Scientific Writing
Galen Gisler
Physics of Geological Processes
University of Oslo
Why learn scientific writing?
n
It is a scientist’s duty to write papers and share his/her
knowledge.
You haven’t done the work unless you’ve written it up!
n
You will have to write a master thesis.
n
You will want to write scientific articles.
You will be judged by what you write and how well you write it.
Writing is learned by writing.
n
Practice, practice, practice.
n
Choose good role models.
n
Study good examples.
n
But there are also techniques and rules to learn.
Source:
Michael Alley
The Craft of Scientific Writing
Springer 1996, ISBN 0387-94766-3
http://www.writing.eng.vt.edu/
n
Introduction to Scientific Writing
n
Formatting Scientific Documents
n
Structure
n
Illustrations
n
Word Choices
n
Grammar
Scientific Writing:
An Introduction
Writing Guidelines for Students
http://writing.eng.vt.edu/
The Craft of Scientific Writing
3rd edition (Springer-Verlag, 1996)
This presentation discusses the importance of
scientific writing and introduces key principles
Importance of
Scientific Writing
[Report, 1986]
This presentation discusses the importance of
scientific writing and introduces key principles
Importance of
Scientific Writing
Key Principles
audience
occasion
purpose
[Report, 1986]
How well you communicate affects your
career
Survey (Richard M. Davis)
Successful engineers spent 25% of
work week writing
Survey (Wisconsin)
Professional engineers found writing
their most useful subject in college
Survey (Virginia Tech)
Recruiters claim that engineers need
more work on their writing
How well you communicate affects the
well-being of others
[Report, 1986]
Space Shuttle Challenger
(January 28, 1986)
How well you communicate affects the
well-being of others
Explosion was caused by failure of Orings in the solid rocket boosters
Engineers knew of O-ring problems well
before fatal launch
Engineers failed to communicate
seriousness of problem
[Report, 1986]
Space Shuttle Challenger
(January 28, 1986)
Scientists and engineers are called upon
to communicate in many different situations
Reports
Articles
Proposals
Web Pages
Conferences
Lectures
Meetings
Posters
Scientists and engineers are called upon
to communicate in many different situations
Conferences
Lectures
Meetings
Posters
Reports
Articles
Proposals
Web Pages
specific
technical
audiences
general
technical
audiences
non-technical
audiences
This presentation discusses the importance of
scientific writing and introduces key principles
Importance of
Scientific Writing
Key Principles
audience
occasion
purpose
[Report,
1986]
Scientific writing differs from other kinds of writing
Subject Matter
[Franklin,
1952]
Scientific writing differs from other kinds of writing
Subject Matter
Writing Constraints
audience
occasion
purpose
[Franklin,
1952]
Scientific writing differs from other kinds of writing
Subject Matter
Writing Constraints
audience
occasion
purpose
[Franklin,
1952]
Purpose of Writing
To inform
To persuade
Scientific writing differs from other kinds of writing
Subject Matter
Writing Constraints
audience
occasion
purpose
[Franklin,
1952]
Purpose of Writing
Writing Style
To inform
To persuade
[Peterson, 1987]
You should begin the writing process by analyzing
your constraints
Audience
Occasion
Purpose
You should begin the writing process by analyzing
your constraints
Who they are
What they know
Why they will read
How they will read
Audience
Occasion
Purpose
You should begin the writing process by analyzing
your constraints
Audience
Occasion
Purpose
You should begin the writing process by analyzing
your constraints
Audience
Occasion
Purpose
To inform
To persuade
You should begin the writing process by analyzing
your constraints
Audience
Occasion
Purpose
You should begin the writing process by analyzing
your constraints
Audience
Occasion
Purpose
Format
Formality
Politics and ethics
Process and deadline
Three aspects of writing affect the way that
readers assess your documents
Content
Style
Form
Style is the way you communicate the
content to the audience
[Peterson, 1987]
Illustration
words
wordswords
wordswordswords
wordswordswordswords
wordswordswords
wordswordswords
wordswordswords
wordswordswords
Structure
style
Language
Form embodies the format and mechanics of
the writing
format
typography
layout
mechanics
grammar
usage
punctuation
spelling
We can split the writing process into stages
Getting in the Mood
We can split the writing process into stages
Getting in the Mood
Writing the First Draft
We can split the writing process into stages
Getting in the Mood
Revising, Revising, Revising
Writing the First Draft
We can split the writing process into stages
Getting in the Mood
Revising, Revising, Revising
Writing the First Draft
Finishing
An excellent way to improve your writing is
to choose good models
AIP
Maria Goeppert Mayer
CalTech
Linus Pauling
Formatting
Scientific Documents
In scientific writing, formats vary considerably to
serve different situations
Formal
Reports
In scientific writing, formats vary considerably to
serve different situations
Formal
Reports
Journal
Articles
In scientific writing, formats vary considerably to
serve different situations
Formal
Reports
Journal
Articles
Presentation
Slides
Not all rules of format are constant
Reports
Sandia Laboratories
Figure 1
Table 1
equation 1
Not all rules of format are constant
Reports
Sandia Laboratories
Textbooks
Prentice-Hall
Figure 1
Fig. 1
Table 1
Table 1
equation 1
equation (1)
Not all rules of format are constant
Reports
Textbooks
Journals
Prentice-Hall
ASME
Figure 1
Fig. 1
fig. 1
Table 1
Table 1
table 1
equation 1
equation (1)
Eq. 1
Sandia Laboratories
Format is the arrangement of type on the page
typography
layout
Each typestyle has its own personality and power
Serif
Sans Serif
Each typestyle has its own personality and power
Serif
Times New Roman
abcdefghijklmnopqr
stuvwxyz1234567890
Garamond
abcdefghijklmnopqr
stuvwxyz1234567890
Courier
abcdefghijklmnopqr
stuvwxyz1234567890
Sans Serif
Each typestyle has its own personality and power
Serif
Sans Serif
Times New Roman
abcdefghijklmnopqr
stuvwxyz1234567890
Arial
BCGRSZ
abcdefghijklmnopqr
stuwxyz1234567890
Garamond
abcdefghijklmnopqr
stuvwxyz1234567890
Helvetica BCGRSZ
abcdefghijklmnopqr
stuwxyz1234567890
Courier
abcdefghijklmnopqr
stuvwxyz1234567890
Comic Sans BCGRSZ
abcdefghijklmnopqr
stuwxyz1234567890
Avoid large blocks of capital letters
TYPE IS TO READ
Type is to read
Avoid large blocks of capital letters
TYPE IS TO READ
Type is to read
Avoid large blocks of capital letters
TYPE IS TO READ
Type is to read
WORDS SET IN ALL CAPS USE
MORE SPACE THAN TEXT SET IN
LOWERCASE.
Words set in all caps use more
space than words set in lowercase.
Avoid large blocks of capital letters
TYPE IS TO READ
Type is to read
WORDS SET IN ALL CAPS USE
MORE SPACE THAN TEXT SET IN
LOWERCASE.
Words set in all caps use more
space than words set in lowercase.
Morton-Thiokol’s presentation to NASA suffered
because of all capital letters on the slides
PRIMARY CONCERNS FIELD JOINT - HIGHEST CONCERN
• EROSION PENETRATION OF PRIMARY SEAL REQUIRES RELIABLE SECONDARY SEAL FOR
PRESSURE INTEGRITY
• IGNITION TRANSIENT - (0-600 MS)
• (0-170 MS) HIGH PROBABILITY OF RELIABLE SECONDARY SEAL
• (170-330 MS) REDUCED PROBABILITY OF RELIABLE SECONDARY SEAL
• (330-600 MS) HIGH PROBABILITY OF NO SECONDARY SEAL CAPABILITY
• STEADY STATE - (600 MS - 2 MINUTES)
• IF EROSION PENETRATES PRIMARY O-RING SEAL - HIGH PROBABILITY OF
NO
SECONDARY SEAL CAPABILITY
• BENCH TESTING SHOWED O-RING NOT CAPABLE OF MAINTAINING CONTACT
WITH METAL PARTS GAP OPERATING TO MEOP
• BENCH TESTING SHOWED CAPABILITY TO MAINTAIN O-RING CONTACT DURING
INITIAL PHASE (0 - 170 MS) OF TRANSIENT
Morton-Thiokol Presentation to NASA
January 27, 1986
Morton-Thiokol’s presentation to NASA suffered
because of all capital letters on the slides
PRIMARY CONCERNS FIELD JOINT - HIGHEST CONCERN
• EROSION PENETRATION OF PRIMARY SEAL REQUIRES RELIABLE SECONDARY SEAL FOR
PRESSURE INTEGRITY
• IGNITION TRANSIENT - (0-600 MS)
• (0-170 MS) HIGH PROBABILITY OF RELIABLE SECONDARY SEAL
• (170-330 MS) REDUCED PROBABILITY OF RELIABLE SECONDARY SEAL
• (330-600 MS) HIGH PROBABILITY OF NO SECONDARY SEAL CAPABILITY
• STEADY STATE - (600 MS - 2 MINUTES)
• IF EROSION PENETRATES PRIMARY O-RING SEAL - HIGH PROBABILITY OF
NO
SECONDARY SEAL CAPABILITY
• BENCH TESTING SHOWED O-RING NOT CAPABLE OF MAINTAINING CONTACT
WITH METAL PARTS GAP OPERATING TO MEOP
• BENCH TESTING SHOWED CAPABILITY TO MAINTAIN O-RING CONTACT DURING
INITIAL PHASE (0 - 170 MS) OF TRANSIENT
Morton-Thiokol Presentation to NASA
January 27, 1986
Choose a type size that is easy to read
48 point
posters
36 point
presentation slides
24 point
18 point
14 point
titles
12 point
10 point
text
8 point
footnotes
In your layouts, use white space for association,
emphasis, and hierarchy
space
for
margins
space for
headings
space for
illustrations
Follow the format that is expected or required
for the situation
Structure:
the Strategy of Style
If a man can group his ideas, then he is a
writer.
Ending
Robert Louis Stevenson
Middle
Beginning
The organization of a scientific document can be
viewed as a beginning, middle, and ending
Ending
Middle
Title
Summary
Introduction
Beginning
The organization of a scientific document can be
viewed as a beginning, middle, and ending
Ending
Middle Sections
Middle
Title
Summary
Introduction
Beginning
The organization of a scientific document can be
viewed as a beginning, middle, and ending
Conclusions
Back Matter
Ending
Middle Sections
Middle
Title
Summary
Introduction
Beginning
Beginnings prepare readers for
understanding the work
Title
Summary
Introduction
orients readers to
document
tells readers what
happens in document
prepares readers
for the middle
A strong title orients readers to
your area of work
Effects of Humidity
on the Growth
of Avalanches
A strong title orients readers to
your area of work
Effects of Humidity
on the Growth
of Avalanches
Effects of Humidity
on the Growth
of Electron Avalanches
in Electrical Gas Discharges
A strong title also separates your
work from everyone else's work
Studies on the
Electrodeposition
of Lead on Copper
A strong title also separates your
work from everyone else's work
Studies on the
Electrodeposition
of Lead on Copper
Effects of Rhodamine-B
on the Electrodeposition
of Lead on Copper
Several names for summaries exist
Summary
Abstract
Technical
Abstract
Descriptive
Abstract
Informative
Abstract
Executive
Summary
Although several names exist for summaries,
there are essentially two approaches
This paper describes a new inertial navigation system for
mapping oil and gas wells. In this paper, we will compare
Descriptive
the mapping accuracy and speed for this new system
against the accuracy and speed for conventional systems.
This paper describes a new inertial navigation system
that will increase the mapping accuracy of oil wells by a
factor of ten. The new system uses three-axis navigation
that protects sensors from high-spin rates. The system
also processes its information by Kalman filtering (a
statistical sampling technique) in an on-site computer.
Test results show the three-dimensional location accuracy
is within 0.1 meters for every 100 meters of well depth, an
accuracy ten times greater than conventional systems.
Informative
A document's introduction prepares
readers for the discussion
Topic?
Introduction
A document's introduction prepares
readers for the discussion
Topic?
Importance?
Introduction
A document's introduction prepares
readers for the discussion
Topic?
Importance?
Background?
Introduction
A document's introduction prepares
readers for the discussion
Topic?
Importance?
Background?
Arrangement?
Introduction
The introduction defines the scope
and limitations of the work
scope
Proposed Study
on Effects of Alcohol
on Life Expectancy
Three classes of drinkers:
non-drinkers
moderate drinkers
heavy drinkers
Ten-year study
Men surveyed
The introduction defines the scope
and limitations of the work
scope
Proposed Study
on Effects of Alcohol
on Life Expectancy
Three classes of drinkers:
non-drinkers
moderate drinkers
heavy drinkers
Ten-year study
Men surveyed
limitations
The introduction defines the scope
and limitations of the work
Women may not
experience the
same effects
Medical histories
not considered
scope
Proposed Study
on Effects of Alcohol
on Life Expectancy
Three classes of drinkers:
non-drinkers
moderate drinkers
heavy drinkers
Ten-year study
Men surveyed
Other effects,
such as exercise,
not considered
limitations
A strong introduction tells readers
why the research is important
This paper presents a design for a platinum catalytic
igniter in hydrogen-air mixtures. This igniter has
application in nuclear reactors. One danger at a nuclear
reactor is a loss-of-coolant accident. Such an accident can
produce large quantities of hydrogen gas when hot water
and steam react with zirconium fuel rods. In a serious
accident, the evolution of hydrogen may be so rapid that it
produces an explosive hydrogen-air mixture in the reactor
containment building. This mixture could breach the
containment walls and allow radiation to escape.
Our method to eliminate this danger is to intentionally
ignite the hydrogen-air mixture at concentrations below
those for which any serious damage might result.
importance
In the middle of a report, you
present your work
Choose a logical
strategy
Make sections
and subsections
Heading
Subheading
Subheading
Heading
Subheading
Subheading
Subheading
Heading
[Sandia, 1985]
Common strategies exist
for the middles of scientific reports
Chronological
[Maizels, 2001]
Spatial
[Pratt & Whitney, 2000]
Common strategies exist
for the middles of scientific reports
Parallel
Parts
Corel Corporation
Flow
[Sandia, 1985]
Section headings should be descriptive and parallel
Parallel
Descriptive
Introduction
Background
Marx Generators
Line Pulse
Beam Generation
Transporting Beam
Pellets
Results
Conclusions
Introduction
Past Designs for Particle Beam Fusion
New Design for Particle Beam Fusion
Charging Marx Generators
Forming Line Pulse
Generating Particle Beam
Transporting Particle Beam
Irradiating Deuterium-Tritium Pellets
Results of New Design
Conclusions and Recommendations
Section headings should be descriptive and parallel
Non-Parallel
Non-Descriptive
Introduction
Background
Marx Generators
Line Pulse
Beam Generation
Transporting Beam
Pellets
Results
Conclusions
Parallel
Descriptive
Introduction
Past Designs for Particle Beam Fusion
New Design for Particle Beam Fusion
Charging Marx Generators
Forming Line Pulse
Generating Particle Beam
Transporting Particle Beam
Irradiating Deuterium-Tritium Pellets
Results of New Design
Conclusions and Recommendations
When you divide a section into subsections, all
the pieces should be of the same pie
New Design for Particle Beam Fusion
Charging Marx Generators
Generating Particle Beam
Pellets
When you divide a section into subsections, all
the pieces should be of the same pie
New Design for Particle Beam Fusion
Charging Marx Generators
Generating Particle Beam
Pellets
When you divide a section into subsections, all
the pieces should be of the same pie
New Design for Particle Beam Fusion
Charging Marx Generators
Generating Particle Beam
Pellets
When you divide a section into subsections, all
the pieces should be of the same pie
New Design for Particle Beam Fusion
Charging Marx Generators
Generating Particle Beam
Pellets
When you divide a section into subsections, all
the pieces should be of the same pie
New Design for Particle Beam Fusion
Charging Marx Generators
Generating Particle Beam
Pellets
When you divide a section into subsections, all
the pieces should be of the same pie
New Design for Particle Beam Fusion
Charging Marx Generators
Generating Particle Beam
Pellets
Irradiating
Deuterium-Tritium Pellets
When you divide a section into subsections, all
the pieces should be of the same pie
New Design for Particle Beam Fusion
Charging Marx Generators
Generating Particle Beam
Irradiating Deuterium-Tritium Pellets
When you divide a section into subsections, all
the pieces should be of the same pie
New Design for Particle Beam Fusion
Charging Marx Generators
Generating Particle Beam
Irradiating Deuterium-Tritium Pellets
Organization is hidden when headings occur in a long
list without secondary headings
Performance of
the Solar One Receiver
Introduction
Steady State Efficiency
Average Efficiency
Start-Up Time
Operation Time
Operation During Cloud Transients
Panel Mechanical Supports
Tube Leaks
Conclusion
Organization is hidden when headings occur in a long
list without secondary headings
Performance of
the Solar One Receiver
Performance of
the Solar One Receiver
Introduction
Steady State Efficiency
Average Efficiency
Start-Up Time
Operation Time
Operation During Cloud Transients
Panel Mechanical Supports
Tube Leaks
Conclusion
Introduction
Receiver’s Efficiency
Steady State Efficiency
Average Efficiency
Receiver’s Operation Cycle
Start-Up Time
Operation Time
Operation During Cloud Transients
Receiver’s Mechanical Wear
Panel Mechanical Supports
Tube Leaks
Conclusion
Many journal articles follow a set organization
named IMRaD
Introduction
Materials and Methods
Discussion
Results
In a strong ending, you analyze results
and give a future perspective
Conclusions
Analysis of Results
Future Perspective
In a strong ending, you analyze results
and give a future perspective
Conclusions
Analysis of Results
Analyze results from
overall perspective
Future Perspective
In a strong ending, you analyze results
and give a future perspective
Conclusions
Analysis of Results
Analyze results from
overall perspective
Future Perspective
Several options:
Make recommendations
Discuss future work
Repeat limitations
Use appendices to supply background
for secondary audiences
Appendix A
Concern About the Greenhouse Effect
For almost a hundred years, experts have been
concerned with the increasing concentrations of
gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrogen
oxides in the earth's lower atmosphere. These gases
are natural by-products of combustion. Figure A-1
illustrates the correlation between global temperature
and carbon dioxide concentrations...
Use appendices to supply secondary or
tangential information to primary readers
Appendix B
Project Stormfury
In 1961, the United States Weather Bureau and the
Department of Defense (Navy) began a project to reduce
the strength of hurricanes. The project, called Project
Stormfury, uses cloud seeding, a process used to
produce rainfall and reduce hail in thunderstorms. In
Project Stormfury, silver iodide crystals, similar in
structure to ice, are dispersed by airplanes in the upper
reaches of cloud formations just outside the hurricane's
eye where the winds are highest. Initial results showed
that wind speeds decreased between 15–30% after
seedings...
For secondary readers, use a glossary
to define unfamiliar terms
Glossary
burst point: the exact point in space where an
atomic bomb is detonated.
clear visibility: a viewing range of twenty miles.
fallout: the descent to the Earth's surface of
radioactive particles from a cloud contaminated
with the fission products of a nuclear explosion.
hypocenter: the point on the earth's surface directly
below the burst point; also called ground zero.
Failing to cite the contribution of others can be a
fatal flaw in your career
[Franklin,
1952]
James Watson surreptitiously looked
at Rosalind Franklin’s work
Failing to cite the contribution of others can be a
fatal flaw in your career
[Franklin,
1952]
James Watson surreptitiously looked
at Rosalind Franklin’s work
[Luzzati, 1950]
Watson did not give enough
credit to Franklin
Illustration:
The Meshing of Words
With Images
Keep it as simple as possible, yet no
simpler.
Albert Einstein
X-ray photograph of DNA [Rosalind
Franklin, 1952]
Two types of illustrations exist: tables and figures
Table 1. Reactor power levels in
Chernobyl accident [Wolfson, 1991].
Date
Time
Power Level
4/25
1:00 am
3200 MW
4/25
2:00 pm
1600 MW
4/25
11:10 pm
1600 MW
4/26
1:00 am
30 MW
4/26
1:19 am
200 MW
4/26
1:23 am
2,000,000 MW
Two types of illustrations exist: tables and figures
Table 1. Reactor power levels in
Chernobyl accident [Wolfson, 1991].
Pressurizer
Date
Time
Power Level
4/25
1:00 am
3200 MW
4/25
2:00 pm
1600 MW
4/25
11:10 pm
1600 MW
4/26
1:00 am
30 MW
4/26
1:19 am
200 MW
4/26
1:23 am
2,000,000 MW
Coolant
Loss
Reactor
Vessel
Steam
Generator
Core
Figure 1. Simplified diagram of
nuclear reactor [Wolfson, 1991].
Tables can present words as well as numbers
Table 2. Sequence of events in the Chernobyl accident [Wolfson, 1991].
Date
Time
Power Level
Event
April 25
1:00 a.m.
3200 MW
Operators begin power descent
April 25
2:00 p.m.
1600 MW
Power descent delayed for 9 hours
Emergency core-cooling system disconnected
April 25
11:10 p.m.
1600 MW
Operators switch off automatic control
Power descent resumed
April 26
1:00 a.m.
30 MW
April 26
1:19 a.m.
200 MW
April 26
1:23 a.m.
2,000,000 MW
Power minimum reached
Operators pull rods beyond allowable limits
Operators start two additional coolant pumps
Operators violate coolant flow limits
Power surges by factor of 10,000 in 5 seconds
When presenting numerical data, you
choose between tables and graphs
Table 2. Blood glucose
levels [Carlson, 1982].
Time
(hour)
Normal
(mg/dl*)
Diabetic
(mg/dl)
midnight
2:00
4:00
6:00
8:00
10:00
noon
2:00
4:00
6:00
8:00
10:00
100.3
93.6
88.2
100.5
138.6
102.4
93.8
132.3
103.8
93.6
127.8
109.2
175.8
165.7
159.4
72.1
271.0
224.6
161.8
242.7
219.4
152.6
227.1
221.3
* decaliters/milligram
When presenting numerical data, you
choose between tables and graphs
Table 2. Blood glucose
levels [Carlson, 1982].
Time
(hour)
midnight
2:00
4:00
6:00
8:00
10:00
noon
2:00
4:00
6:00
8:00
10:00
Normal
(mg/dl*)
100.3
93.6
88.2
100.5
138.6
102.4
93.8
132.3
103.8
93.6
127.8
109.2
300
Blood
Glucose
Level
(mg/dl)
Dinner
Diabetic
200
150
100
Normal
50
0
12:00
* decaliters/milligram
Lunch
250
Diabetic
(mg/dl)
175.8
165.7
159.4
72.1
271.0
224.6
161.8
242.7
219.4
152.6
227.1
221.3
Breakfast
6:00 am
12:00
6:00 pm
12:00
Hour
Figure 11. Blood glucose levels for normal
individual and diabetic
[Carlson, 1982].
Line graphs are common
in engineering and science
2000
1500
Temperature
(K)
1000
500
Experiment
Simulation
0
0
2
4
6
Distance From Burner (mm)
Figure 3. Computational and experimental temperatures for laminar
diffusion flames [Sandia, 1987].
Bar graphs compare wholes
30
Normal range
20
7-10
Cells%
10
112–175
211–366
Flight Duration (Days)
Figure 4. Response of T-cells in cosmonauts after short-term and
long-term flights [Konstantinova, 1991].
Gantt charts are a type of bar charts
Task
1979
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
Construction
Test and Evaluation
Power Production
Figure 5. Schedule for the construction, evaluation, and production phases
of the Solar One Power Plant.
Pie graphs compare parts of a whole
Medical and research wastes
(16%)
Industrial wastes
(28%)
Power React or
I ndustri al
Medi cal
Gover nment
Government wastes
(2%)
Power reactor wastes
(64%)
Figure 5. Volume of low-level nuclear wastes from various sources
[League, 1985].
Graphs come in many forms
Average dose: 160 mrem
85 mrem
Natural
Sources
70 mrem
Medical
Sources
{
Fallout: < 3mrem
Occupational: < 1mrem
Nuclear power: < 1mrem
Figure 6. Estimated annual dose of radiation in the United States
[GPU Nuclear, 1985].
When presenting images, you choose between
photographs, drawings, and diagrams
When presenting images, you choose between
photographs, drawings, and diagrams
When presenting images, you choose between
photographs, drawings, and diagrams
4
1
Combustor
2
Compressor
3
Turbine
The main advantage of photographs is realism
60 seconds
59.5 seconds
59 seconds
Figure 2. Space Shuttle Challenger, from about 59 seconds to 60 seconds
into launch (January 28, 1986). On the right rocket, flame first becomes
visible and then impinges on tank.
One advantage of drawings is control of detail
Secondary
Flow
Primary
Flow
Secondary
Flow
Figure 5. Wind tunnel experiment at Virginia Tech for evaluating filmcooling designs for the blades of gas turbine engines [Thole and
others, 2000].
One advantage of drawings is control of detail
Combustor Simulator
Turbine Vanes
Secondary
Flow
Primary
Flow
Secondary
Flow
Figure 5. Wind tunnel experiment at Virginia Tech for evaluating filmcooling designs for the blades of gas turbine engines [Thole and
others, 2000].
One advantage of drawings is control of detail
Combustor Simulator
Turbine Vanes
Secondary
Flow
Primary
Flow
Secondary
Flow
Dilution Jet
Film-Cooling
Holes
Figure 5. Wind tunnel experiment at Virginia Tech for evaluating filmcooling designs for the blades of gas turbine engines [Thole and
others, 2000].
The main advantage of a diagram is the ability to
show flow of a variable through a system
Figure 8. Schematic of test stand for evaluating
components of an air conditioner design.
Scientists and engineers often use illustrations
that are too complex for the text
The thermal storage system
stores heat in a huge, steelwalled tank. Steam from
the solar receiver passes
through heat exchangers
to heat the thermal oil,
which is pumped into the
tank. The tank then
provides energy to run a
steam generator to
produce electricity. A
schematic of this system
is shown in Figure 5.
RECEIVER
DSPH
TSU
TSH
FLASH
TANK
FT
DEARATOR
HP
HTR
Figure 5. Schematic of thermal
storage system.
TURBINE
HOT
WELL
T
S
S
G
The precision of the illustrations
should reflect the precision of the text
The thermal storage system, shown in Figure 6, stores
heat in a huge, steel-walled tank. Steam from the solar
receiver heats a thermal oil, which is pumped into the tank.
The tank then provides energy to run a steam generator to
produce electricity.
650°F
580°F
Heat
Exchanger
solar
receiver
435°F
Thermal
Tank
425°F
530°F
575°F
Heat
Exchanger
425°F
steam
generator
250°F
Figure 6. Schematic of thermal storage system for the solar power
plant.
For clarity, you should introduce and
explain illustrations in the text
..., as shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7. Title of figure. Some formats allow you extra sentences to
explain unusual details.
Inconsistencies between text and
images disrupt fluidity
The testing hardware of the
rocket shown in Figure 8 has five
main components: camera,
digitizer, computer, I/O interface,
and mechanical interface.
Commands are generated by the
computer, then passed through
the I/O interface to the
mechanized interface where the
keyboard of the ICU is operated.
The display of the ICU is read
with a television camera and then
digitized. This information is
then manipulated by the
computer to direct the next
command.
Inconsistencies between text and
images disrupt fluidity
The testing hardware of the
rocket shown in Figure 8 has five
main components: camera,
digitizer, computer, I/O interface,
and mechanical interface.
Commands are generated by the
computer, then passed through
the I/O interface to the
mechanized interface where the
keyboard of the ICU is operated.
The display of the ICU is read
with a television camera and then
digitized. This information is
then manipulated by the
computer to direct the next
command.
CONTROL
TERMINAL
PRINTER
CAMERA
DIGITIZER
ROCKET
COMPUTER
ELECTROMECHANICAL
INTERFACE
Figure 8. Testing hardware.
Illustration is the meshing of words with images
Our system for testing the launch controls of the rocket consists of
four main parts: computer, electro-mechanical interface, camera, and
digitizer. In this system (shown in Figure 9), the computer generates
test commands to the rocket through the electro-mechanical
interface. The test results are read with a television camera, and then
digitized. The computer receives the information from the digitizer,
and then directs the next test command.
1
Computer
4
Digitizer
2
ElectroMechanical
Interface
3
Camera
Figure 9. System to test launch
controls for rocket.
Rocket
Precise
Language:
the Way We Use Words
Clear
Forthright
Familiar
Concise
Fluid
Short words are the best, and
short words when old are best of
all.
Winston Churchill
word
word
word
word
word
word
word
word
word wordwordwordwordwordword
wordwordwordwordword
word
word
word
word
word
word
wordwordwordwordword
Generalities that are not anchored
with specifics are soon forgotten
After recognizing
some problems with
the solar mirrors, we
took subsequent
corrective measures.
Generalities that are not anchored
with specifics are soon forgotten
After recognizing
some problems with
the solar mirrors, we
took subsequent
corrective measures.
Trash
Generalities that are not anchored
with specifics are soon forgotten
After recognizing
some problems with
the solar mirrors, we
took subsequent
corrective measures.
Trash
After finding that high
winds (and not hail) had
cracked the ten solar
mirrors, we began
stowing all mirrors in a
horizontal position
during thunderstorms.
For precise language, you should
avoid over-specifying details
The number of particular hydrocarbon
combinations in our study is enormous.
For example, the number of possible
C20H42 is 366,319 and the number for
C40H82 is 62,491,178,805,831.
For precise language, you should
avoid over-specifying details
The number of particular hydrocarbon
combinations in our study is enormous.
For example, the number of possible
C20H42 is 366,319 and the number for
C40H82 is 62,491,178,805,831.
The number of hydrocarbon combinations
in our study is enormous. For example, the
number of possible C40H82 is more than 62 trillion.
For precision, you must choose the
appropriate level of detail
Operations at the plant stopped momentarily
because the thermal storage charging system
desuperheater attemperator valve was replaced.
For precision, you must choose the
appropriate level of detail
Operations at the plant stopped momentarily
because the thermal storage charging system
desuperheater attemperator valve was replaced.
Operations at the plant stopped for 1.5 hours
so that a valve in the thermal storage system
could be replaced.
Complex wording buries ideas
The goal of this study is to develop a commercialization strategy for solar energy systems by analyzing
factors impeding early commercial projects (i.e.,
SOLAR ONE) and by identifying the potential actions
that can facilitate the viability of the projects.
Complex wording buries ideas
R.I.P
The goal of this study is to develop a commercialization strategy for solar energy systems by analyzing
factors impeding early commercial projects (i.e.,
SOLAR ONE) and by identifying the potential actions
that can facilitate the viability of the projects.
Complex wording buries ideas
This study will consider why current solar energy
systems, such as Solar One, have not reached the
commercial stage and will find out what steps
we can take to make these systems commercial.
R.I.P
The goal of this study is to develop a commercialization strategy for solar energy systems by analyzing
factors impeding early commercial projects (i.e.,
SOLAR ONE) and by identifying the potential actions
that can facilitate the viability of the projects.
Stacking adjectives before nouns swallows the ideas
Solar One is a 10 megawatt solar
thermal electric central receiver
Barstow power pilot plant.
Stacking adjectives before nouns swallows the ideas
Solar One is a 10 megawatt solar
thermal electric central receiver
Barstow power pilot plant.
Stacking adjectives before nouns swallows the ideas
Solar One is a 10 megawatt solar
thermal electric central receiver
Barstow power pilot plant.
Solar One is a solar-powered pilot
plant located near Barstow, California. Solar One
produces 10 megawatts of electricity by capturing
solar energy in a central receiver design.
Complex sentences misdirect readers
The goal of the work was to
confirm the nature of electrical
breakdown of nitrogen in uniform
fields at high pressures and
electrode gaps which approach
those obtained in engineering
practice, prior to the determination of the processes which
set the criterion for breakdown
in the above-mentioned gas in
uniform and non-uniform fields of
engineering significance.
Complex sentences misdirect readers
The goal of the work was to
confirm the nature of electrical
breakdown of nitrogen in uniform
fields at high pressures and
electrode gaps which approach
those obtained in engineering
practice, prior to the determination of the processes which
set the criterion for breakdown
in the above-mentioned gas in
uniform and non-uniform fields of
engineering significance.
Complex sentences misdirect readers
The goal of the work was to
confirm the nature of electrical
breakdown of nitrogen in uniform
fields at high pressures and
electrode gaps which approach
those obtained in engineering
practice, prior to the determination of the processes which
set the criterion for breakdown
in the above-mentioned gas in
uniform and non-uniform fields of
engineering significance.
At high pressures (760 torr)
and typical electrode gap
distances (1 mm), the
electrical breakdown of
nitrogen was studied in
uniform fields.
The more muddled the original, the more revisions
are needed to streamline it
At high pressures (760 torr)
and typical electrode gap
distances (1 mm), the
electrical breakdown of
nitrogen was studied in
uniform fields.
The more muddled the original, the more revisions
are needed to streamline it
At high pressures (760 torr)
and typical electrode gap
distances (1 mm), the
electrical breakdown of
nitrogen was studied in
uniform fields.
In our study, we examined
the electrical breakdown of
nitrogen in uniform fields.
For these experiments, the
electrode gap distances
were typical (1 mm), while
the pressures were
relatively high (760 torr).
One measure for the complexity of the writing
is the Gunning Fog Index
In the index, the complexity
of the writing depends on
(1) the lengths of sentences
(2) the lengths of words
Desired index values for
scientific writing are 10-12:
New York Times (11)
Scientific American (12)
Fi = 0.4 ((Nw / Ns )+ Plw )
Nw = number of words in a typical paragraph
Ns = number of sentences in the paragraph
Plw = percentage of long words in the paragraph
An ambiguity is a group of words that can have
more than one meaning
We examined neat methanol
and ethanol and methanol
and ethanol with 10% water.
An ambiguity is a group of words that can have
more than one meaning
We examined neat methanol
and ethanol and methanol
and ethanol with 10% water.
We examined four fuels: neat
methanol, neat ethanol,
methanol with 10% water, and
ethanol with 10% water.
Ambiguities occur for many reasons
The proposed schedule is
discussed below for the next
four years.
?????????
Ambiguities occur for many reasons
The proposed schedule is
discussed below for the next
four years.
As light hydrocarbons evaporate the oil
vapor pressure falls.
?????????
???????
Ambiguities occur for many reasons
The proposed schedule is
discussed below for the next
four years.
?????????
As light hydrocarbons evaporate the oil
vapor pressure falls.
Although engineers realized the design
flaws in the Titanic soon after its sinking
in 1912, the reasons for the severe
damage inflicted by the iceberg remained
a mystery until its discovery in 1985.
???????
???
Pretentious diction often causes
problems with tone
approximately
facilitate
implement
individualized
operationability
utilization
Pretentious diction often causes
problems with tone
approximately
facilitate
implement
individualized
operationability
utilization
about
Pretentious diction often causes
problems with tone
approximately
about
facilitate
cause; bring about
implement
individualized
operationability
utilization
Pretentious diction often causes
problems with tone
approximately
about
facilitate
cause; bring about
implement
carry out
individualized
operationability
utilization
Pretentious diction often causes
problems with tone
approximately
about
facilitate
cause; bring about
implement
carry out
individualized
individual
operationability
utilization
Pretentious diction often causes
problems with tone
approximately
about
facilitate
cause; bring about
implement
carry out
individualized
individual
operationability
can operate
utilization
Pretentious diction often causes
problems with tone
approximately
about
facilitate
cause; bring about
implement
carry out
individualized
individual
operationability
can operate
utilization
use
Weak verbs hide the energy of your work
A new process for eliminating nitrogen
oxides from diesel exhaust engines is
presented. Flow tube experiments to
test this process are discussed. The
percentage decrease in nitrogen oxide
emissions is revealed.
Weak verbs hide the energy of your work
A new process for eliminating nitrogen
oxides from diesel exhaust engines is
presented. Flow tube experiments to
test this process are discussed. The
percentage decrease in nitrogen oxide
emissions is revealed.
This paper presents a new process for
eliminating nitrogen oxides from the
exhaust of diesel engines. To test this
process, we performed experiments in
flow tubes. These experiments
revealed a 99 percent decrease in
nitrogen oxide emissions.
A formal definition has a specific form
noun
term
noun naming class
to which noun term
belongs
noun
term
noun
term
noun
term
+
information to separate
noun term from other
terms in class
noun
noun term noun
term
term
noun
term
A formal definition has a specific form
noun
term
noun naming class
to which noun term
belongs
noun
term
noun
term
noun
term
+
information to separate
noun term from other
terms in class
noun
noun term noun
term
term
noun
term
Bremsstrahlung: the radiation emitted by a charged
particle that is accelerated in the
Coulomb force field of a nucleus.
To tighten your writing, eliminate redundancies
and writing zeroes
Vibration measurements made in the
course of the Titan flight test program were
complicated by the presence of intense
high-frequency excitation of the vehicle
shell structure during the re-entry phase
of the flight.
To tighten your writing, eliminate redundancies
and writing zeroes
Vibration measurements made in the
course of the Titan flight test program were
complicated by the presence of intense
high-frequency excitation of the vehicle
shell structure during the re-entry phase
of the flight.
Vibration measurements made in the Titan
flight were complicated by intense highfrequency excitation of the vehicle shell during
re-entry.
Examples anchor abstract generalities
By the late Middle Ages, cities throughout
Europe were building Gothic cathedrals. The
only way, however, that architects could test a
new design was to build the cathedral, a process
that took more than forty years. Unfortunately,
many cathedrals caved in during or after
construction. What took forty years to test in
the Middle Ages could have been done in
minutes on a supercomputer.
William Wilson
When sentence openers do not vary, the
sentences do not seem to connect
Z
Z
Z
Mount St. Helens erupted on May 18, 1980. A cloud of hot rock
and gas surged northward from its collapsing slope. The cloud
devastated more than 500 square kilometers of forests and
lakes. The effects of Mount St. Helens were well documented
with geophysical instruments. The origin of the eruption is not
well understood. Volcanic explosions are driven by a rapid
expansion of steam. Some scientists believe the steam comes
from groundwater heated by the magma. Other scientists
believe the steam comes from water originally dissolved in the
magma. We need to understand the source of steam in volcanic
eruptions. We need to determine how much water the magma
contains.
Varying sentence openers allows for more kinds of
transitions between sentences
Sentence
Sentence
Sentence
Varying sentence openers allows for more kinds of
transitions between sentences
Sentence
Sentence
Topic of Sentence
Time of action
Location of action
Manner of action Adverb
Subordinate action
Reason for action
Phrase
Sentence
Subject
Prepositional Phrase
Prepositional Phrase
Dependent Clause
Infinitive
Vary sentence openers to vary rhythm
subject-verb
prepositional phrase
adverb
dependent clause
infinitive phrase
Mount St. Helens erupted
on May…
Vary sentence openers to vary rhythm
subject-verb
Mount St. Helens erupted
on May…
prepositional phrase
In minutes, the mountain
emitted…
adverb
dependent clause
infinitive phrase
Vary sentence openers to vary rhythm
subject-verb
Mount St. Helens erupted
on May…
prepositional phrase
In minutes, the mountain
emitted…
adverb
Recently, debate has arisen...
dependent clause
infinitive phrase
Vary sentence openers to vary rhythm
subject-verb
Mount St. Helens erupted
on May…
prepositional phrase
In minutes, the mountain
emitted…
adverb
Recently, debate has arisen...
dependent clause
Although the exact time of the
eruption surprised scientists,
evidence had been collected...
infinitive phrase
Vary sentence openers to vary rhythm
subject-verb
Mount St. Helens erupted
on May…
prepositional phrase
In minutes, the mountain
emitted…
adverb
Recently, debate has arisen...
dependent clause
Although the exact time of the
eruption surprised scientists,
evidence had been collected...
infinitive phrase
To understand the
eruption, we have to...
Varying sentence openers enlivens the writing
and allows connections
Mount St. Helens erupted on May 18, 1980. Its slope
collapsing, the mountain emitted a cloud of hot rock and gas.
In minutes, the cloud devastated more than 500 square
kilometers of forests and lakes. Although the effects of the
eruption were well documented, the origin is not well
understood. Volcanic explosions are driven by a rapid
expansion of steam. Recently, debate has arisen over the
source for the steam. Is it groundwater heated by magma or
water originally dissolved in the magma itself? To understand
the source of steam in volcanic eruptions, we need to
determine how much water the magma contains.
Avoiding Common Errors
of Grammar
One of the most important skills a writer can
have is the ability to compose clear, complete
sentences. The sentence is the basic unit of
communication in all forms of English.
Funk, McMahan, and Day
Elements of Grammar
Not all mechanical errors bother readers in
the same way
Errors that
disturb
run-on sentence
its/it’s
spell checker ignored
Not all mechanical errors bother readers in
the same way
Errors that
disturb
run-on sentence
its/it’s
spell checker ignored
Errors that
distract
missing intro comma
faulty parallelism
unclear pronoun ref
Not all mechanical errors bother readers in
the same way
Errors that
disturb
run-on sentence
its/it’s
spell checker ignored
Errors that
distract
missing intro comma
faulty parallelism
unclear pronoun ref
Errors that few
even notice
different from/than
contraction
split infinitive
The most important aspect of grammar
is understanding what a sentence is
Sentence:
A sentence is group of words with a subject
and a verb that expresses a complete
thought.
The most important aspect of grammar
is understanding what a sentence is
Sentence:
A sentence is group of words with a subject
and a verb that expresses a complete
thought.
Fragment: A fragment being a group of words that
either is missing a subject or a verb or does
not express a complete thought.
The most important aspect of grammar
is understanding what a sentence is
Sentence:
A sentence is group of words with a subject
and a verb that expresses a complete
thought.
Fragment: A fragment being a group of words that
either is missing a subject or a verb or does
not express a complete thought.
Run-on:
A run-on is two or more independent
clauses that are not joined properly, for
instance, a common mistake is to have a
comma between the clauses.
Which are sentences (S), fragments (F),
or run-ons (RO)?
Rubidium has no major uses, however, it is more
common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.
Although carbon dioxide occurs naturally, man has
dramatically increased its concentration this past
century.
Several systems can detect plastic explosives. For
example, thermal neutron activation systems,
nitrogen sniffer systems, and enhanced x-ray
systems.
Which are sentences (S), fragments (F),
or run-ons (RO)?
Rubidium has no major uses, however, it is more
common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.
Although carbon dioxide occurs naturally, man has
dramatically increased its concentration this past
century.
Several systems can detect plastic explosives. For
example, thermal neutron activation systems,
nitrogen sniffer systems, and enhanced x-ray
systems.
RO
Which are sentences (S), fragments (F),
or run-ons (RO)?
Rubidium has no major uses, however, it is more
common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.
RO
Although carbon dioxide occurs naturally, man has
dramatically increased its concentration this past
century.
S
Several systems can detect plastic explosives. For
example, thermal neutron activation systems,
nitrogen sniffer systems, and enhanced x-ray
systems.
Which are sentences (S), fragments (F),
or run-ons (RO)?
Rubidium has no major uses, however, it is more
common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.
RO
Although carbon dioxide occurs naturally, man has
dramatically increased its concentration this past
century.
S
Several systems can detect plastic explosives. For
example, thermal neutron activation systems,
nitrogen sniffer systems, and enhanced x-ray
systems.
S/F
Shown in yellow are corrections to the errors
from the previous slide
Although rubidium has no major uses, it is more
common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.
Although carbon dioxide occurs naturally, man has
dramatically increased its concentration this past
century.
Several systems can detect plastic explosives.
Examples include thermal neutron activation
systems, nitrogen sniffer systems, and enhanced
x-ray systems.
Note that there are several ways
to correct each of these errors
Rubidium has no major uses; however, it is more
common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.
Rubidium has no major uses, but it is more
common in the earth than zinc, copper, or nickel.
Rubidium has no major uses. This metal, however,
is more common in the earth than zinc, copper, or
nickel.
Making lists parallel is another important aspect of
grammar
Printed circuit board relays are limited to small coil
voltages, contact ratings, and lack multi-pole
configurations.
Making lists parallel is another important aspect of
grammar
Printed circuit board relays are limited to small coil
voltages, contact ratings, and lack multi-pole
configurations.
Printed circuit board relays are limited to small
coil voltages and contact ratings, and lack multipole configurations.
Making lists parallel is another important aspect of
grammar
Animals that come in contact with oil can
develop rashes, sores, and may leave the
area.
Making lists parallel is another important aspect of
grammar
Animals that come in contact with oil can
develop rashes, sores, and may leave the
area.
Animals that come in contact with oil can
develop rashes, sores, and wandering
tendencies.
Making lists parallel is another important aspect of
grammar
Animals that come in contact with oil can
develop rashes, sores, and may leave the
area.
Animals that come in contact with oil can
develop rashes, sores, and wandering
tendencies.
Animals that come in contact with oil can
develop rashes and sores, and may leave
the area.
Placing a modifier in its appropriate place is also
important in grammar
These proteins indicate to the body what hormones
should be given off among other things.
Placing a modifier in its appropriate place is also
important in grammar
These proteins indicate to the body what hormones
should be given off among other things.
These proteins indicate, among other things, to the
body what hormones should be given off.
Placing a modifier in its appropriate place is also
important in grammar
These proteins indicate to the body what hormones
should be given off among other things.
These proteins indicate, among other things, to the
body what hormones should be given off.
In meeting the staff of the Parks Department, the
greatest problem was that of water leakage.
Placing a modifier in its appropriate place is also
important in grammar
These proteins indicate to the body what hormones
should be given off among other things.
These proteins indicate, among other things, to the
body what hormones should be given off.
In meeting the staff of the Parks Department, the
greatest problem was that of water leakage.
From the staff of the Parks Department, we learned
that the greatest problem was that of water leakage.
Unclear pronoun references cause ambiguities
Because the receiver presented the radiometer
with a high flux environment, it was mounted in
a silver-plated stainless steel container.
If you receive an e-mail titled "Win A Holiday,"
do not open it. It will erase everything on your
hard drive. Forward this e-mail out to as many
people as you can. This is a very malicious
virus and not many people know about it.
Unclear pronoun references cause ambiguities
Because the receiver presented the radiometer
with a high flux environment, it was mounted in
a silver-plated stainless steel container.
If you receive an e-mail titled "Win A Holiday,"
do not open it. It will erase everything on your
hard drive. Forward this e-mail out to as many
people as you can. This is a very malicious
virus and not many people know about it.
it???
Unclear pronoun references cause ambiguities
Because the receiver presented the radiometer
with a high flux environment, it was mounted in
a silver-plated stainless steel container.
If you receive an e-mail titled "Win A Holiday,"
do not open it. It will erase everything on your
hard drive. Forward this e-mail out to as many
people as you can. This is a very malicious
virus and not many people know about it.
it???
This???
Unclear pronoun references cause ambiguities
Because the receiver presented the radiometer
with a high flux environment, it was mounted in
a silver-plated stainless steel container.
If you receive an e-mail titled "Win A Holiday,"
do not open it. It will erase everything on your
hard drive. Forward this e-mail out to as many
people as you can. This is a very malicious
virus and not many people know about it.
it???
this???
This???
Avoiding Common Errors
of Punctuation
Punctuation marks are the traffic signs and
signals placed along the reader’s road. They tell
him when to slow down and when to stop, and
sometimes they warn him of the nature of the
road ahead. Traffic engineers do not always
agree on what signs should be used and where
they should be placed, and neither do writers or
editors.
Theodore M. Bernstein
The Careful Writer
,
Punctuation rules are designed to have
sentences be read one way
Colon: a colon introduces a formal list, long
quotation, equation, or definition.
Semi-Colon: a semi-colon either joins two
independent clauses (closely linked in
thought) or separates complex items in a list.
Dash: a dash acts as a parenthesis to separate
items that cannot be separated by commas.
Comma: a comma separates details in a sentence.
A colon introduces a formal list, long
quotation, equation, or definition
We studied five types of marsupials: opossums,
bandicoots, koalas, wombats, and kangaroos.
The laboratory growth of this crystal made
possible a new astronomical tool: a gamma-ray
detector with high-energy resolution.
A colon introduces a formal list, long
quotation, equation, or definition
We studied five types of marsupials: opossums,
bandicoots, koalas, wombats, and kangaroos.
The laboratory growth of this crystal made
possible a new astronomical tool: a gamma-ray
detector with high-energy resolution.
In formal writing, what is on the left side of the
colon should stand alone as a separate sentence.
Once the list ends, the sentence ends.
Although equations are separated by white space,
they should be treated as part of the sentence
To calculate the strain, ε, we used equation 1:
ε =
σ
E
,
(1
where σ is the stress estimated by FEPC and E
is the modulus of elasticity of aluminum.
Em-dashes act as parentheses to separate
items that commas cannot
Because two isotopes of hydrogen—deuterium and tritium—are
lightweight, can be produced easily, and require little energy, they
are prime candidates to begin the fusion process.
After one year, we measured mirror reflectivity at 96 percent—a
high percentage, but not as high as originally expected.
Em-dashes act as parentheses to separate
items that commas cannot
Because two isotopes of hydrogen—deuterium and tritium—are
lightweight, can be produced easily, and require little energy, they
are prime candidates to begin the fusion process.
After one year, we measured mirror reflectivity at 96 percent—a
high percentage, but not as high as originally expected.
Because two isotopes of hydrogen (deuterium and tritium) are
lightweight, can be produced easily, and require little energy, they
are prime candidates to begin the fusion process.
After one year, we measured mirror reflectivity at 96 percent (a
high percentage, but not as high as originally expected).
Commas separate introductory phrases and
clauses
After cooling the exhaust gases continue to expand.
Commas separate introductory phrases and
clauses
After cooling the exhaust gases continue to expand.
After cooling, the exhaust gases continue to expand.
Commas separate parenthetical details
X-ray backscatter systems, which are relatively
inexpensive require the operator’s attention.
Commas separate parenthetical details
X-ray backscatter systems, which are relatively
inexpensive require the operator’s attention.
X-ray backscatter systems, which are relatively
inexpensive, require the operator’s attention.
Commas separate items in a list
Discharges of these hazardous substances occurred
through spills when loading vehicles, spills and overspills when filling the tanks, leaks from supply pipes
and corroded welds, rust holes and cracks in the
seams of the tanks themselves.
Commas separate items in a list
Discharges of these hazardous substances occurred
through spills when loading vehicles, spills and overspills when filling the tanks, leaks from supply pipes
and corroded welds, rust holes and cracks in the
seams of the tanks themselves.
Discharges of these hazardous substances occurred
through the following: spills when loading vehicles;
spills and over-spills when filling the tanks; leaks from
supply pipes; and corroded welds, rust holes, and
cracks in the seams of the tanks themselves.
Avoiding Common Errors
of Usage
Choose the right word, not its second cousin.
The difference between the right word and the
almost right word is the difference between
“lightning” and “lightning-bug.”
word
word
Mark Twain
word
word
right word
word
word
word
Not all usage rules are constant
with respect to time
1700s:
1900s:
“an historical...”
“a historical...”
Not all usage rules are constant
with respect to time
1700s:
1900s:
“an historical...”
“a historical...”
1900:
X rays
1950:
X-rays
1995:
x-rays
Not all usage rules are constant
with respect to time
1700s:
1900s:
“an historical...”
“a historical...”
1900:
X rays
1950:
X-rays
1995:
x-rays
C & E News (1985):
C & E News (1995):
the 1980’s (plural)
the 1980s (plural)
Not all usage rules are constant with
respect to position
William Strunk and E. B. White,The Elements of Style:
Data: A plural, like phenomena and strata.
Merriam-Webster Dictionary of English Usage:
In its current use, data occurs in two constructions:
as a plural noun (like earnings) taking a plural
verb…and as an abstract mass noun (like
information) taking a singular verb…
Not all usage errors bother readers in
the same way
Errors that
disturb
Errors that
distract
Errors that few
even notice
affect/effect
its/it’s
verb disagreement
verb tense
comprise/compose
possessive
different from/than
compare with/to
Two common usage errors are possessives and
subject-verb disagreements
The criteria for assessing the environmental effects of
acid rain (are / is) given in the next section.
So far, the daily number of engineers applying (has /
have) remained constant.
The goggles protect a (persons / person’s) eyes from
any damaging effects that a laser could cause.
In accordance with my (boss’ / boss’s) schedule, the
first series of computers was replaced.
Two common usage errors are possessives and
subject-verb disagreements
The criteria for assessing the environmental effects of
acid rain (are / is) given in the next section.
So far, the daily number of engineers applying (has /
have) remained constant.
The goggles protect a (persons / person’s) eyes from
any damaging effects that a laser could cause.
In accordance with my (boss’ / boss’s) schedule, the
first series of computers was replaced.
are
Two common usage errors are possessives and
subject-verb disagreements
The criteria for assessing the environmental effects of
acid rain (are / is) given in the next section.
So far, the daily number of engineers applying (has /
have) remained constant.
The goggles protect a (persons / person’s) eyes from
any damaging effects that a laser could cause.
In accordance with my (boss’ / boss’s) schedule, the
first series of computers was replaced.
are
has
Two common usage errors are possessives and
subject-verb disagreements
The criteria for assessing the environmental effects of
acid rain (are / is) given in the next section.
are
So far, the daily number of engineers applying (has /
have) remained constant.
has
The goggles protect a (persons / person’s) eyes from
any damaging effects that a laser could cause.
person’s
In accordance with my (boss’ / boss’s) schedule, the
first series of computers was replaced.
Two common usage errors are possessives and
subject-verb disagreements
The criteria for assessing the environmental effects of
acid rain (are / is) given in the next section.
are
So far, the daily number of engineers applying (has /
have) remained constant.
has
The goggles protect a (persons / person’s) eyes from
any damaging effects that a laser could cause.
person’s
In accordance with my (boss’ / boss’s) schedule, the
first series of computers was replaced.
boss’s
To decide upon the verb tense in a document, you
first plant a reference flag for t=0
Past Tense:
Present Tense:
Future Tense:
Events that have
already occurred
Timeless details or details
at time of reading
Events that will occur
after project
t=0
t
To decide upon the verb tense in a document, you
first plant a reference flag for t=0
Past Tense:
Present Tense:
Future Tense:
Events that have
already occurred
Timeless details or details
at time of reading
Events that will occur
after project
t=0
t
The pressure was...
For the experiment, we
assumed…
As was shown back in
Figure 1...
To decide upon the verb tense in a document, you
first plant a reference flag for t=0
Past Tense:
Present Tense:
Future Tense:
Events that have
already occurred
Timeless details or details
at time of reading
Events that will occur
after project
t=0
t
The pressure was...
For the experiment, we
assumed…
As was shown back in
Figure 1...
Air is 79 percent nitrogen.
Figure 1 shows…
The computer code in
Appendix B includes...
To decide upon the verb tense in a document, you
first plant a reference flag for t=0
Past Tense:
Present Tense:
Future Tense:
Events that have
already occurred
Timeless details or details
at time of reading
Events that will occur
after project
t=0
t
The pressure was...
For the experiment, we
assumed…
As was shown back in
Figure 1...
Air is 79 percent nitrogen.
Figure 1 shows…
The computer code in
Appendix B includes...
Future work will focus
on....
The verb tenses of sentences that refer to the
document depend upon position
Introduction
This report presents a design for
connecting light emitting diodes to the
HC11 microcontroller.
The verb tenses of sentences that refer to the
document depend upon position
Introduction
This report presents a design for
connecting light emitting diodes to the
HC11 microcontroller.
Results and Discussion
...Figure 1 shows the circuit that connects the
light emitting diodes to the HC11
microcontroller.
The verb tenses of sentences that refer to the
document depend upon position
Introduction
This report presents a design for
connecting light emitting diodes to the
HC11 microcontroller.
Results and Discussion
...Figure 1 shows the circuit that connects the
light emitting diodes to the HC11
microcontroller.
Conclusions
This report has presented a design for
connecting light emitting diodes to the HC11
microcontroller. As was shown in Figure 1,
the circuit...
Use numerals when referring to measurements
When to use numerals
Specific measurements
3 volts, 2 seconds, 1 m/s
Percentages
15 percent
Monetary figures
$3000
Large numerals
5 million
Use numerals when referring to measurements
When to use numerals
Specific measurements
3 volts, 2 seconds, 1 m/s
Percentages
15 percent
Monetary figures
$3000
Large numerals
5 million
When to write out numbers
Counting (one or two words)
twenty-three gages
Informal measurements
two hours
First word of sentence
Thirty-three...
Certain words are commonly misused
We produced a small (amount, number) of autos
this year, even (fewer, less) than last year.
A company’s success depends on (its / it's)
employees.
The new material is (composed / comprised) of
plastic and iodine.
It appears (as if, like) the Department of Energy will
choose the third option.
Certain words are commonly misused
We produced a small (amount, number) of autos
this year, even (fewer, less) than last year.
A company’s success depends on (its / it's)
employees.
The new material is (composed / comprised) of
plastic and iodine.
It appears (as if, like) the Department of Energy will
choose the third option.
number
fewer
Certain words are commonly misused
We produced a small (amount, number) of autos
this year, even (fewer, less) than last year.
number
fewer
A company’s success depends on (its / it's)
employees.
its
The new material is (composed / comprised) of
plastic and iodine.
It appears (as if, like) the Department of Energy will
choose the third option.
Certain words are commonly misused
We produced a small (amount, number) of autos
this year, even (fewer, less) than last year.
number
fewer
A company’s success depends on (its / it's)
employees.
its
The new material is (composed / comprised) of
plastic and iodine.
composed
It appears (as if, like) the Department of Energy will
choose the third option.
Certain words are commonly misused
We produced a small (amount, number) of autos
this year, even (fewer, less) than last year.
number
fewer
A company’s success depends on (its / it's)
employees.
its
The new material is (composed / comprised) of
plastic and iodine.
composed
It appears (as if, like) the Department of Energy will
choose the third option.
as if
Certain words are commonly misused
Reduced weight was the (principal / principle) reason for
choosing aluminum.
The talk centered (around / on) the (principal / principle)
of virtual work.
(Regrettably / Regretfully), the launch was delayed
because of thunderstorms.
You need not proceed any (farther / further) on your test.
The serum had serious side (affects / effects).
Certain words are commonly misused
Reduced weight was the (principal / principle) reason for principal
choosing aluminum.
The talk centered (around / on) the (principal / principle)
of virtual work.
(Regrettably / Regretfully), the launch was delayed
because of thunderstorms.
You need not proceed any (farther / further) on your test.
The serum had serious side (affects / effects).
Certain words are commonly misused
Reduced weight was the (principal / principle) reason for principal
choosing aluminum.
The talk centered (around / on) the (principal / principle)
of virtual work.
(Regrettably / Regretfully), the launch was delayed
because of thunderstorms.
You need not proceed any (farther / further) on your test.
The serum had serious side (affects / effects).
on
principle
Certain words are commonly misused
Reduced weight was the (principal / principle) reason for principal
choosing aluminum.
The talk centered (around / on) the (principal / principle)
of virtual work.
(Regrettably / Regretfully), the launch was delayed
because of thunderstorms.
You need not proceed any (farther / further) on your test.
The serum had serious side (affects / effects).
on
principle
Regrettably
Certain words are commonly misused
Reduced weight was the (principal / principle) reason for principal
choosing aluminum.
The talk centered (around / on) the (principal / principle)
of virtual work.
(Regrettably / Regretfully), the launch was delayed
because of thunderstorms.
on
principle
Regrettably
You need not proceed any (farther / further) on your test. further
The serum had serious side (affects / effects).
Certain words are commonly misused
Reduced weight was the (principal / principle) reason for principal
choosing aluminum.
The talk centered (around / on) the (principal / principle)
of virtual work.
(Regrettably / Regretfully), the launch was delayed
because of thunderstorms.
on
principle
Regrettably
You need not proceed any (farther / further) on your test. further
The serum had serious side (affects / effects).
effects
Non-words and nonsensical groupings
of words also cause problems
Whichever design you choose is (alright / all right) with
me.
(Irregardless / Regardless) of the shipping delay, the
work will stop because of the strike.
Applying that set of constraints is a (most unique /
unique / very unique) way to approach the problem.
The serum had (alot / a lot) of side effects.
Non-words and nonsensical groupings
of words also cause problems
Whichever design you choose is (alright / all right) with
me.
(Irregardless / Regardless) of the shipping delay, the
work will stop because of the strike.
Applying that set of constraints is a (most unique /
unique / very unique) way to approach the problem.
The serum had (alot / a lot) of side effects.
all right
Non-words and nonsensical groupings
of words also cause problems
Whichever design you choose is (alright / all right) with
me.
all right
(Irregardless / Regardless) of the shipping delay, the
work will stop because of the strike.
Regardless
Applying that set of constraints is a (most unique /
unique / very unique) way to approach the problem.
The serum had (alot / a lot) of side effects.
Non-words and nonsensical groupings
of words also cause problems
Whichever design you choose is (alright / all right) with
me.
all right
(Irregardless / Regardless) of the shipping delay, the
work will stop because of the strike.
Regardless
Applying that set of constraints is a (most unique /
unique / very unique) way to approach the problem.
unique
The serum had (alot / a lot) of side effects.
Non-words and nonsensical groupings
of words also cause problems
Whichever design you choose is (alright / all right) with
me.
all right
(Irregardless / Regardless) of the shipping delay, the
work will stop because of the strike.
Regardless
Applying that set of constraints is a (most unique /
unique / very unique) way to approach the problem.
unique
The serum had (alot / a lot) of side effects.
a lot