjunctive of
willan "to will" (see will (v.)). Would-be (adj.) "wishing
to be, vainly pretending" is first recorded c. 1300.
life
Old English life (dative lif) "animated corporeal
existence; lifetime, period between birth and death; the
history of an individual from birth to death, written
account of a person's life; way of life (good or bad);
condition of being a living thing, opposite of death;
spiritual existence imparted by God, through Christ, to
the believer," from Proto-Germanic *libam (source also
of Old Norse lif "life, body," Old Frisian, Old Saxon lif
"life, person, body," Dutch lijf "body," Old High
German lib "life," German Leib "body"), properly
"continuance, perseverance," from PIE *leip- "to
remain, persevere, continue; stick, adhere"
loath
Old English lað "hated; hateful; hostile; repulsive," from
Proto-Germanic *laithaz (source also of Old Saxon leth,
Old Frisian leed "loathsome," Old Norse leiðr "hateful,
hostile, loathed;" Middle Dutch lelijc, Dutch leelijk
"ugly;" Old High German leid "sorrowful, hateful,
offensive, grievous," German leid "hateful, painful"),
from PIE root *leit- (1) "to detest."
And niðful neddre, loð an liðer, sal gliden on hise brest
neðer [Middle English Genesis and Exodus, c. 1250]
to
particle expressing separation, putting asunder, from
West Germanic *ti- (source also of Old Frisian ti-, Old
High German zi-, German zer-), from Proto-Germanic
*tiz-, cognate with Latin-derived dis-. According to
OED, some 125 compound verbs with this element are
recorded in Old English; their number declined rapidly
in Middle English and disappeared by c. 1500 except as
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conscious archaisms (such as to-shiver "break to pieces;" influenced by Scandinavian sources such as Old Norse
all to-brast).
upp a.
see
Old English seon "to see, look, behold; observe,
perceive, understand; experience, visit, inspect"
(contracted class V strong verb; past tense seah, past
participle sewen), from Proto-Germanic *sekhwan
(source also of Old Saxon, Old High German sehan,
Middle High German, German sehen, Old Frisian sia,
Middle Dutch sien, Old Norse sja, Gothic saihwan),
from PIE root *sekw- (2) "to see," which is probably
identical with *sekw- (1) "to follow" (see sequel), a root
which produced words for "say" in Greek and Latin,
and also words for "follow" (such as Latin sequor), but
"opinions differ in regard to the semantic starting-point
and sequences" [Buck]. Thus see might originally
mean "follow with the eyes."
Used in Middle English to mean "behold in the
imagination or in a dream" (c. 1200), "to recognize the
force of (a demonstration)," also c. 1200. Sense of
"escort" (as in to see (someone) home) first recorded
1607 in Shakespeare. Meaning "to receive as a visitor"
is attested from c. 1500. Gambling sense of "equal a bet"
is from 1590s. See you as a casual farewell first attested
1891. Let me see as a pausing statement is recorded
from 1510s.
lain
past participle of lie.
"rest horizontally, be in a recumbent position," early
12c., from Old English licgan (class V strong verb; past
tense læg, past participle legen) "be situated, have a
specific position; remain; be at rest, lie down," from
Proto-Germanic *legjan (source also of Old Norse
liggja, Old Saxon liggian, Old Frisian lidzia, Middle
Dutch ligghen, Dutch liggen, Old High German ligen,
German liegen, Gothic ligan "to lie"), from PIE *legh"to lie, lay" (source also of Hittite laggari "falls, lies;"
Greek lekhesthai "to lie down," legos "bed," lokhos
"lying in wait, ambush," alokhos "bedfellow, wife;"
Latin lectus "bed;" Old Church Slavonic lego "to lie
down;" Lithuanian at-lagai "fallow land;" Old Irish
laigim "I lie down," Irish luighe "couch, grave").
Especially "to lie in bed," hence often with sexual
implications, as in lie with "have sexual intercourse" (c.
1300), and compare Old English licgan mid "cohabit
with." To lie in "be brought to childbed" is from mid15c.
thy
Possessive pronoun of 2nd person singular, late 12c.,
reduced form of þin (see thine), until 15c. used only
before consonants except -h-.
Middle English þi-self, from Old English þe self; see thy
+ self. One word from 16c. A pronoun used reflexively
for emphasis after (or in place of) thou.
Shield
Old English scield, scild "shield; protector, defense,"
literally "board," from Proto-Germanic *skelduz
(source also of Old Norse skjöldr, Old Saxon skild,
Middle Dutch scilt, Dutch schild, German Schild,
Gothic skildus), from *skel- "divide, split, separate,"
from PIE root *(s)kel- (1) "to cut" (see scale (n.1)).
Perhaps the notion is of a flat piece of wood made by
splitting a log.
thou
2nd nominative singular personal pronoun, Old English
þu, from Proto-Germanic *thu (source also of Old
Frisian thu, Middle Dutch and Middle Low German du,
Old High German and German du, Old Norse þu,
Gothic þu), from PIE *tu-, second person singular
pronoun (source also of Latin tu, Irish tu, Welsh ti,
Greek su, Lithuanian tu, Old Church Slavonic ty,
Sanskrit twa-m).
Superseded in Middle English by plural form you (from
a different root), but retained in certain dialects (e.g.
early Quakers). The plural at first was used in
addressing superior individuals, later also (to err on the
side of propriety) strangers, and ultimately all equals.
By c. 1450 the use of thou to address inferiors gave it a
tinge of insult unless addressed by parents to children,
or intimates to one another. Hence the verb meaning
"to use 'thou' to a person" (mid-15c.).
sacrifice
c. 1300, "to offer something (to a deity, as a sacrifice),"
from sacrifice (n.). Meaning "surrender, give up, suffer
to be lost" is from 1706. Related: Sacrificed; sacrificing.
Agent noun forms include sacrificer, sacrificator (both
16c., the latter from Latin); and sacrificulist (17c.).
say | sayest
Archaic, 2nd person singular of say.
upon
early 12c., from Old English uppan (prep.) "on, upon, up Old English secgan "to utter, inform, speak, tell, relate,"
from Proto-Germanic *sagjanan (source also of Old
to, against," from up (adv.) + on (prep.); probably
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Saxon seggian, Old Norse segja, Danish sige, Old
Frisian sedsa, Middle Dutch segghen, Dutch zeggen,
Old High German sagen, German sagen "to say"), from
PIE *sokwyo-, from root *sekw- (3) "to say, utter"
(source also of Hittite shakiya- "to declare," Lithuanian
sakyti "to say," Old Church Slavonic sociti "to vindicate,
show," Old Irish insce "speech," Old Latin inseque "to
tell say").
Past tense said developed from Old English segde.
trust
c. 1200, from Old Norse treysta "to trust, rely on, make
strong and safe," from traust (see trust (n.)). Related:
Trusted; trusting.
can
Old English 1st & 3rd person singular present
indicative of cunnan "know, have power to, be able,"
(also "to have carnal knowledge"), from ProtoGermanic *kunnan "to be mentally able, to have
learned" (source also of Old Norse kenna "to know,
make known," Old Frisian kanna "to recognize, admit,"
German kennen "to know," Gothic kannjan "to make
known"), from PIE root *gno- (see know).
but
Old English butan, buton "unless, except; without,
outside," from West Germanic *be-utan, a compound of
*be- "by" (see by) + *utana "out, outside; from
without," from ut "out" (see out (adv.)). Not used as a
conjunction in Old English. As a noun from late 14c.
obey
Late 13c., from Old French obeir "obey, be obedient, do
one's duty" (12c.), from Latin obedire, oboedire "obey,
be subject, serve; pay attention to, give ear," literally
"listen to," from ob "to" (see ob-) + audire "listen, hear"
(see audience). Same sense development is in cognate
Old English hiersumnian. Related: Obeyed; obeying.
course
Late 13c., "onward movement," from Old French cors
(12c.) "course; run, running; flow of a river," from Latin
cursus "a running race or course," from curs- past
participle stem of currere "to run" (see current (adj.)).
other
Old English oþer "the second" (adj.), also as a pronoun,
"one of the two, other," from Proto-Germanic
*antharaz (source also of Old Saxon athar, Old Frisian
other, Old Norse annarr, Middle Dutch and Dutch
ander, Old High German andar, German ander, Gothic
anþar "other").
These are from PIE *an-tero-, variant of *al-tero- "the
other of two" (source of Lithuanian antras, Sanskrit
antarah "other, foreign," Latin alter), from root *al- (1)
"beyond" (see alias (adv.)) + adjectival comparative
suffix *-tero-. The Old English, Old Saxon, and Old
Frisian forms show "a normal loss of n before fricatives"
[Barnhart]. Meaning "different" is mid-13c.
may
Old English mæg "am able" (infinitive magan, past
tense meahte, mihte), from Proto-Germanic root *mag-,
infinitive *maganan (Old Frisian mei/muga/machte
"have power, may;" Old Saxon mag/mugan/mahte;
Middle Dutch mach/moghen/mohte; Dutch
mag/mogen/mocht; Old High German
mag/magan/mahta; German mag/mögen/mochte; Old
Norse ma/mega/matte; Gothic mag/magan/mahte "to
be able"), from PIE *magh- (1) "to be able, have power"
(source also of Greek mekhos, makhos "means,
instrument," Old Church Slavonic mogo "to be able,"
mosti "power, force," Sanskrit mahan "great"). Also
used in Old English as a "auxiliary of prediction."
these
Old English þæs, variant of þas (which became those
and took the role of plural of that), nominative and
accusative plural of þes, þeos, þis "this" (see this).
Differentiation of these and those is from late 13c.
shackles
"iron shackles or fetters," mid-14c., plural of iron (n.).
chart
1570s, "map for the use of navigators," from Middle
French charte "card, map," from Late Latin charta
"paper, card, map" (see card (n.1)). Charte is the original
form of the French word in all senses, but after 14c.
(perhaps by influence of Italian cognate carta), carte
began to supplant it. English used both carte and card
15c.-17c. for "chart, map," and in 17c. chart could mean
"playing card," but the words have gone their separate
ways and chart has predominated since in the "map"
sense.
come
Old English cuman "come, approach, land; come to
oneself, recover; arrive; assemble" (class IV strong verb;
past tense cuom, com, past participle cumen), from
Proto-Germanic *kwem- (source also of Old Saxon
cuman, Old Frisian kuma, Middle Dutch comen, Dutch
komen, Old High German queman, German kommen,
Old Norse koma, Gothic qiman), from PIE root *gwā-,
*gwem- "to go, come" (source also of Sanskrit gamati
"he goes," Avestan jamaiti "goes," Tocharian kakmu
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"come," Lithuanian gemu "to be born," Greek bainein
"to go, walk, step," Latin venire "to come").
wraithly
1510s, "ghost," Scottish, of uncertain origin. Weekley
and Century Dictionary suggest Old Norse vorðr
"guardian" in the sense of "guardian angel." Klein
points to Gaelic and Irish arrach "specter, apparition."
vow
"promise solemnly," c. 1300, from Old French voer,
from voe (see vow (n.)).
doth
See does. Does: third person singular present of do (v.),
originally a Northumbrian variant in Old English that
displaced doth, doeth 16c.-17c.
leosan, a class II strong verb whose past participle loren
survives in forlorn and lovelorn), from Proto-Germanic
*leusanan (source also of Old High German virliosan,
German verlieren, Old Frisian urliasa, Gothic fraliusan
"to lose"). Hence lose in the transitive senses "part with
accidentally, be deprived of, miss the possession or
knowledge of" (money, blood, sleep, hair, etc.), c. 1200;
"fail to keep, lose track of" (mid-13c.). Meaning "fail to
preserve or maintain" is from mid-15c. Meaning "fail to
gain or win" (something) is from c.1300; intransitive
meaning "fail to win" (a game, contest, lawsuit, etc.) is
from late 14c. Meaning "to cause (someone) to lose his
way" is from 1640s; meaning "cease to have, be rid of"
(something unwanted) is from 1660s.
mine
Old English min "mine, my," (pronoun and adjective),
weigh
from Proto-Germanic *minaz (source also of Old
Old English gewiht "weighing, weight, downward force Frisian, Old Saxon Old High German min, Middle
of a body, heaviness," from Proto-Germanic *wihtiDutch, Dutch mijn, German mein, Old Norse minn,
(source also of Old Norse vætt, Danish vegt, Old
Gothic meins "my, mine"), from the base of me.
Frisian wicht, Middle Dutch gewicht, German
Superseded as adjective beginning 13c. by my.
Gewicht), from *weg- (see weigh).
heart
'tis
Old English heorte "heart (hollow muscular organ that
mid-15c., contraction of it is
circulates blood); breast, soul, spirit, will, desire;
courage; mind, intellect," from Proto-Germanic
comfort
*herton- (source also of Old Saxon herta, Old Frisian
c. 1200, "feeling of relief" (as still in to take comfort in
herte, Old Norse hjarta, Dutch hart, Old High German
something); also "source of alleviation or relief;" from
herza, German Herz, Gothic hairto), from PIE *kerdOld French confort (see comfort (v.)). Replaced Old
(1) "heart" (source also of Greek kardia, Latin cor, Old
English frofor. Comforts (as opposed to necessities and Irish cride, Welsh craidd, Hittite kir, Lithuanian širdis,
luxuries) is from 1650s.
Russian serdce "heart," Breton kreiz "middle," Old
Church Slavonic sreda "middle"). Spelling with -ea- is c.
live
1500, reflecting what then was a long vowel, and the
1540s, "having life, not dead," a shortening of alive
(q.v.). From 1610s of fire, coal, etc., "burning, glowing;" spelling remained when the pronunciation shifted. Most
of the modern figurative senses were present in Old
1640s of things, conditions, etc., "full of active power;"
English, including "memory" (from the notion of the
lose
heart as the seat of all mental faculties, now only in by
Old English losian "be lost, perish," from los
heart, which is from late 14c.), "seat of inmost feelings;
"destruction, loss," from Proto-Germanic *lausawill; seat of emotions, especially love and affection; seat
(source also of Old Norse los "the breaking up of an
of courage." Meaning "inner part of anything" is from
army;" Old English forleosan "to lose, destroy," Old
early 14c.
Frisian forliasa, Old Saxon farliosan, Middle Dutch
so
verliesen, Old High German firliosan, German
Old English swa, swæ (adv., conj., pron.) "in this way,"
verlieren, as well as English -less, loss, loose). The
Germanic word is from PIE *leus-, an extended form of also "to that extent; so as, consequently, therefore," and
purely intensive; from Proto-Germanic *swa (source
the root *leu- (1) "to loosen, divide, cut apart, untie,
separate" (source also of Sanskrit lunati "cuts, cuts off," also of Old Saxon, Middle Dutch, Old High German so,
Old Norse sva, Danish saa, Swedish så, Old Frisian sa,
lavitram "sickle;" Greek lyein "to loosen, untie,
Dutch zo, German so "so," Gothic swa "as"), from PIE
slacken," lysus "a loosening;" Latin luere "to loose,
reflexive pronominal stem *swo- "so" (source also of
release, atone for, expiate"). The verb also is merged
Greek hos "as," Old Latin suad "so," Latin se "himself"),
with, or has taken the (weaker) sense of, the related
Middle English leese "be deprived of, lose" (Old English
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derivative of *s(w)e-, pronoun of the third person and
reflexive (see idiom).
Old English swa frequently was strengthened by eall,
and so also is contained in compounds as, also, such.
The -w- was eliminated by contraction from 12c.;
compare two, which underwent the same process but
retained its spelling.
darkness and sunrise," (c. 1200), from Old English
dagung, from dagian "to become day," from ProtoGermanic *dagaz "day" (source also of German tagen
"to dawn;" see day (n.)). Probably influenced by
Scandinavian cognates (Danish dagning, Old Norse
dagan "a dawning"). Related: Dawned; dawning.
That
Old English þæt, "that, so that, after that," neuter
singular demonstrative pronoun ("A Man's a Man for a'
that"), relative pronoun ("O thou that hearest prayer"),
As a word confirming a previous statement, late Old
English; also from late Old English as an intensive in an and demonstrative adjective ("Look at that caveman
go!"), corresponding to masc. se, fem. seo. From Protoaffirmative clause (such as so very "exceedingly,
extremely"). As an "introductory particle" [OED] from Germanic *that, from PIE *tod-, extended form of
demonstrative pronominal base *-to- (see -th (1)). With
1590s. Used to add emphasis or contradict a negative
the breakdown of the grammatical gender system, it
from 1913. So in mid-20c. British slang could mean
came to be used in Middle English and Modern English
"homosexual" (adj.). So? as a term of dismissal is
for all genders. Germanic cognates include Old Saxon
attested from 1886 (short for is that so?, etc.). So what
that, Old Frisian thet, Middle Dutch, Dutch dat "that,"
as an exclamation of indifference dates from 1934.
Abbreviating phrase and so on is attested from 1724. So German der, die, das "the."
far so good is from 1721.
Generally more specific or emphatic than the, but in
fearful
mid-14c., "causing fear," from fear (n.) + -ful. Meaning
"full of fear, timid" (now less common) also is from mid14c. As a mere emphatic, from 1630s. Related:
Fearfully; fearfulness.
each
Old English ælc (n., pron., adj.) "any, all, every, each
(one)," short for a-gelic "ever alike," from a "ever" (see
aye (2)) + gelic "alike" (see like (adj.)). From a common
West Germanic expression *aiwo galika (source also of
Dutch elk, Old Frisian ellik, Old High German iogilih,
German jeglich "each, every"). Originally used as we
now use every (which is a compound of each) or all;
modern use is by influence of Latin quisque. Modern
spelling appeared late 1500s. Also see ilk, such, which.
some cases they are interchangeable. From c. 1200
opposed to this as indicating something farther off. In
adverbial use ("I'm that old"), in reference to something
implied or previously said, c. 1200, an abbreviation of
the notion of "to that extent," "to that degree." Slang
that way "in love" first recorded 1929. That-a-way "in
that direction" is recorded from 1839. "Take that!" said
while delivering a blow, is recorded from early 15c.
my
c. 1200, mi, reduced form of mine used before words
beginning in consonants except h- (my father, but mine
enemy), and from 14c. before all nouns.
if
Old English gif (initial g- in Old English pronounced
with a sound close to Modern English -y-) "if, whether,
so," from Proto-Germanic *ja-ba (source also of Old
new
Saxon, Old Norse ef, Old Frisian gef, Old High German
Old English neowe, niowe, earlier niwe "new, fresh,
ibu, German ob, Dutch of "if, whether"), of uncertain
recent, novel, unheard-of, different from the old;
untried, inexperienced," from Proto-Germanic *newjaz origin or relation. Perhaps from PIE pronominal stem
(source also of Old Saxon niuwi, Old Frisian nie, Middle *i- [Watkins]; but Klein, OED suggest it probably
originally from an oblique case of a noun meaning
Dutch nieuwe, Dutch nieuw, Old High German niuwl,
"doubt" (compare Old High German iba "condition,
German neu, Danish and Swedish ny, Gothic niujis
"new"), from PIE *newo- "new" (source also of Sanskrit stipulation, doubt," Old Norse if "doubt, hesitation,"
Swedish jäf "exception, challenge"). As a noun from
navah, Persian nau, Hittite newash, Greek neos,
1510s.
Lithuanian naujas, Old Church Slavonic novu, Russian
novyi, Latin novus, Old Irish nue, Welsh newydd
have
"new").
Old English habban "to own, possess; be subject to,
dawn
c. 1200, dauen, "to dawn, grow light," shortened or
back-formed from dauinge, dauing "period between
experience," from Proto-Germanic *haben- (source also
of Old Norse hafa, Old Saxon hebbjan, Old Frisian
habba, German haben, Gothic haban "to have"), from
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PIE root *kap- "to grasp" (see capable). Not related to
Latin habere, despite similarity in form and sense; the
Latin cognate is capere "seize.
formation of owner (mid-14c.), which continued. From
c. 1300 as "to acknowledge, admit as a fact," said
especially of things to one's disadvantage.
a
indefinite article, form of an used before consonants,
mid-12c., a weakened form of Old English an "one" (see
an). The disappearance of the -n- before consonants was
mostly complete by mid-14c. After c. 1600 the -n- also
began to vanish before words beginning with a sounded
-h-; it still is retained by many writers before
unaccented syllables in h- or (e)u- but is now no longer
normally spoken as such. The -n- also lingered
(especially in southern England dialect) before -w- and y- through 15c.
me
Old English me (dative), me, mec (accusative); oblique
cases of I, from Proto-Germanic *meke (accusative),
*mes (dative), source also of Old Frisian mi/mir, Old
Saxon mi, Middle Dutch mi, Dutch mij, Old High
German mih/mir, German mich/mir, Old Norse
mik/mer, Gothic mik/mis; from PIE root *me-, oblique
form of the personal pronoun of the first person
singular (nominative *eg; see I); source also of Sanskrit,
Avestan mam, Greek eme, Latin me, mihi, Old Irish me,
Welsh mi "me," Old Church Slavonic me, Hittite
ammuk.
hope
late Old English hopa "confidence in the future,"
especially "God or Christ as a basis for hope," from
hope (v.). From c. 1200 as "expectation of something
desired;" also "trust, confidence; wishful desire;" late
14c. as "thing hoped for," also "grounds or basis for
hope." Personified since c. 1300.
drawest | draw
Archaic form of Draw. Draw: c. 1200, spelling
alteration of Old English dragan "to drag, to draw,
protract" (class VI strong verb; past tense drog, past
participle dragen), from Proto-Germanic *dragan "to
draw, pull" (source also of Old Norse draga "to draw,"
Old Saxon dragan, Old Frisian draga, Middle Dutch
draghen, Old High German tragen, German tragen "to
carry, bear")
hero
late 14c., "man of superhuman strength or physical
courage," from Old French heroe (14c., Modern French
héros), from Latin heros (plural heroes) "hero, demigod, illustrious man," from Greek heros (plural heroes)
"demi-god," a variant singular of which was heroe.
This is of uncertain origin; perhaps originally "defender,
protector," and from PIE root *ser- (1) "to watch over,
protect" (see observe). Meaning "man who exhibits
great bravery" in any course of action is from 1660s in
English. Sense of "chief male character in a play, story,
etc." first recorded 1690s. Hero-worship is from 1713 in
reference to ancient cults and mysteries; of living men
by 1830s.
breath
Old English bræð "odor, scent, stink, exhalation, vapor"
(Old English word for "air exhaled from the lungs" was
æðm), from Proto-Germanic *bræthaz "smell,
exhalation" (source also of Old High German bradam,
German Brodem "breath, steam")
In Homer, of the Greeks before Troy, then a
comprehensive term used of warriors generally, also of
all free men in the Heroic Age. In classical mythology
at least from the time of Hesiod (8c. B.C.E.) "man born
from a god and a mortal," especially one who had done
service to mankind; with the exception of Heracles
limited to local deities and patrons of cities.
love
Old English lufian "to feel love for, cherish, show love
to; delight in, approve," from Proto-Germanic *lubojan
(source also of Old High German lubon, German
lieben), a verb from the root of love (n.). Weakened
sense of "like" attested by c. 1200. Intransitive sense "be
in love, have a passionate attachment" is from mid-13c.
soon
Old English sona "at once, immediately, directly,
forthwith," from Proto-Germanic *sæno (source also of
Old Frisian son, Old Saxon sana, Old High German san,
Gothic suns "soon"). Sense softened early Middle
English to "within a short time" (compare anon, just
(adv.)).
own
c. 1200, ouen, "to possess, have; rule, be in command of,
have authority over;" from Old English geagnian, from
root agan "to have, to own" (see owe), and in part from
the adjective own (q.v.). It became obsolete after c.
1300, but was revived early 17c., in part as a back-
see
Old English seon "to see, look, behold; observe,
perceive, understand; experience, visit, inspect"
(contracted class V strong verb; past tense seah, past
participle sewen), from Proto-Germanic *sekhwan
(source also of Old Saxon, Old High German sehan,
Middle High German, German sehen, Old Frisian sia,
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Middle Dutch sien, Old Norse sja, Gothic saihwan),
from PIE root *sekw- (2) "to see," which is probably
identical with *sekw- (1) "to follow" (see sequel), a root
which produced words for "say" in Greek and Latin,
and also words for "follow" (such as Latin sequor), but
"opinions differ in regard to the semantic starting-point
and sequences" [Buck]. Thus see might originally
mean "follow with the eyes."
have power, be able, be in health," from PIE root *wal"be strong" (source also of Old English wealdan "to
rule," Old High German -walt, -wald "power" (in
personal names), Old Norse valdr "ruler," Old Church
Slavonic vlasti "to rule over," Lithuanian valdyti "to
have power," Celtic *walos- "ruler," Old Irish flaith
"dominion," Welsh gallu "to be able"). As a noun,
"valiant person," from c. 1600.
death
Old English deað "death, dying, cause of death," in
plura, "ghosts," from Proto-Germanic *dauthuz (source
also of Old Saxon doth, Old Frisian dath, Dutch dood,
Old High German tod, German Tod, Old Norse dauði,
Danish død, Swedish död, Gothic dauþus "death"), from
verbal stem *dheu- (3) "to die"
Used in Middle English to mean "behold in the
imagination or in a dream" (c. 1200), "to recognize the
force of (a demonstration)," also c. 1200. Sense of
"escort" (as in to see (someone) home) first recorded
1607 in Shakespeare. Meaning "to receive as a visitor"
is attested from c. 1500. Gambling sense of "equal a bet"
is from 1590s. See you as a casual farewell first attested though
1891. Let me see as a pausing statement is recorded
c. 1200, from Old English þeah "though, although, even
from 1510s.
if, however, nevertheless, although, still, yet;" and in
part from Old Norse þo "though," both from Protoend
Germanic *thaukh (source also of Gothic þauh, Old
Old English endian "to end, finish, abolish, destroy;
Frisian thach, Middle Dutch, Dutch doch, Old High
come to an end, die," from the source of end (n.).
German doh, German doch), from PIE demonstrative
Related: Ended; ending.
pronoun *to- (see that). The evolution of the terminal
sound did not follow laugh, tough, etc., though a
tempt
Mid-14c., "one who solicits to sin; that which entices to tendency to end the word in "f" existed c. 1300-1750
and persists in dialects.
evil" (originally especially the devil), from Middle
French tempteur (14c.), Old French *tempteor, from
Latin temptatorem, agent noun from temptare
longer
Old English lange, longe "for a length of time, a long
time; far, to a great extent in space," from long (adj.).
Old English also had langlice (adv.) "for a long time,
long, at length." Longly (adv.) is rarely used. No longer
"not as formerly" is from c. 1300;
heaven's
Old English heofon "home of God," earlier "the visible
sky, firmament," probably from Proto-Germanic *hibin, dissimilated from *himin- (cognates Low German
heben, Old Norse himinn, Gothic himins, Old Frisian
himul, Dutch hemel, German Himmel "heaven, sky"),
which is of uncertain origin. Perhaps literally "a
covering," from a PIE root *kem- "to cover" (also
proposed as the source of chemise). Watkins derives it
elaborately from PIE *ak- "sharp" via *akman- "stone,
sharp stone," then "stony vault of heaven." From late
14c. as "a heavenly place; a state of bliss." Plural use in
sense of "sky" probably is from Ptolemaic theory of
space as composed of many spheres, but it also formerly
was used in the same sense as the singular in Biblical
language, as a translation of Hebrew plural shamayim.
Heaven-sent (adj.) attested from 1640s.
most
Old English mast "greatest number, amount, extent,"
earlier mæst, from Proto-Germanic *maistaz (source
also of Old Saxon mest, Old Frisian mast, Old Norse
mestr, Dutch meest, German meist, Gothic maists
"most"), superlative form of Proto-Germanic *maiz,
root of Old English ma, mara (see more). Used in Old
English as superlative of micel "great, large" (see
mickle). Vowel influenced by more. Original sense of
"greatest" survives in phrase for the most part (c. 1400). gates
"opening, entrance," Old English geat (plural geatu)
valiant
"gate, door, opening, passage, hinged framework
arly 14c. (late 12c. in surnames), "brave, courageous,
barrier," from Proto-Germanic *gatan (source also of
intrepid in danger," from Anglo-French vaylant, and
Old Norse gat "opening, passage," Old Saxon gat "eye
Old French vaillant "stalwart, brave," present participle of a needle, hole," Old Frisian gat "hole, opening,"
adjective from valoir "be worthy," originally "be
Dutch gat "gap, hole, breach," German Gasse "street,
strong," from Latin valere "be strong, be well, be worth, lane, alley"), of unknown origin. also gatekeeper, 1570s
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forthwith
c. 1200, from forth + with. The Old English equivalent
was forð mid. As an adverb, early 14c. Old English sona
"at once, immediately, directly, forthwith," from ProtoGermanic *sæno (source also of Old Frisian son, Old
Saxon sana, Old High German san, Gothic suns
"soon"). Sense softened early Middle English to "within
a short time" (compare anon, just (adv.)).
also of Old Frisian enda, Old Dutch ende, Dutch einde,
Old Norse endir "end;" Old High German enti "top,
forehead, end," German Ende, Gothic andeis "end"),
originally "the opposite side," from PIE *antjo "end,
boundary," from root *ant- "opposite, in front of,
before" (see ante).
risk
https://www.scmessina.com/2015/02/etymology-ofrisk/
shall
Old English sceal, Northumbrian scule "I owe/he owes, The term risk may be traced back to classical Greek
will have to, ought to, must" (infinitive sculan, past
ριζα, meaning root, later used in Latin for cliff. The
tense sceolde), a common Germanic preterite-present
term is used in Homer’s Rhapsody M of Odyssey
verb (along with can, may, will), from Proto-Germanic
“Sirens, Scylla, Charybdee and the bulls of Helios (Sun)”
*skal- (source also of Old Saxon sculan, Old Frisian skil, Odysseus tried to save himself from Charybdee at the
Old Norse and Swedish skola, Middle Dutch sullen, Old cliffs of Scylla, where his ship was destroyed by heavy
High German solan, German sollen, Gothic skulan "to
seas generated by Zeus as a punishment for his crew
owe, be under obligation;" related via past tense form to killing before the bulls of Helios (the god of the sun), by
Old English scyld "guilt," German Schuld "guilt, debt;" grapping the roots of a wild fig tree. In the classical text
also Old Norse Skuld, name of one of the Norns), from
there is an antique painting of Odysseus riding a turtle
PIE root *skel- (2) "to be under an obligation."
(that happened to be on the cliffs) and the fig tree on the
right. So that from the 16th century on, the term got a
Ground sense of the Germanic word probably is "I
benefit meaning, for example in middle-high-German
owe," hence "I ought." The sense shifted in Middle
Rysigo 1507 a technical term for business, with the
English from a notion of "obligation" to include
meaning “to dare, to undertake, enterprise, hope for
"futurity." Its past tense form has become should (q.v.). economic success”
Cognates outside Germanic are Lithuanian skeleti "to
be guilty," skilti "to get into debt;" Old Prussian
hath
skallisnan "duty," skellants "guilty."
archaic third person singular present indicative of have,
from Old English hæfð.
end
Old English endian "to end, finish, abolish, destroy;
wrought
come to an end, die," from the source of end (n.). Old
mid-13c., from past participle of Middle English werken
English ende "end, conclusion, boundary, district,
(see work (v.)).
species, class," from Proto-Germanic *andja (source
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Tools and Equipment
Rodwell, G. F.: “South by East: Notes of Travel in Southern Europe” printed in 1877.
The Following Section Contains a Breakdown on the Following:


A Note on Literary tools and Equipment
Imagery & Figurative Language
 Imagery
 Metaphor
 Simile
 Hyperbole
 Alliteration
 Personification
 Repetition
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A Note on Literary Tools and Equipment
‘Tools’ in my piece expressly defines the artistic literary tools used for the creation of the work, not the
physical representation on a piece of paper. This includes alliteration, internal rhyming or repetition for
the music of the meter, and more, all defined from a primary source and actioned in my poem. You’ll
note archaic grammar, vocabulary, and spelling highlighted throughout this article.
In the appendixes section you’ll find what might have been used in the physical creation of a sonnet
from a writer at the time. However, here, we have a breakdown of the literary tools used to create this
sonnet:
Imagery & Figurative Language
Imagery creates a mental image to evoke emotion. The complexity of the piece is a balance of form and
function; math and emotion.
Figurative Language includes the use of metaphor (comparing something to something else in a nonliteral style), simile (similar to metaphor but contains words like ‘like’ or ‘as’), hyperbole (obvious
exaggeration), alliteration (letter/word or consonant repetition), personification (applying human
characteristics to non-human entities such as animals or inanimate things like ‘Death’ or ‘Love’), and
repetition. Here are some (not all) comparative examples:
I Find No Peace
BY SIR THOMAS WYATT, 1503-1542
http://www.poetryfoundation.org/poem/174848
I find no peace, and all my war is done.
I fear and hope. I burn and freeze like ice.
I fly above the wind, yet can I not arise;
And nought I have, and all the world I season.
That loseth nor locketh holdeth me in prison
And holdeth me not—yet can I scape no wise—
Nor letteth me live nor die at my device,
And yet of death it giveth me occasion.
Without eyen I see, and without tongue I plain.
I desire to perish, and yet I ask health.
I love another, and thus I hate myself.
I feed me in sorrow and laugh in all my pain;
Likewise displeaseth me both life and death,
And my delight is causer of this strife.
I Fear this Path is Fraught with
Peril’s Strive
BY AMBRA MICHELLI
I fear this path is fraught with peril’s strife,
And yet I know no word wilt bid ye yield.
Though I for thee would sacrifice my life,
I loath to see thee lain upon thy shield.
Thou sayest, “Trust,” and I can but obey,
For no course other may these shackles chart.
“I’ll come for thee!” thy wraithly vow doth weigh
'tis comfort not to live, and lose mine heart.
So fearful each new dawn that I draw breath
My hero will a hero’s end soon see
I tempt no longer thy most valiant death.
Come not for love, my own, and not for me;
Though heaven's gates forthwith shall know me not,
My death shall end the risk thy love hath wrought…
See Appendixes for a examples on 17th
Century Writers/Printing Tools.
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Methods and/or Techniques
U’s and V’s? What is This Madness?!
I Fear This Path is Fraught with Perils ſtrife
J fear this path is fraught with perils ſtrife,
And yet J know no word wilt bid ye yield.
Though J for thee would ſacrifice my life,
J loath to ſee thee lain vpon thy ſhield.
Thou ſayeſt, “Truſt,” and J can but obey,
For no courſe other may theſe ſhackles chart.
“J come for thee!” thy wraithly vow doth weigh
'tis comfort not to liue, and loſe mine heart.
So fearful each new dawn that I draw breath
My hero will a heroſ end ſoon ſee.
J tempt no longer thy moſt valiant death.
Come not for loue, my own, and not for me;
Though heauens gates forthwith may know me not,
My death ſhall end the riſk thy loue hath wrought…
Shakespeare’s English
Note this sonnet looks horribly misspelled. One can be assured I did not do all this work and then
forget spell check. Such was the grammar/spelling of the time. As I went to put together
documentation on the ‘why’s, I came across this article which does an exquisite job of breaking it down.
I could no more eloquently define the migration of handwriting and old/middle English, so at the
suggestion of a colleague, I have simply included the source.
In summary, note the following ‘Rules of Thumb’:
(See deeper breakdown of language in Appendix A, titled, “U’s and V’s? What is This Madness?!”)
S’s to ſ except when the word ends in an s-stop (kiss vs. kiffed)
V’s start the word, all other V’s become U’s (Little u’s become v’s)
I’s and J’s can be consonants or vowels.
J’s remain as they are, but I’s can be J’s, as J’s were often decorative renditions of I’s.
The Elizabethan alphabet also had a letter similar in appearance to ‘y’ that denoted the ‘th’ sound,
but as my ‘inspirational’ research did not exhibit this, I did not include it in the poem above.
See Appendixes for a significant breakdown
on Elizabethan Language and spelling.
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Analysis
Having completed this sonnet, it begs another and another still. I plan my next to be her love’s reaction.
While, having poked at it for several weeks, I’m content with this sonnet, on reflection I plan to dig
even more deeply into archaic phrasing, grammar, and vocabulary – continuing to evolve the feel of my
future work’s authenticity. That said I am a hopeless balladess, so ‘creatively’ I’ve created the following:
The Spring It Is When Some to War Are Bound
[1 of 5] - [Lady's Voice]
The spring it is when some to war are bound.
The summer full of fray and battle's din.
I dream of when the leaves first dance the ground,
For autumn heralds home my disparate kin.
As shadows fill the eyes of youths now men,
The winter fills the hall with tales and tears.
Soon war shall see them leave us once again.
I dread the spring; the warmth that fuels my fears.
I swore to spare my heart the pain and grief that loving one who wars would doubtless grant.
Yet fate is cruel, and offers no relief.
Deny my love? I youthful vows recant!
Though spring may take my true love far from me,
I pray for winter's grace, most faithfully.
Hark! Hear Ye Not The Call To Arms, My Friends?
[2 of 5] - [Lord's Voice]
Hark! Hear ye not the call to arms, my friends?
And feel ye not the stirings in thy heart?!
For want of peace, I make no man amends,
I yearn to hear the horns that sound the start!
To know that each new breath may be my last!
To all my years of toiled efforts test!
To know each day the stars my fate has cast,
And give my all, and have my all be best!
And yet, what new drum beats in me alive,
And shakes the fierce convictions of my soul?
The god of war my prayers I would deny!
For Venus sings! And I her songs extol.
Alas, my love, the melting of the snow...
With spring, war calls, but loath I am to go.
I Fear This Path is Fraught with Peril’s Strife [3 of 5]
[The castle is taken - Lady's Voice]
I fear this path is fraught with peril’s strife,
And yet I know no word will bid thee yield.
Though I for thee would sacrifice my life,
I loath to see thee lain upon thy shield.
Thou sayest, “Trust,” and I can but obey,
For what course other may these shackles chart?
“I come for thee!” thy wraithly vow doth weigh
'tis comfort not to live, and lose my heart.
So fearful each new dawn that I draw breath
My hero will a hero’s end soon see
I tempt no longer thy most valiant death.
Come not for love, my own, and not for me;
Though heaven's gates forthwith may know me not,
My death ends now the risk thy love hath wrought.
How Couldst Thou Think That E'en Death Could Part
[4 of 5] - [The Lady has taken her own life to spare her
Lord's. Lord's Voice:]
How couldest thou believe that death could partthe half of me that makes my spirit whole?
My light, my life, my love, thou art my heart;
thy absence the damnation of my soul.
Thou thoughtest well to spare my end. Well, Nay!
I shall not bide when thou hast gone from me!
Thy sacrifice shant spare me from the fray.
"I'll come for thee," for all eternity!
For e'er before thy end I fervent swore thou wouldest ne'er in solitude be bound.
And through that host I wrent and wounded tore unto thy last most waithful sorrowed sound.
Though I deny the light that bids I fly
It is for thee I heaven's gates deny
Lo! Hast Thou Heard the Ghostly Siren's Calls
[5 of 5] - [Narrative/Summary Voice]
Lo! Hast thou heard the ghostly siren's calls when by the moonlit hour walks the maid?
From out that ruined tower's haunted halls,
Unto the field beyond the palisade?
And Lo! Yet still, with each new summer's dawn,
Have yet you seen the soldier in his field,
who by the moonlit hour battles on,
and each new morn, rests on a hero's shield?
Tis said in winter sounds their joyful tune.
Their laughter fills each aging stone, full store.
But springtime's mournful melody is soon their sad lament, till autom comes once more.
Though cursed, for half the year the two are blessed,
Until the day, as one, the two may rest
I can also see, while not fundamentally so, an influence on my more standard writing style. I had
intended a ballad would grow out of the inspiration of this sonnet (as many of my works progress
accordingly – Never a Finer Laddie/I Often Ponder ‘Gainst My Poor Witt’s End, Windward
Wanderlust/Shall I Now Forsake This Road of Freedom, etc.), but now feel I will likely pair this as a
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duet (the song below). It has me hungry to dig into older works more in line with my own persona (14th
century Italian).
While hardly complete, here is a snapshot into the subsequent song I am writing, inspired by this
sonnet: (my work is mathematically and formulaically consistent unto itself, but not typically written in
a period meter, often for access to a modern audience and in an attempt to continue to break out of what
has been referenced as a sometimes repetitious balladic writing style):
Dream of Winter
Verse 1
Verse 2
I knew the path was fraught with peril [a9]
Prayed you would not go [b5]
I feared that you might fall upon the field [c10]
I knew that I could never bear all [a9]
Of the grief to come [d5]
Was loathed to see you lain upon your shield [c10]
Fie! It is not within the heart of [e9]
One as bold as ye [f5]
To think one’s might might fall unto a foe [g10]
And that which led you on unto your [h9]
Countless victories [f5]
Alas, my love, t’was that which laid you low [g10]
Refrain
But still I dream~ of winter
Still I pray~ for fall
Still I sing~ thy noble name
Unto~ these empty halls
Alone~ within these walls
The prevailing theory is she took her life for love and is now a ghost, damned to walk the halls of her
castle. In this story line up, the keep’s lord was off on crusade or battle, fighting through the warring
months as she prayed winter would bring him back to her (as the end of the war season often does) ~
only to find the keep had been over run. Tragic; we’ll see how it evolves but I’m thinking a happier end
to it all through tragic means. Before moving forward, it was important to create the man’s perspective
in sonnet form ~ that my story might be better guided before I hard set on duet or ballad.
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Bibliography
 The Title Page from Shakespeare’s First Folio From Mr. William Shakespeares Comedies,
Histories, & Tragedies [the First Folio] (London, 1623). Image courtesy of Folger Digital Image
Collection, Folger Shakespeare Library.
 "The Kingis Quair and Other Prison Poems: General Introduction." Robbins Library Digital
Projects. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Dec. 2016.
Whyatt, Thomas. "Poems and Poets." Poetry Foundation. Poetry Foundation, 2015. Web. 31
Dec. 2015.
 A Shakespeare Glossary. Onions, C. T. Enlarged and revised throughout by Robert D.
Eagleson.
 Upinvermont. "A Letter to Her Husband, Absent Upon Public Employment." PoemShape. N.p.,
n.d. Web. 22 Dec. 2016. <https://poemshape.wordpress.com/tag/anne-bradstreet/>
 Shakespeare's Words: A Glossary and Language Companion New Ed Edition. By David
Crystal.
 Howard, Henry. "Alas, so All Things Now Do Hold Their Peace!" Poetry Foundation. Poetry
Foundation, n.d. Web. 31 Dec. 2015. <http://www.poetryfoundation.org/poem/173362>.
 Donne, John. "HOLY SONNETS: BATTER MY HEART." Poetry Foundation. Poetry
Foundation, n.d. Web. 31 Dec. 2015. <http://www.poetryfoundation.org/poem/173362>.
 William_Shakespeare_portrait_section.JPG. (238 × 253 pixels, file size: 25 KB, MIME
type: image/jpeg)
 Engraving of Sir Thomas Wyatt. Photograph: Bridgeman Art Library
 Painting of Henry Howard in Tudor and Jacobean England 1530-1630. New York: Rizzoli,
1995
 William Shakespeare - Shake-Speare's Sonnets, quarto published by Thomas Thorpe, London,
1609
 Harris, David. Portable Writing Desks. Buckinghamshire, UK: Shire Publications Ltd., 2001.
 Johan Elness ‘On the progression of the progressive in Early Modern English’, ICAME
Journal 18. <https://courses.nus.edu.sg/course/elltankw/history/shakespeare.htm>
 Blake, Norman (2002), A grammar of Shakespeare’s language (Houndmills: Macmillan)
 Busse, Ulrich (2002), Linguistic variation in the Shakespeare corpus: morpho-syntactic variability of
second person pronouns (Amsterdam: Benjamins)
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 Johnson, Keith (2013), Shakespeare’s English: A Practical Guide (London: Pearson)
 Salmon, Vivian and Edwina Burness (eds) (1987), A reader in the language of Shakespearean
drama (Amsterdam: Benjamins) [Call No. P140 Ahl35
 Blake, Norman (2002), A grammar of Shakespeare’s language (Houndmills: Macmillan)
 Busse, Ulrich (2002), Linguistic variation in the Shakespeare corpus: morpho-syntactic
variability of second person pronouns (Amsterdam: Benjamins)
 Salmon, Vivian and Edwina Burness (eds) (1987), A reader in the language of Shakespearean
drama (Amsterdam: Benjamins) [Call No. P140 Ahl35]
Suicide Photos:
 Death of Dido 1500 Artist Unknown Illuminated manuscript Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris,
France
 XLVIII-Suicide de Lucrèce, Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375), Le Livre des cleres et nobles
femmes, v. 1488-1496, Cognac (France), traducteur anonyme. -- Illustrations painted by Robinet
Testard -- BnF Français 599 fol. 42v
 Sirani, Elisabetta, Portia Wounding Her Thigh, 1664.
 Cleopatra Committing Suicide Claude Vignon 17th Century
 Italy, Lazio, Rome, Galleria Spada; Detail; Woodpile with Queen Dido commits Suicide,
Mondadori Portfolio (Getty Images)
 Netherlands - Bruges - London, British Library - Harley 4425: Roman de la Rose by Guillaume
de Lorris and Jean de Meun, fol. 54v - (1490-1500). Virginius about to decapitate his daughter
Virginia, “to preserve her honour”
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Appendix I
17th Century Printing and Writer’s Tools
A 16th-century printing shop. From Bateman's
The Doom Warning All Men to the Judgement (1581
http://www.luminarium.org/encyclopedia/marprelate.htm
The Following Section Contains Examples of
17th Century Printing/Writer’s Tools, Including:







A Writer’s Tools
Note to the Judges
Period Writing Samples
Writer’s Box/Desks
Binding and Paper Use
Ink and Writing Implements
Printing Press
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A Writer’s Tools
Note for ‘Tools’ my piece expressly defines the artistic tools used for the creation of the work, not the
physical representation on a piece of paper. This included alliteration, internal rhyming or repetition for
the music of the meter, and more, all defined from a primary source and actioned in my poem. You’ll
note archaic grammar, vocabulary, and spelling; though for the ease of the judges I’ve included both the
‘Authentic’ poem as well as the ‘Modern Translation’.
However this section touches on my efforts to present a more period ‘display’, akin to the museum
display standards Art Sci requires.
I worked to abide by the rules of Art Sci: to display the project as might a museum. Many of the items
on my display table are designed in a period fashion: linen cover, mobile writers desk – based on period
examples but bought/gifted from a modern merchant to a friend to me, a goose feather quill and ink
holder (though no ink), and something akin to the look of parchment paper (though as it isn’t thin
animal hide… well it’s meant to be a representation my paycheck could handle.).
Note to the Judges
The frame and frame stand are not period, but a museum would use modern display cases and stands for
the piece. The display elements I chose I felt maintained the integrity of this expectation. My persona
would not have deep knowledge into the making of such items, she would have purchased them.
Still I thought it important to add. I welcome constructive feedback.
Notes on the Display
I’ve incorporated into my display many items in the display you might see at a writer’s desk at the time
(and a few others for Aesthetic relevance):
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Period Writing Samples
Examples of Actual Shakespearian Calligraphy and Formatting
A reconstructed facsimile mock-up showing
one spread in the original Sonnets holograph
http://www.utm.edu/staff/ngraves/shakespeare/Features%20of%20the%20Runes-3.html
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Writer’s Box/Desks
As early as the Tudor period, these portable desks
were used by scholars and writers of the time. In
Shakespear’s The Comedy of Errors (Act IV, scene
1) where the where the merchant Antipholos of
Ephesus directs a servant to fetch “ducats” from his
desk for his release.
Harris, David. Portable Writing Desks.
Buckinghamshire, UK: Shire Publications Ltd., 2001.
Though I did not make my writer’s block, it
approximates what a writer would have used in
the 15th century, and earlier.
http://www.victorianweb.org/art/design/furniture/golden1.html
Figure 2: St. Jerome using a writing slope for a bible
translation. Part of a painting by Domenico
Ghirlandaio, 1480.
Crafted after a 14th century painting:
Aristotle at his Study (left)
Created by Lis Nielsen
Jean Miélot at his desk as seen in Brussels
Royal Library, MS 9278, fol. 10r (reproduced with permission)
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Binding and Paper Use
Examples of Parchment or Vellum Writing paraphernalia
Leiden, University Library,
SCA 38 B (14th century) – Photo Giulio Menna
Lombard Gradual. Northern Italy, mid-fifteenth century.
Copyright © 2002 Division of Rare & Manuscript Collections 2B
Carl A. Kroch Library, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853
Modern rendition like mine, in keeping with the feel:
“Medieval parchment making - the most common
writing medium until 1400's. Parchment is not
"paper", it is a thinned tanned hide. The
parchment was usually made from stillborn baby
goats, the hides were highly valued.”
~ Randy Asplund
http://www.randyasplund.com/pages/article/schiff1.html
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Ink and Writing Implements
Quills:
Preferably primary wing-feathers of large birds.
Example of lapis used in illumination
“Goose feathers were the principal source of quills;
quills from the scarcer, more expensive swan were
preferred; but for making fine lines, quills from
crows were better than either. Quill pens made
from feathers of the eagle, owl, hawk, and
turkey have also been used.”
~Encyclopedia Britannica
Seashells:
Used in illumination – an art often paired with
calligraphy, and a tool not far from a writer’s desk.
The Trinity Apocalypse
1242-1250, England
Trinity College Library, Cambridge
(Great Britain) Ms. R. 16.2
http://www.randyasplund.com/pages/article/schiff1.html
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Printing Press
1568 woodcut – Sourced from
Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1998. (p 64)
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Created using a Printing Press
1602 A. D., London. The Works of Chaucer, Printer, Adam Islip.
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Appendix II
Detail of a miniature of Christine de Pizan in her study at the beginning
of the ‘Cent balades’, Harley MS 4431, f. 4r
The Following Section Contains a Sourced Shakespearian Language
Assessment, Including the Following Talking Points:






A Folio and Quarto
Orthography
Pronunciation
Thou and Ye
Grammar
Vocabulary
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Shakespeare’s English
Shakespeare wrote 400 years ago. His English was obviously different from ours. His works are easily
available, though most printed editions of Shakespeare have undergone some form of editing. Here are
just some quick notes as you explore his language.
https://courses.nus.edu.sg/course/elltankw/history/shakespeare.htm
Folio and quarto?
Shakespeare scholars might refer to the quarto or folio editions of the plays. During Shakespeare’s
lifetime, some of his plays were printed. These would be individual plays in small volumes and it is these
that are called the quartos.[1] (Some of them were authorized texts, sold to printers particularly when the
theatres were closed because of the plague. These are the good quartos. Some, however, were
unauthorized ones and contained many inaccuracies: the bad quartos.): Shakespeare’s complete works
were published in a bigger folio[2] volume in 1623.
If we are interested in looking at Shakespeare’s English in a relatively undisturbed condition, we’ll need
to look at the (good) quarto and folio editions. Fortunately, we needn’t go to fusty libraries and pore
over old facsimiles. The quarto and folio editions are available on the web: try going to
http://web.uvic.ca/shakespeare/.
Orthography
Once you start looking at the folio and quarto texts in their unedited form, it will be clear that
the spelling and punctuation can be inconsistent and differs from what we are familiar with
today. For example, <u> might be used for our <v> and vice versa. (The explanation for this is
that <u> and <v> were seen as different forms [allographs] of the same letter [grapheme]; the
rule was that you used <v> at the start of a word, and <u> elsewhere. Therefore <u/v> could
represent a vowel or consonant sound.) Similarly, <i> and <j> might also be used interchangeably
(because <j> was considered a decorative version of <i>; therefore <i/j> could represent a vowel sound
or consonant sound). If you consult facsimiles of Shakespeare, you’ll also see the ‘long s’ (see the top
right of this paragraph). This looks very much like an <f> only that the cross bar does not extend to the
right of the line, as in the box on the right. Generally the ‘short s’ (our normal <s>) is found only in
word-final position. Spelling can be notoriously inconsistent, sometimes to do with the amount of space
available on a particular line or page.
Italicization is normal for proper nouns. Many words also attract additional final e’s. (Don’t assume that
these are pronounced though.) The apostrophe is generally used to indicate ellipsis and not for the
possessive.
Examine the facsimile of the well-known Sonnet 18 on the left. Notice the
lack of consistency with ‘Summers’ (line 1) and ‘Sommer(s)’ (lines 4 and 9).
Note also the long s’s in the words shake, shot, shines, shall, loose, possession,
ow’st, shall, shade, grow’st, see. The apostrophe is used freely in words like
dimm’d and ow’st to indicate that the pronunciations are [dImd] and
[oUst] rather than [dImId] and [oUIst]. Note also that the apostrophe is
not used for the possessive: therefore Summersday and Sommers leafe rather than Summer’s day and
Summer’s leaf.
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Pronunciation
Remember that the Great Vowel Shift is still in progress in the time of Shakespeare, so that the long
vowel sounds might be different from what we are used to today. Shakespeare’s English would also have
been rhotic.
Sometimes, words are stressed differently (eg reVENue rather than REVenue as today). Contractions are
used fairly freely and there is a preference for proclitic contractions (such as ’tis, ’twill or ’twas) rather
than enclitic contractions (preferred today, such as it’s, it’ll). (A proclitic word is so weakened that it
sounds as if it is attached to the following word; an enclitic word is so weakened that it sounds as if it is
attached to the preceding word.)
In recent years, there has been an interest in putting on Shakespeare using Original Pronunciation (OP),
and the contribution of linguist David Crystal has been significant. Explore his website for his book
Pronouncing Shakespeare: http://www.pronouncingshakespeare.com/ There are some recordings in that
website.
The Open University has a 10-minute video on this: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gPlpphT7n9s
Crystal’s son Ben Crystal demonstrates OP with Sonnet 116 here:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bt7OynPUIY8
Thou and ye
Second-person pronouns are contentious in some languages. For example, in Malay, you choose
between awak, engkau (or cliticised to kau), anda, kamu (or cliticised to mu). (Please check with your
Malay-speaking friends what the distinctions are if you are not a Malay speaker yourself.) If you include
Baba Malay, there is also lu; if you include contemporary colloquial Malay, you is also used. And it is
always possible to address someone in the third-person (saudara, encik, makcik, tuan, etc.). The
complications are to do with how the pronoun indicates the relationship the speaker holds (or doesn’t
hold) with the hearer. The English loan-word you can be seen as an attempt to avoid the complication
(Bila you datang? ‘When are you coming?’).
The situation is less complicated in Chinese; and in Mandarin there is a choice between ni and nin, and
of course the plural ni men. In Japanese, the formal anata is used with the less formal kimi – although in
general, pronouns are best avoided altogether! Tamil speakers distinguish between the informal nii, the
honorific niingka and the polite niir (and the latter two are plural in form).
The polite-intimate distinction is also well represented in the European languages:
in Italian tu (singular, informal) v. voi (singular or plural, informal) v. Lei (singular, polite)
v. Loro (plural, polite); in French tu (singular, informal) v. vous (singular, polite; plural);
in Spanish tu (sg., informal) v. vosotros/vosotras (pl., informal) v. Usted (sg., polite) v. Ustedes (pl.,
polite); in German du (singular, informal) v. ihr (plural, informal) v. Sie(singular and plural, polite). In
French, for example, you can tell the other person to switch pronoun forms, and notice the verbs for
‘calling each other tu’ and ‘calling each other vous’).
On se tutoie? (Let’s call each other ‘tu’.)
Vous n’avez pas besoin de me vouvoyer. (You needn’t call me ‘vous’.)
Let’s compare today’s second-person system in English with the OE system.
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Subject form, singular
Subject form, plural
OE
As represented in
the 1611 Bible
PDE
þu (ðu)
thou
you
ye
you
e (ge)
Object form, singular
þe (ðe)
thee
you
Object, form, plural
eow
you
you
Possessive, singular
þin (ðin)
thy, thine
your, yours
Possessive, plural
eower
your, yours
your, yours
PDE seems surprisingly limited in its range of second-person pronouns, in contrast to the other
languages mentioned earlier! We need to say that the 1611 Bible (known as the Authorised
Version [AV] or the King James Version) did not reflect popular usage of the time; the AV
distinguished the thouand the ye form on the basis of number (singular or plural), whereas Chaucer and
Shakespeare reflected the more popular usage of the thou and yeforms. Also, the AV distinguished
between ye and you based on case (subject form or object form), whereas this wasn’t systemically
followed in Shakespeare.
(a) If you address more than one person, you can only use the ye form.
(b) If you are addressing an individual who is your social equal,
(i) use the ye form for someone you do not know well (this is neutral and establishes a respectful
distance), and you can expect to be addressed in the ye form in return;
(ii) use the thou form for someone you are especially close to (to signal intimacy), and you can
expect to be addressed in the thou form in return.
(c) If you are addressing an individual who is not your social equal,
(i) use the thou form to a social inferior (your servant, your pupil, etc.), but expect to be
addressed in the ye form;
(ii) use the ye form to a social superior, but expect to be addressed in the thou form.
You can think of (b) as being to do with solidarity and (c) as being to do with power.
Here is an interaction between Falstaff and Prince Hal in Shakespeare’s Henry IV, Part 1, where they
share an intimate relationship. Notice the terms of address as well (underlined), and notice
that thou requires a verb with an –(e)st inflection.
FALSTAFF: Now, Hal, what time of day is it, lad?
PRINCE: Thou art so fat-witted with drinking of old sack [wine from Spain or the Canaries], and
unbuttoning thee after supper, and sleeping upon benches after noon, that thou hast forgotten to
demand that truly which thou wouldest truly know. What a devil hast thou to do with the time of the
day? …
FALSTAFF: Indeed, you come near me now, Hal … And, I prithee, sweet wag, when thou art a king, as
God save thy Grace – Majesty, I should say; for grace thou wilt have none –
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Now contrast this with the interaction between the King and Prince Hal.
KING. God pardon thee! Yet let me wonder, Harry,
At thy affections, which do hold a wing
Quite from the flight of all thy ancestors …
PRINCE. I shall hereafter, my thrice-gracious lord,
Be more myself …
KING … What say you to this? Percy, Northumberland,
The Archbishop’s Grace of York, Douglas, Mortimer,
Capitulate against us and are up.
But wherefore do I tell these news to thee?
Why, Harry, do I tell thee of my foes,
Which art my nearest and dearest enemy? …
PRINCE. Do not think so; you shall not find it so;
And God forgive them that so much have sway’d
Your Majesty’s good thoughts away from me!
This is not to say that the code was inflexible. It can be broken for particular reasons, for example, to
indicate defiance or to insult; or to indicate heightened feeling. Indeed, in Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night,
Sir Toby Belch urges Andrew Aguecheek to send a provocative challenge to Cesario (who is actually
Viola in disguise).
Taunt him with the licence of ink. If thou thou’st him some thrice, it shall not be amiss.
Here is a recorded insult when the Attorney-General Sir Edward Coke attacked Raleigh at the latter’s
trial in 1603:
All that Lord Cobham did was at thy instigation, thou viper! For I thou thee, thou traitor
(In both thou is also used as a verb to mean ‘call him thou’!)
Busse suggests that power and distance are the most important factors determining the choice of
either thou or you (2002: 286). His study also suggests that the later Shakespeare plays tend to favour
an increased use of you over thou, which suggests that thou had already begun its decline in use in
Shakespeare’s time. Ye was also being increasingly abandoned in favour of you.
The distinction apparently arose when the Roman Empire split up into two –Western and Eastern
(Byzantine) – resulting in two emperors. In theory, therefore, when one was addressing one of them one
was also addressing the other (Leith 1997: 106). (Think also about the traditional royal we, although the
present Queen Elizabeth has abandoned this use.) Others (eg Grevisse in Le Bon Usage) challenge this
view has been challenged and claim that this distinction pre-dates the split in the Roman Empire. The
adoption of the plural form to suggest deference was borrowed into English through the Francophile
English aristocracy.
How is it then that the thou form is almost completely lost today? And why was it that that thou form
was abandoned rather than the ye form? This contrasts to the situation in French, where there is a
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tendency to abandon the deferential vous form. If we bear in mind the middle-class insecurity of the
British in the 17th and 18th centuries, it seems reasonable to suggest that the use of the
polite you was safest because it didn’t risk offence. In today’s context where intimacy is highly valued, it
is also less surprising that languages that are abandoning the distinction should now opt for the item
to suggests intimacy.
Text to examine
Extract from the folio text of Romeo and Juliet (1623) in the original spelling (except that the long s is
replaced with the short s) here.
Iul. O Romeo, Romeo, wherefore art thou Romeo?
Denie thy Father and refuse thy name:
Or if thou wilt not, be but sworne to my Loue,
And Ile no longer be a Capulet.
Rom. Shall I heare more, or shall I speake at this?
Iu. ’Tis but thy name that is my Enemy:
Thou art thy selfe, though not a Mountague,
What’s Mountague? it is nor hand nor foote,
Nor arme, nor face, belonging to a man.
O be some other name.
Whats in a name? that which we call a Rose,
By any other word would smell as sweete,
So Romeo would, were he not Romeo cal’d,
Retaine that deare perfection which he owes,
Without that title Romeo, doffe thy name,
And for thy name which is no part of thee,
Take all my selfe.
Rom. I take thee at thy word:
Call me but Loue, and Ile be new baptiz’d,
Hence foorth I neuer will be Romeo.
Iuli. What man art thou, that thus bescreen’d in night
So stumblest on my counsell?
Rom. By a name,
I know not how to tell thee who I am:
My name deare Saint, is hatefull to my selfe,
Because it is an Enemy to thee,
Had I it written, I would teare the word.
Iuli. My eares haue yet not drunke a hundred words
Of thy tongues vttering, yet I know the sound.
Art thou not Romeo, and a Montague?
Rom. Neither faire Maid, if either thee dislike.
Iul. How cam’st thou hither.
Tell me, and wherefore?
The Orchard walls are high, and hard to climbe,
And the place death, considering who thou art,
If any of my kinsmen find thee here,
Rom. With Loues light wings
Did I ore-perch these Walls,
For stony limits cannot hold Loue out,
And what Loue can do, that dares Loue attempt:
827
828
829
830
831
832
833
834
835
836
837
838
839
840
841
842
843
844
845
846
847
848
849
850
851
852
853
854
855
856
857
858
859
860
861
862
863
864
865
866
827 wherefore art
thou Romeo iewhy have I
fallen in love with a
Montague?
833 Thou art
… Montague you would still
be the same person even if
you were not a Montague
834 nor … nor neither …
nor
840 owes owns
841 doffe put aside
842 for thy name in
exchange for your name
845 new baptiz’d baptised
again, ie he will take the new
name Love in place of the
name he received at baptism
848 counsell private talk
857 if either thee dislike if
either displeases you.
864 ore-perch overperch, ie fly over
870 look thou … enmity if
only you will look with
favour on me, then I cannot
be hurt by
(am proofe against) their
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Therefore thy kinsmen are no stop to me.
Iul. If they do see thee, they will murther thee.
Rom. Alacke there lies more perill in thine eye,
Then twenty of their Swords, looke thou but sweete,
And I am proofe against their enmity.
Iul. I would not for the world they saw thee here.
Rom. I haue nights cloake to hide me from their eyes
And but thou loue me, let them finde me here,
My life were better ended by their hate,
Then death proroged wanting of thy Loue.
Iul. By whose direction found’st thou out this place?
Rom. By Loue that first did promp me to enquire,
He lent me counsell, and I lent him eyes,
I am no Pylot, yet wert thou as far
As that vast-shore-washet with the farthest Sea,
I should aduenture for such Marchandise.
867
868
869
870
871
872
873
874
875
876
877
878
879
880
881
882
hatred
874 but unless
876 proroged (prorogued)
postponed
876 wanting of thy Loue (if I
should be) without your love
882 aduenture for
such Marchandise risk
anything for such a prize
For details, you are invited to explore the following:
Blake, Norman (2002), A grammar of Shakespeare’s language (Houndmills: Macmillan)
Busse, Ulrich (2002), Linguistic variation in the Shakespeare corpus: morpho-syntactic variability of
second person pronouns (Amsterdam: Benjamins)
Salmon, Vivian and Edwina Burness (eds) (1987), A reader in the language of Shakespearean
drama (Amsterdam: Benjamins) [Call No. P140 Ahl35]
The Religious Society of Friends (more commonly known as the Quakers) have retained the use
of thee longer to signal equality between its members. Here is a summary of a discussion in 1996 of the
use of the second-person pronoun among Quakers: http://www.quaker.org/thee-thou.html.
Pronouns
Remember also that the you and thou distinction is important. Case distinctions are observed for thou;
therefore:





thou seest all (subject form, with the appropriately inflected verb, usually -st)
he followed thee (object form)
we went into thy garden; give us thine opinion (possessive adjective; thine before a vowel)
she is thine (possessive pronoun)
give thyself a fitting reward (reflexive pronoun)
However, the you and ye distinctions were more fluid; the possessive forms are of course your and
yours.
Today, we usually omit the pronoun in commands (the imperative mood), as in ‘Come here!’, ‘Believe me’,
‘See this’. In Shakespeare’s English, the pronoun could be inserted if desired: ‘Come thou hither!’,
‘Believe ye me’, ‘See thou this’.
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Grammar
Verbal inflexions
In the third person singular (indicative mood), verbs might alternate between the more northern -s and
the more southern -th inflexions (eg ‘She comes’ and ‘She cometh’; ‘he has’ and ‘he hath’). The inflexion
for the second person (indicative mood) – -st as comest, desirest, hast, wouldst – has been mentioned
earlier. Note that a [@] or [I] sound might or might not be inserted before -s, -st, -th or -d (the past
tense): the contrast is often shown through the spelling, as in calles, callest, called as opposed to calls,
callst, call’d. Some of the past tense and past participial forms might also be different from that in PDE.
Past tense and past participial forms of verbs
By and large, the past tense and past participial forms of verbs are close to the system in PDE. Today
we have verbs that take on ‘strong forms’ (irregular: sing-sang-sung, wake-woke-woken) or ‘weak forms’
(regular: like-liked-liked, jump-jumped-jumped) Sometimes, Shakespeare might alternate between different
forms, and the past tense and past participial forms might be switched. He uses both caught (strong
form) and catched (weak form); built (s) and builded (w); holped/holpen (s) and helped (w)
The operator ‘do’
The operator ‘do’ could be used not to suggest emphasis as in today’s English (‘I like you’ v. ‘I do like
you’). This is sometimes known as the periphrastic use of ‘do’.
Questions
Similarly, questions could be formed either with the operator ‘do’ or without: ‘Like I you?’ v. ‘Do I like
you?’; ‘Where goest thou?’ v. ‘Where dost thou go?’ In PDE, the version with the operator ‘do’ is
obligatory unless there are other modal verbs.
Negation
And similarly, negatives could be formed either with the operator ‘do’ or without: ‘I like you not’ v. ‘I do
not like you’. In PDE, the version with the operator ‘do’ is obligatory unless there are other modal
verbs.
The subjunctive
The subjunctive is used in PDE in some formulaic constructions like ‘God save the queen!’, ‘God bless
you’, ‘suffice it to say’. Note that the verb does not appear to agree with the subject (not ‘God saves the
queen’ or ‘God blesses you’). In these examples, they express wishes or prayers. It is also used in some
constructions to denote a hypothetical (imaginary) situation, such as ‘if I were rich man’, ‘if she were alive
today’ (this is the past subjunctive; in these examples inversion is possible: ‘were I a rich man’, ‘were she
alive today’). It is also used in some clauses that indicate demands or requirements: ‘I request that the
prisoner come forward’, ‘It is necessary that we be informed of the facts’.
All these constructions were available to Shakespeare, but the subjunctive was used more extensively.
For example, most if clauses would contain the subjunctive. Therefore, you will see, ‘If it please you’
(rather than pleases), ‘if this be error’. Even today, we might say ‘if need be’ (be here means exist, and
therefore it means ‘if need exists’ or, more idiomatically, ‘if there is a need’).
The Progressive
You might notice that the progressive (‘continuous’) is hardly used in Shakespeare. In a study of the
progressives,[3] Elness examined the English used in three periods: I (1500–1570), II (1570–1640) and
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III (1640–1710). The relative frequencies (per 1,000,000 words) rose steadily from 173.5 in period I,
through 274.0 in period II, to 584.7 in period III.
For details, you are invited to read the following selectively.
The perfective
The auxiliary verb used for the perfective can be different from the PDE version. Today, the auxiliary
verb is have. In Shakespeare’s English, intransitive verbs of motion (come, go) would take on the verb be
to form the perfective aspect. (This roughly follows the pattern in French and German.) Peter Quince in
A Midsummer Night’s Dream says: ‘Have you sent to Bottom's house? is he come home yet?’; today, we
would say ‘has he come home yet?’ This survived till the 19th century, so that Charlotte Brontë wrote
in Jane Eyre (1847): ‘I am come to a strange pass: I have heavy troubles’. Today we would write ‘I have
come’ rather than ‘I am come’.
Comparative and superlative forms
Shakespeare might use the ‘double’ comparative and superlative (‘most unkindest cut of all’, ‘most boldest
and best hearts of Rome’) or he might use the –er and –est forms where we expect more or most or the
other way round (‘more tall’, ‘anxiouser’, ‘nothing certainer’, ‘beautifullest’).
Vocabulary
There are of course numerous vocabulary differences. Just inspect the glossaries of any volume of the
collected works of Shakespeare.
Blake, Norman (2002), A grammar of Shakespeare’s language (Houndmills: Macmillan)
Busse, Ulrich (2002), Linguistic variation in the Shakespeare corpus: morpho-syntactic variability of second
person pronouns (Amsterdam: Benjamins)
Johnson, Keith (2013), Shakespeare’s English: A Practical Guide (London: Pearson)
Salmon, Vivian and Edwina Burness (eds) (1987), A reader in the language of Shakespearean drama
(Amsterdam: Benjamins) [Call No. P140 Ahl35]
The name quarto is related to our word quarter. This is the ‘size of paper obtained by folding a whole sheet
twice, so as to form four leaves…. Quarto-sizes range from 15 × 11 inches (imperial quarto) to 7 × 6 (pot
quarto), according to the size of the original sheet’ (OED).
[2] ‘A volume made up of sheets of paper folded once; a volume of the largest size’ (OED).
[3] Johan Elness, ‘On the progression of the progressive in Early Modern English’, ICAME Journal 18
https://courses.nus.edu.sg/course/elltankw/history/shakespeare.htm
[1]
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