UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI
April 8, 2004
Date:___________________
Brad L. Golba
I, _________________________________________________________,
hereby submit this work as part of the requirements for the degree of:
Master of Architecture
in:
The School of Architecture and Interior Design
It is entitled:
Symbiosis: The Harmony of Built Form and Natural Environments
This work and its defense approved by:
David Niland
Chair: _______________________________
Barry Stedman
_______________________________
David Lee Smith
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
SYMBIOSIS: THE HARMONY OF BUILT FORM AND NATURAL ENVIRONMENTS
A Thesis Submitted to the
Division of Research and Advanced Studies
of the University of Cincinnati
in partial fulfillment of
requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF ARCHITECTURE
in the School of Architecture and Interior Design
of the College of Design, Architecture, Art, and Planning
2004
by
Brad L. Golba
B.S. Architecture, University of Cincinnati, 2002
Committee Chairs:
David Niland
Barry Stedman
David Lee Smith
Abstract
Man was bestowed with the God-given right to “rule” over the Earth, and because of this, he inherited both certain
rights and certain responsibilities. Unfortunately, man confused dominion with domination. He exploited the earth’s
precious resources, and, as a result, has realized they are finite and susceptible. To rectify this situation, humans must return
to their role as stewards, placing the health of land above their own desires.
Serving as havens for wildlife, wetlands are capable of living, dying, and changing through human interaction.
Once thought of as areas of disease and moral turpitude, wetlands now serve as invaluable sources of ecological knowledge.
Consequently, important educational benefits can also be learned from close interaction between nature and the built
environment. Building methods and techniques in these ecosystems need to minimize the negative effects for all species,
particularly those that are most sensitive to environmental changes.
Since humans have intervened in natural environments, native flora and fauna have shown signs of adaptability and
compatibility. Conversely, humans have been able to adapt to the natural instincts of animals. It is our responsibility, as
humans, to realize that there is a potential for compatibility between every living thing. An architecture that responds to the
needs of both humans and animals will enable all species to coexist in natural habitats.
These analyses will inform a suggestion of how this harmonious relationship can become reality through
architecture. This thesis aims to create a harmony between built form and natural environments through compromise to
create awareness about fragile ecosystems and the flora and fauna within them.
Table of Contents
List of Illustrations.......................................................................................................................................... 2
Illustration Credits .......................................................................................................................................... 4
Introduction..................................................................................................................................................... 7
THE RIGHT OF DOMINION........................................................................................................................ 9
Whose Land Is It? ...................................................................................................................................... 9
The Concept of Stewardship .................................................................................................................... 10
The Conservation Ethic for the Architect................................................................................................. 12
Historical Patterns .................................................................................................................................... 14
WITH AND WITHIN NATURE.................................................................................................................. 16
Natural Selection- A Requirement for Evolution..................................................................................... 16
Natural Adaptation................................................................................................................................... 17
THE WETLANDS........................................................................................................................................ 21
Early Perceptions ..................................................................................................................................... 21
Importance of Wetlands ........................................................................................................................... 22
Protection of the Wetlands ....................................................................................................................... 23
Construction Innovations ......................................................................................................................... 25
Genius Loci .............................................................................................................................................. 26
ECOTOURISM ............................................................................................................................................ 28
Characteristics of Ecotourism .................................................................................................................. 28
Guiding Principles in Architecture........................................................................................................... 30
Defining the Destination .......................................................................................................................... 31
PROGRAM................................................................................................................................................... 33
Goals of the Program ............................................................................................................................... 33
Program Requirements............................................................................................................................. 34
Complete Program Requirements ............................................................................................................ 42
Program Precedents.................................................................................................................................. 43
SITE.............................................................................................................................................................. 47
Documentation ......................................................................................................................................... 47
History of Lake Erie................................................................................................................................. 49
History of Magee Marsh .......................................................................................................................... 50
Physical Analysis ..................................................................................................................................... 51
Site Precedents ......................................................................................................................................... 53
DESIGN APPLICATION............................................................................................................................. 57
The Principles .......................................................................................................................................... 57
Translation ............................................................................................................................................... 58
The Spirit of Our Time............................................................................................................................. 59
Design Process ......................................................................................................................................... 60
Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................. 63
Appendix....................................................................................................................................................... 67
1
List of Illustrations
Figure 1.0
Scene from the Garden of Eden
Figure 1.1
Aldo Leopold on farm
Figure 1.2
Studies by Ian McHarg
Figure 1.3
Present-day farming in Egypt
Figure 1.4
Pueblo Bonito
Figure 1.5
Ruins in Chaco Canyon
Figure 2.0
Evolution Sketch
Figure 2.1
Cactus in desert climate
Figure 2.2
Peregrine Falcon
Figure 2.3
Delta Works, photograph
Figure 2.4
Delta Works, site plan
Figure 3.0
Magee Marsh at Sunrise
Figure 3.1
Swan in Cattails
Figure 3.2
Blue Heron
Figure 3.3
American Bald Eagles
Figure 3.4
Mallard Ducks
Figure 3.5
White-tailed Deer
Figure 3.6
Juanita Bay, boardwalk
Figure 3.7
Juanita Bay, diagonal bracing
Figure 3.8
Canal Hood Wetlands
Figure 3.9
“Pinned” Piles
Figure 3.10
Shoreline of Lake Erie
Figure 3.11
Salk Institute
Figure 4.0
Headlines for ecotourism in third-world
Figure 4.1
Sabi Sabi Ecolodge
Figure 4.2
National Park Tourism Model
Figure 4.3
Destination Zone Diagram
Figure 5.0
Purple Loosestrife
Figure 5.1
Old Faithful Inn
Figure 5.2
Rara Avis Hotel
Figure 5.3
La Selva Biological Station
Figure 5.4
Marine Resources Center
Figure 5.5
Woods Hole Research Center, Ordway Campus
Figure 5.6
Thomas J. Watson Research Center, floor plan
Figure 5.7
Thomas J. Watson Research Center, interior photograph
Figure 5.8
Arizona Sonora Desert Museum, site plan
Figure 5.9
Arizona Sonora Desert Museum, café
2
Figure 6.0
Figure 6.1
Figure 6.2
Figure 6.3
Figure 6.4
Figure 6.5
Figure 6.6
Figure 6.7
Figure 6.8
Figure 6.9
Figure 6.10
Figure 6.11
Figure 6.12
Figure 6.13
Figure 6.14
Figure 7.0
Figure 7.1
Figure 7.2
Figure 7.3
Figure 7.4
Figure 7.5
Figure 7.6
Figure 7.7
Figure 7.8
Aerial Image of Lake Erie
Lake Erie Shoreline
Red-tailed Hawk
Great Bur Reed
Muskrat in Magee Marsh
Bathymetry Map of Lake Erie
Green Heron in marsh
Atlantic Coast Migration Pattern
Mississippi Delta Migration Pattern
Crosswinds Marsh Interpretive Preserve
Aerial photo of Crosswinds Marsh
Adam Joseph Lewis Center
Amphibious Living Competition, section
Amphibious Living Competition, rendering
Blur Building
Swaner Nature Preserve Education Center, rendering
Swaner Nature Preserve Education Center, rendering
Site plan
Laboratory floor plan
Longitudinal section
Parti diagram
Exterior Perspective
Interior perspective
Interior perspective
3
Illustration Credits
Figure 1.0
Figure 1.1
Figure 1.2
Figure 1.3
Figure 1.4
Figure 1.5
Figure 2.0
Figure 2.1
Figure 2.2
Figure 2.3
Figure 2.4
Figure 3.0
Figure 3.1
Figure 3.2
Figure 3.3
Figure 3.4
Figure 3.5
Figure 3.6
Figure 3.7
Figure 3.8
Figure 3.9
Figure 3.10
Figure 3.11
Figure 4.0
Figure 4.1
Figure 4.2
Figure 4.3
Figure 5.0
Adam and Eve. Accessed 15, November 2003. Available at
http://virgil.org/dswo/courses/milton/
Knight and Riedel, 46.
McHarg, 107.
Egyptian Farming. Accessed 31, March 2004. Available at
http://www.travelegypt.com/bikingnile14.htm
Pueblo Bonito. Accessed 15, November 2003. Available at
http://www.sacredsites.com/2nd56/153.html
Anasazi Indians. Accessed 23 March, 2004. Available at
http://www.desertusa.com/ind1/du_peo_ana.html
Darwin, cover.
Darwin, 121.
Peregrine Falcon. Accessed 24, November, 2003. Available at
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/07/0723_wildnights2.html
Marton, 54.
Marton, 55.
Campbell, 83.
Campbell, 149.
Blue Heron. Accessed 15, January, 2004. Available at
http://www.yellowstonenationalparkpicutre.com
American Bald Eagles. Accessed 15, January, 2004. Available at
http://www.hanford.gov/docs/annualrp00/graphics/eagleperch.jpg
Mallard Ducks. Accessed 15, January, 2004. Available at
http://www.vetmed.wisc.edu/dms/fapm/staff/bennett.htm
White-tailed Deer. Accessed 15, January, 2004. Available at
http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/whitetailed_deer.htm
El-Aidi, 120.
El-Aidi, 121.
El-Aidi, 121.
El-Aidi, 122.
By author.
Curtis, 523.
Mowforth and Munt, 13.
Gunn, 94.
Gunn, 91.
Gunn, 222.
Campbell, 146.
4
Figure 5.1
Figure 5.2
Figure 5.3
Figure 5.4
Figure 5.5
Figure 5.6
Figure 5.7
Figure 5.8
Figure 5.9
Figure 6.0
Figure 6.1
Figure 6.2
Figure 6.3
Figure 6.4
Figure 6.5
Figure 6.6
Figure 6.7
Figure 6.8
Figure 6.9
Figure 6.10
Figure 6.11
Figure 6.12
Figure 6.13
Figure 6.14
Figure 7.0
Figure 7.1
Figure 7.0
Figure 7.1
Figure 7.2
Figure 7.3
Figure 7.4
Old Faithful Inn. Accessed 25, November, 2003. Available at
http://www.geocities.com/yellowstone_88/Yellowstone_Notebook.htm
Rara Avis Hotel. Accessed 25, November, 2003. Available at
http://www.interlog.com/~rainfrst/
La Selva Biological Station. Accessed 25, November, 2003. Available at
http://www.ots.ac.cr/en/laselva/
Linn, 90.
Woods Hole Research Center, Ordway Campus. Accessed 28, September, 2003.
Available at http://www.mcdonoughpartners.com/index.htm
Saarinen, 72.
IBM Headquarters. Accessed 4 January, 2004. Available at http://www.ibm.com/us/
Line and Space Architects. Accessed 31, March 2004. Available at
http://www.lineandspace.com/main/
Line and Space Architects. Accessed 31, March 2004. Available at
http://www.lineandspace.com/main/
By author.
By author.
Campbell, 147.
Campbell, 154.
Campbell, 151.
Lake Erie Bathymetry. Accessed 17, October, 2003. Available at
http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/image/mgg14.jpg
Campbell, 144.
Bolsenga, 326.
Bolsenga, 325.
Crosswinds Marsh Interpretive Preserve. Accessed 17, October, 2003. Available at
Aerial photo of Crosswinds Marsh. Accessed 17, October, 2003. Available at
Adam Joseph Lewis Center. Accessed 28, September, 2003. Available at
http://www.mcdonoughpartners.com/index.htm
Venhuizen, 28.
Venhuizen, 29.
Murphy, Diana. Blur: The Making of Nothing. (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc.,
2002.)
Guiney, 42.
Guiney, 43.
By author.
By author.
By author.
By author.
By author.
5
Figure 7.5
Figure 7.6
By author.
By author.
6
Introduction
Every ecosystem can be considered an organism that is capable of living, dying, and changing
through human intervention. This is particularly true for the wetland ecosystem, whose rich diversity of
flora and fauna serve important roles in natural processes. These fragile ecosystems represent design
challenges dealing with the impact that a building has on flora and fauna.
Conventional wisdom argues that it is better not to disturb it than to touch it and risk its
destruction. However, this approach overlooks the important educational benefits to be learned from the
close interaction between nature and the built environment. It is possible to design in wetlands utilizing
careful techniques that are responsive to native species. Also, it is our responsibility, as humans, to realize
that there is a potential for compatibility between every living thing. The methods and techniques of
building should minimize the negative effects for all species, particularly those most sensitive to
environmental changes.
These analyses will inform a suggestion of how a harmonious relationship can become reality
through architecture. This thesis aims to create a harmony between built form and natural environments
through compromise to create awareness about fragile ecosystems and the flora and fauna within them.
The first chapter, The Right of Dominion, focuses on the God-given right of humans to “rule” over
the earth. The interpretations of dominion are largely personal, but nonetheless, they provide architects
with design challenges and opportunities. One aspect is that “dominion” of the earth implies responsibility
on the part of human, though complete domination of the earth results in its destruction. This
responsibility, or stewardship, focuses on land management, placing its health above our selfish desires.
With increasing awareness of limited natural resources, conservation ethics have been developed and
applied to create a symbiotic relationship of mutual dependence between man and the earth. This
conservation ethic will help inform design decisions and determine the limits of this thesis project.
Impact on the Environment explores the concept of natural selection and how it develops
relationships between all organic beings. Natural selection is the basis for coexistence of all organisms,
including humans, realizing that each has the capacity to adapt to changes in the built and natural
7
environments. Change and evolution are necessary components of life, and as a result, the sensitivity of
each species must be acknowledged. Humans have intervened in natural environments, with the native
flora and fauna showing signs of adaptability and compatibility. Conversely, humans have been able to
adapt to the natural instincts of animals. The adaptability of all species is of utmost importance for design
in sites that serve as havens for numerous species of wildlife.
The third chapter, The Wetlands, discusses the early perceptions and evolution of these fragile
ecosystems. Serving very important ecological functions, there have been important steps taken in order to
ensure that built structures in wetlands are designed with the utmost precision and sensitivity or not built at
all. Though the legalities vary from local to national levels, these havens for wildlife provide a great
opportunity for educational design, focusing on the impact of a building in such a fragile site.
Experimentation with innovative construction techniques can minimize the negative impact on these
ecosystems.
Finally, Ecotourism provides an introduction to an ethical ‘New Moral Tourism.’ Ecotourism,
relatively new but gaining much popularity, provide an opportunity for visitors to experience, gain
knowledge of, and appreciate sensitive natural areas. Achieving harmony with nature through the
experience is accomplished through careful planning and a thorough understanding of the intent and
benefits of the ecotourism destination. Through educated design decisions, it is possible to use buildings,
with effective and responsive design to natural forces and ecosystems, as a method of teaching.
8
THE RIGHT OF DOMINION
“Conservation is a state of harmony between men and land.”1
This goal of Aldo Leopold is derived from the realization that humans are part of a large
community of interdependent parts. Thus, it is imperative that the role of humans reflect this. Being the
so-called ‘superior species,’ humans must be aware of the differences between use and abuse of the natural
environment.
Whose Land Is It?
In the Christian faith, the first human inhabitants of the Earth, Adam and Eve, were placed there
by God. They were given their commands: “Be fruitful, and multiply, and fill the earth, and subdue it: and
have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the air, and over every living thing that moves
upon the earth.”2 However, having chosen the serpent’s fruit, Adam and Eve were banished from the
Garden of Eden, and as a result, the ties between man and nature were severed for the first time. Ever
since, man’s relationship with the earth has ranged from misuse to outright destruction.
Attempting to protect endangered species, create protected natural environments, and restrain
exploitative desires, “dominion over the Earth” reflects a special relationship between one species, Homo
sapiens, and its environment.3 Kai Hahlweg, in The Dismantling of Hierarchy: An Ecological Perspective,
Figure 1.0 Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden
defines “dominion over the Earth” as the adaptation of all other species towards the demands and
requirements of one particular species: Homo sapiens. This also assumes that the superior species, not
having to undergo change, can cause the problems for all others and force those to adapt. Hahlweg
believes that this would mean the end of the evolutionary process. There are, however, no one-sided
evolutionary changes.4 As a result, Hahlweg’s idea of dominion allows humans to be in control of the
environment, while hopefully realizing the consequences of their actions. Hahlweg also explores how the
1
Leopold, 207
Genesis 1:28
3
Lehotay, 247-248
4
Lehotay, 251
2
9
God-given right to rule over all living things implies a responsibility for humans. His analogy is that of a
good housefather over his family, meaning that humans are supposed to be benevolent and strict while
keeping in mind the interests of all living things.5
Some believe that nature is ours to be subdued and conquered. John Black, in his book The
Dominion of Man, believes the right of dominion over nature is a paradox; full exploitation will result in its
eventual destruction. Being incompatible with long-term sustenance, the complete domination of nature
should be prevented. Differences between what is ideal and possible results in conflict for management of
resources. Black feels that it is necessary for us to establish a system of beliefs to combat exploitative
practices.6 These exploitative processes must be corrected before a particular area is ruined, at least
allowing for a chance of survival of the environment. Black focuses on fragile ecosystems that have
reached a ‘point of no return,’ in which revitalization is no longer possible. Defined as ‘ecological tension
zones’, these ecosystems maintain such a delicate balance that any level of human intervention must be
appropriate and harmless. Otherwise, human intervention could become disruptive to the ecosystem.7
The concept of dominion must provide us with a proper balance between our needs and our wants.
While there are places on the Earth that remain untouched by the human hand, there are places that can
benefit from human interaction. Buildings can be designed in such a way that man’s relationship with the
natural environment is enhanced without damaging the fragility of a particular ecosystem. This requires
dedication on the part of the architect to take into consideration all aspects of the construction process
including the impact that the project will have on the flora and fauna.
The Concept of Stewardship
John Black asserts that Western civilization has adopted a concept developed by the Hebrews that
man has a responsibility to God for the management of the Earth. Biblically, this arose from the creation of
world: “And the Lord God took the man, and put him into the Garden of Eden to dress it and to keep it.”8
5
Lehotay, 247
Black, 44
7
Black, 45
8
Genesis 2:15
6
10
Man’s first responsibility was to till and manage the garden, presumably for both pleasure and profit, and to
prevent any harm.9 Man, created in the image of God, was responsible and accountable to God for the
proper management of the Earth. Being given complete control, man thought of himself as a steward.10
The role of man as a steward of the Earth and increased environmental awareness led to the
development of an environmental ethic. Stewardship, defined by our capacity to place land health above
the land’s many uses, stresses the protection of natural biological diversity. Aldo Leopold was a pioneer in
ecological science, viewing ecology as “the fusion point of science and the land community.”11 He
believed there needed to be a connection between the intellectuals who study the human community versus
those who study the plants and animals. In his own experience on his Wisconsin farm, Leopold attempted
to rebuild a thriving ecological biotic community on land that had been abused for years. This process
allowed Leopold to acknowledge the complex factors that are involved in the life, death, growth, and decay
of all natural organisms. In A Sand County Almanac, the “citizens of the biotic community” means that
Figure 1.1 Aldo Leopold working on his Wisconsin farm
humans are part of the whole ecosystem, and as a result, our stewardship responsibilities should reflect
this.12
Leopold was the first to write about an ethic dealing with man’s relation to the flora and fauna of
the Earth. Based on the premise that the individual is a member of a community of interdependent parts, he
defines an ethic, ecologically, as “a limitation on freedom of action in the struggle for existence.”13
Compounded with ethical, aesthetic, and scientific values, Leopold developed a “land ethic.” It simply
broadens the boundaries of the community to include soils, waters, plants, and animals that comprise the
“land.” This land ethic changes the role of Homo sapiens from conqueror of the Earth to a citizen of it,
implying respect for the community as a whole14 For Leopold, this multidimensional conservation ethic
9
Black, 46-48
Black, 50
11
Knight and Riedel, x
12
Knight and Riedel, 7
13
Leopold, 202
14
Leopold, 203-4
10
11
can be as broad as human population growth, or species extinction, or as local as pollution in backyards.15
Leaving an impression on the ecological community, Leopold’s ideas are the foundation for present-day
conservation ethics. The benefits of these attitude changes can result in Americans becoming conscientious
stewards of all lands, including national parks, farmlands, wildernesses, and every other ecosystem.
The Conservation Ethic for the Architect
One of the grandfathers of an ecological approach was Ian McHarg. He trained as a planner and a
landscape architect, taking on the role of an ecologist because he viewed all of nature and human activity as
a force that must positively influence the built environment. In Design with Nature, McHarg undertakes
meticulous studies of various environments and ecosystems and studies the effects that man’s interference
has on these locales.16 McHarg views nature as a “process, that it is interacting, that it responds to laws,
representing values and opportunities for human use with certain limitations and even prohibitions to
certain of these.”17 These ideas and studies are directly related to the particular effect that a building has on
a fragile ecosystem.
McHarg produced a study, commissioned by The New York Department of Parks, for Staten
Island to determine its intrinsic suitability for land use and development. He saw value in the rocks of
Manhattan, the Hudson River and its natural harbor, the ocean and beaches, marshes and meadows, and
islands.18 The first problem in the study was to designate which lands would be suitable for conservation,
for active and passive recreation, commercial use, and residential development. Since problems of urban
sprawl were prevalent, this study attempted to show alternatives for the future.
McHarg asserts that natural processes of land, air and water resources are indispensable to life,
constituting social values. Assumptions were also made to ensure the optimum use and enhancement of the
Figure 1.2 Studies by McHarg, wildlife habitats (above)
and existing vegetation (below)
land. For example, flat land with good surface and soil drainage is most suitable for intensive recreation,
15
Knight and Riedel, xi
McHarg, vii
17
McHarg, 7
18
McHarg, 103-104
16
12
while passive recreation is better for land with diverse topography.19 McHarg’s studies on major datageology, hydrology, soils, plant ecology, and wildlife- have revealed how architects can focus their
decisions around the natural forces of the environment.
Ian McHarg has realized that a harmonious relationship between man and flora and fauna must
exist. His values reflect a love for all of nature, and are applicable in terms of architecture and design. In
his “Values, Process, and Form,” from The Fitness of a Man’s Environment, McHarg believes that the
anthropocentric view of man as a supreme being has led to the destruction of nature. He feels that nature
and man must be viewed as an evolutionary process in which there is an intrinsic value system relying upon
the energy, organisms, and natural cycles. The success for the process is the accumulation of ecosystems,
the evolution of consciousness, and all of the processes that comprise creation.20
McHarg believed that the ecological concept of nature as a creative, interactive process in which
man is involved with all other living organisms should determine the role of man in the biosphere. He
writes that the role of man is to understand nature and to intervene to enhance its creative processes.21
However, this also implies a management responsibility for the land’s health, productivity, and beauty.
McHarg feels that society as a whole needs to understand nature as a process:
“But to resolve is not enough; it is also necessary that society at large understand nature as a
process, having values, limiting factors, opportunities, and constraints; that creation and destruction are
real; that there are criteria by which we can discern the direction and tests of evolution; and finally, that
there are formal implications revealed in the environment which affect the nature and form of human
adaptations.”22
With a thorough understanding of nature, it is possible to develop a set of values and ethics that
can serve as a guiding force when designing in fragile ecosystems in order to create harmonious
relationships between man, flora, and fauna.
19
McHarg, 104
Disch, 21
21
Disch, 22-23
22
Disch, 24
20
13
Historical Patterns
Primitive civilizations, such as the hunters and gatherers, imposed on the environment in order to
survive. This life was successful for hundreds of thousands of years, yet it began to change because of
limited resources. Settlements became more permanent and agricultural cultivation brought about changes
for all subsequent social developments. After thousands of years, some inhabitants realized that in order to
prosper as a civilization, they needed to manage the land.
The ancient Egyptians understood that they had to exist in harmony with their natural resources
and ecosystems. As early as 3200 B.C., farmers in Egypt developed irrigation ditches to carry nutrient-rich
water from the Nile to the fields. These methods allowed Egyptians to till the fields without having to
transport water back and forth from the Nile.23 The soil quality and land health was improved, while
Figure 1.3 Present-day farming in Egypt
supporting agriculture in the region. Utilizing values of stewardship, the Egyptians only took what they
needed to survive.
Sometimes, cultures must modify their lifestyles to adapt to changes in the natural environment.
The Anasazi Indians of the southwestern United States, responding to Mesoamerican influences from
Mexico, began to cultivate corns, beans, and squash to complement their hunting and gathering. They had
to improve the growing conditions of fields by terracing, irrigation, and gridding because crops were
subject to failure in arid regions. The hunter and gatherer population moved to temporary campsites near
the food source, while more permanent structures needed to be erected to accommodate increasing
populations and crop yields.24
The comfortable yet efficient shelter for the Anasazi Indians in Pueblo Bonito was built in the 10th
and 11th centuries. Located in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, the site’s natural topography provided shelter
from the cold winds at night and the hot sun during the day.
The Anasazi built a tiered, semi-circular
structure housing over 1200 people. In order to maximize the natural site features, they built underground
Figure 1.4 Pueblo Bonito in Chaco Canyon
ceremonial chambers, kivas, penetrating deep into the wall of the canyon and oriented to the sun’s summer
and winter solstice. These kivas, maintaining a balanced temperature throughout the year, allowed the
23
24
McDonough, 95-96
Anasazi Indians (Accessed 23, March 2004)
14
Anasazi to meet and celebrate their spirituality. 25 A severe drought eventually forced the Anasazi to
abandon their sites, having used the land to survive.
The Anasazi and Egyptian cultures had a definite impact on the environment. At the time,
however, the consequences were unknown. The evolution of civilization has occurred relatively rapidly,
and so has the incessant need for improving technologies. The Industrial Revolution brought about great
inventions that allowed humans to do things faster and better, but neglected the detrimental impact that
Figure 1.5 Ruins in Chaco Canyon
man’s production of modern manufacturing had on the environment. Slowly, the mindset of civilized
societies changed from “use only what you need” to “get as much as you can regardless of how.” With the
development of trade, society viewed the Earth as an object to gain from, without thinking about
consequences for future generations. In today’s society, however, we must be concerned with the impact
that a particular building will have on the environment.
25
Zeiher, 12
15
WITH AND WITHIN NATURE
“When you realize the value of all life, you dwell less on what is past and concentrate on the
preservation of the future.”26-Dian Fossey
After years of patient observation, mountain gorillas in Africa came to know and trust Dian
Fossey. Learning their habits and behaviors, Fossey was able to interact with the gorillas and even play
with their young. This process of knowing animals as individuals, though slow and difficult, exhibits the
ability of man and animal to adapt and coexist in the “wild.”
Natural Selection- A Requirement for Evolution
Figure 2.0 Illustration of Evolution, Origin of Species
In The Origin of Species, Charles Darwin examines the principle of Natural Selection, which he
defined as the process by which each slight variation, if useful to a species, is preserved.27 This concept
relates to the struggle for existence of animal species, resulting from the high rate at which organic beings
tend to increase. Recognizing that the human population had doubled in twenty-five years, Darwin realized
that there is no exception to this rule of natural increase. At that rate, there would be no standing room
after a few thousand years. Another example is the elephant, known to be the slowest breeder of all
animals. Assuming an elephant breeds when it is thirty years old and until its ninety years old, making
three pairs of offspring during this time, there would be fifteen million elephants after 500 years having
descended from that first pair.28
Though natural selection is a slow process for most species, it leads to beautiful and infinitely
complex co-adaptations between all organic beings. The basis for natural selection is the idea that the most
advantageous variations in each species will be preserved. The less favored forms, therefore, will decrease
Figure 2.1 Cactus with the ability to adapt to
variations in climate
26
Dian Fossey (Accessed 31 March, 2004)
Darwin, 115
28
Darwin, 116-117
27
16
and become rare, a precursor to extinction.29 Evolution and extinction are natural occurring processes, and
preventing interaction between human and nature may result in an unnatural imbalance.
According to Lisa Sideris in Environmental Ethics, Ecological Theology, and Natural Selection,
struggle and suffering are integral to evolution by natural selection. The word “suffering,” with variable
meanings in environmental literature, focuses on struggle, conflict, strife, predation, and competition.30
Recognizing that struggle and competition are aspects of evolution, Sideris points out that Darwin argued
for an expanded notion of struggle, including interactions between organisms and abiotic aspects of their
environment. Basically, the ‘struggle’ did not necessarily require individual organisms to engage in direct
battle.31
The processes of evolution tend to be unpredictable and wasteful. Sideris asserts that there may be
no “balance” in nature, no homeostasis to be disrupted even if by the human hand. Organisms “relate” to
one another simply by eating or being eaten. In this interpretation, nature appears to be a complex system
that has difficulty maintaining harmonious relationships with other animals, not just humans.32 Since
humans and flora and fauna comprise this ‘nature’, it is necessary to have interaction between all species.
The success of this coexisting relationship will depend on the ability for man to adapt to the processes of
nature and nature to adapt to man.
Natural Adaptation
Building in fragile ecosystems will inevitably have some impact on the flora, fauna, and natural
surroundings. Each species has the ability to adapt to changes in the built environment just as they do to
changes in climate, seasons, and location. Because some species are limited in their ability to adapt,
however, architects must be careful to control how a building will affect them. With a definite
compatibility between humans and flora and fauna, a building must be viewed as a carefully integrated
29
Darwin, 152-153
Sideris, 6
31
Sideris, 19
32
Sideris, 22
30
17
introduction rather than invasion. The architect must utilize sensitive design measures and understand the
natural forces and animal habits in order to allow the flora and the fauna to adjust to a new entity. Animals
have survived because of this ability to adapt to various situations and environments, but many have also
been eliminated.
In 1962, Rachel Carson realized that man’s civilization did have a direct impact on the natural
environment. Her book, Silent Spring, attempted to save the natural world by revealing the damage of
universally-used deadly pesticides such as DDT. In the earth’s food chains, DDT was found to be toxic to
a large number of life forms.33 With this threatening of the natural habitat, animals like the peregrine
falcon and golden eagle were nearing extinction.
Recognized as one of the most endangered species, the peregrine falcon’s natural habitats were
contaminated with pesticides, such as DDT, resulting in embryonic deaths because of thinned eggshells.
Biologists and researchers came up with an experimental solution for this problem: urban resettlement of
Figure 2.2 Peregrine Falcon in Los Angeles
the peregrine falcon. The falcons’ nesting sites were relocated to ledges of high-rise buildings, ideal
because of the bird’s natural preference for cliffs and mountain peaks. City buildings, resembling the
falcon’s natural habitat, have been able to provide alternatives to the extinction of this species. As a result,
in 1991, the peregrine falcon was removed from the list of endangered species. By 1993, its population
rose to 900 pair.34 Major cities like San Francisco, Boston, and Detroit, participated in this successful
recovery program.
It is not necessary for design to mimic nature in order to fulfill an ecological purpose. In 1953,
spring tides and winter storms led to disastrous flooding of Zeeland, a series of islands subject to high tides.
With 1,835 deaths and 965 square miles of inundated land, the Dutch Delta Works was enacted. It was to
shorten the coastline by 700 kilometers with a system of dams and dikes near the Eastern Scheldt estuary.
Environmentalists and mussel and oyster farmers were outraged. They feared that blocking a unique
marine ecosystem from the North Sea would destroy their livelihood with this separation of freshwater and
seawater, both of which are imperative for mussels and oysters. The Dutch government compromised by
Figure 2.3 Photograph of the Delta Works, designed by
West 8
33
Zeiher, 25
18
allowing tidal movement from the North Sea to the estuary. The solution involved the erection of an
18,000 ton, eight-kilometer long storm-surge barrier with a dam leading out from the coast and pillars with
operable floodgates. Artificial islands and a temporary bridge were constructed to facilitate the movement
of 10,000 workers and materials, including millions of cubic meters of excavated sand. The project, with a
final budget doubling that of the Hoover Dam, was declared complete in 1986 when the barrier became
operational. However, the artificial islands, construction docks, and depots were not dismantled because of
a lack of funds.
In 1990, the Rijkswaterstaat (the Netherlands Department for Roads and Waterways)
commissioned the landscape architecture firm of West 8 to transform the sand depots into artificial dunes
and create a nature preserve with a bird sanctuary for ground-nesting birds. With a reputation for
embracing the built environment, the design philosophy of West 8 seemed to conflict with the artificial
dunes in an entirely man-made landscape. The design approach, aiming to fulfill the needs of both local
wildlife and motorists, revealed a thorough understanding of the Dutch landscape ecology. West 8 first
leveled the sand depots to create designated breeding habitats for seabirds. Alternating bands of white
cockle and black mussel shells, waste products on shellfish farms, were used to recognize the farmers’
efforts. Following the destruction of their natural habitat because of the Delta Works construction, the
native birds of the area- herring gulls, black and white oystercatchers, terns, and kingfishers- have adapted
to the new environment created by West 8. The birds are attracted to the shells that provide the best
camouflage when looking to nest on the site. The dark birds, such as the kingfisher, nest primarily in the
dark mussel shells while lighter birds choose to nest in the cockle shell area. The final product allows for
avian species and humans to coexist because of West 8’s resistance to design the proposed natural sand
dunes.35
With the variations of species comes the difference in adaptations and resilience to the
intervention of man. In terms of the wetlands, it must be realized that some wildlife will inherently have a
similar capacity to adjust to changes in the natural environment. Since the wetlands along the Western
34
Figure 2.4 Delta Works Site Plan, West 8
Stoner, 48
19
Basin of Lake Erie are used by various waterfowl for annual migrations, the species of birds will have to
adapt to man’s intervention. Wildlife may have to go through a stage of adaptation as a result of more
intense human activity. This has been commonplace in today’s society where natural environments,
unfortunately, are being destroyed at alarming rates. It is important to realize that a harmony can exist
between man and nature; it simply requires appropriate responses to the understanding of what makes
certain ecosystems fragile and sensitive.
35
Marton, 54-59
20
THE WETLANDS
“Deep in the interior of these ancient wetlands, protected from intrusion by law or by sheer
inaccessibility, life goes on today much as it did hundreds of years ago. In spring and fall, the marshes are
way stations, offering shelter and food to migrating waterfowl, shorebirds, hawks, and multitudes of
songbirds on their long journeys to and from their northern breeding grounds.”36
Lou Campbell’s sentiments in The Marshes of Southwestern Lake Erie embody the impact that
wetlands can have in a particular region. There exists an inherent beauty and richness in these ecosystems’
biological diversity and ecological processes.
Figure 3.0 Magee Marsh at Sunrise
Early Perceptions
Originally, negative connotations were applied to the term wetland because they were marshy,
swampy places. Society viewed wetlands as obstacles to progress since most were thought to be reservoirs
of disease or havens for monsters and unfit for development.37 The English novelist Charles Dickens,
traveling throughout the United States by steamboat in 1842, saw many wetlands which inspired negative
outbursts. He viewed these ecosystems as swampy, dismal places, teeming with unhealthy vegetation. In
Dickens’ thoughts, they were slimy sites that took advantage of the unwary traveler, worthy of nothing.
Wetlands were also available for the taking during the European settlement of North America, with both
tidal and freshwater marshes providing useful hay and pasture. However, during this three-hundred year
period beginning in the seventeenth century, the pursuit of urban land uses and more intensive agricultural
practices with higher profitability led to continuous destruction of marshes. This destruction was
compounded by the Anglo-American thought that associates wetlands with moral turpitude, social outcasts,
bandits, and renegade Indians.38
Figure 3.1 Swan in cattails
36
Campbell, 2
Hammer, 1
38
Murphy, 135
37
21
Eventually, early colonial Americans began to realize the merit and importance of wetlands.
Henry David Thoreau, with starkly contrasting views than Dickens, showed a love and appreciation of the
wetlands in his first published essay. The “hope and the future” of Thoreau was inherent in swampy
wetlands. He scorned his readers who built front yards, and instead, urged them to “site their homes
instead on the very edge of the swamp.”39
The definition of a wetland can be confusing since the earth’s soils and water supplies can mix in a
variety of ways, blurring the boundaries between exactly what is “wet” and what is “dry.” Wetlands can be
thought of as ecotones, or edges, acting as transition zones between dry land and deep water. They are
neither always wet nor dry but subject to periodic inundation. For this reason, the boundaries for wetlands
are imprecise and seem to change with the seasons and years. The constant variations in wetness, soil, and
vegetation types occurring across the transition band have also made it difficult to pinpoint exactly what a
Figure 3.2 Blue Heron in Yellowstone National Park
wetland is.40 In 1979, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service developed a definition and classification system
to organize all types of wetlands for scientific purposes. It recognizes wetlands as transitions between
terrestrial and aquatic zones, where water is the dominant factor for the biological community and where
the land is covered by shallow water.41
Importance of Wetlands
In the United States, wetlands account for only a very small portion of the total land area, but they
are responsible for harboring an extraordinarily large percentage of wildlife. There are 900 species of
wildlife in the United States that depend on wetland habitats at some stage in their life cycle with an even
greater number of species using wetlands periodically. Most species of avian groups utilize wetland
ecosystems, while one third of North American species rely directly on wetlands for survival. Studies have
estimated wetland ecosystems, of all variations, to contain 190 species of amphibians, 270 species of birds,
and over 5,000 species of plants in the United States alone.42
39
Figure 3.3 American Bald Eagles
Murphy, 137
Hammer, 2
41
Hammer, 4-5
42
Hammer, 13
40
22
One common and desirable characteristic for a wetland is its inherent instability. Wetlands are
naturally dynamic, transitional, and dependent on natural disturbances. The most obvious and significant
of these is periodic inundation and drying. The composition, structure, and distribution of plant species
change simultaneously with water depth, daily, seasonal, and annual influences. Wildlife species also need
wetlands as a source of survival. Zooplankton, worms, insects, crustaceans, reptiles, amphibians, fish,
birds and mammals feed on various plant species, or on one another. Some species become prey for other
species traveling from further away. This feeding cycle shows the importance and influence that wetlands
produce beyond their borders.
Many of the wetlands along coasts, lakeshores, and riverbanks have recently attracted increased
Figure 3.4 Male and female mallard ducks
attention. One reason for this is simple: wetlands play a valuable role in the stabilization of shorelines and
protect them from the erosion caused by tides, waves, storms, and wind. In these cases, the wetland
ecosystems act as natural flood control or buffer zones between wet and dry.
Wetlands can also help to improve water quality. Many people do not realize that wetlands
provide effective, free treatment for many types of water pollution. They effectively discard large amounts
of pollutants from point sources, including municipal and industrial wastewater effluents; nonpoint sources
such as mines, agricultural, and urban runoff; and organic matter consisting of suspended solids, metals,
and excess nutrients. The natural filtration, sedimentation, and other processes help to purify the water of
harmful pollutants. 43 These natural benefits should not be lost through the introduction of man. Instead, a
project should create awareness for the public that the wetland ecosystems are fragile, yet significant for
ecological processes.
Protection of the Wetlands
Public awareness and concern for controlling water pollution led to the enactment of the Federal
Figure 3.5 White-tailed deer
Water Pollution Control Act in 1972. It became known as the Clean Water Act when amended in 1977.
This act established guidelines for regulating discharges of pollutants into waterways in the United States.
43
Hammer, 16
23
It also served other purposes. First, it gave the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) the authority to
enact pollution control programs such as setting wastewater standards. The act also set water quality
standards for all contaminants in surface waters, making it illegal for any person, without obtaining a
permit, to discharge pollutants from a point source into navigable waters.44
In 1985, the Supreme Court gave the United States Corps of Engineers jurisdiction over a broad
range of wetlands in United States v. Riverside Bayview Homes, Inc. Under Section 404 of the Clean
Water Act, this reaches far beyond the navigable waters that the original program had defined, with Section
404 now applying to all adjacent wetlands such as bogs, swamps, and marshes that need not even be
inundated by navigable waters.45 These changes have withstood challenges at every level, including lower
federal court decisions. As a result, Section 404 of the Clean Water Act has become a “wetlands
preservation” statute.46
On May 24, 1977, President Jimmy Carter passed Executive Order 11990 to "minimize the
destruction, loss or degradation of wetlands and to preserve and enhance the natural and beneficial values
of wetlands."47 To do so, the Order requires federal agencies to limit potential damage to wetlands if the
activity cannot be avoided. The Order applies to the planning, regulation, and licensing activities of
wetland use and the acquisition, management, and disposition of federal lands and construction projects
which are undertaken, financed or assisted by federal agencies.
With the passage of the Clean Water Act and Executive Order 11990, it is required that guidelines
must govern certain constructions. Florida has developed construction guidelines for docks and other
minor structures constructed in or over Submerged Aquatic Vegetation (SAV), Marsh or Mangrove
Habitats. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the National Marine Fisheries Service, in 2001, decided
on specific construction techniques that are required when building docks in wetlands. For marshes, it
requires that: the structure is aligned so as to have the smallest over-marsh footprint as practicable; the
44
United States Environmental Protection Agency (Accessed 4 January, 2004)
Mills, Merriam, and Ayars, 34
46
Mills, Merriam, and Ayars, 34
47
Executive Order 11990 (Accessed 4 January, 2004)
45
24
over-marsh portion of the dock shall be elevated to at least 4 feet above the marsh floor; the width of the
dock is limited to a maximum of 4 feet, and any exceptions to the width must be accompanied by an equal
increase in height requirement.48 These guidelines ensure that the wetland ecosystem can continue to thrive
while allowing structures to be constructed.
Construction Innovations
Under the Clean Water Act and stringent regional guidelines, traditional wetland trail construction
techniques that involve grading and filling the wetland are often illegal. Since the public has the right to
access most marshes, architects have developed new construction techniques and materials.
Traditionally, wood has been used for wetland trail construction. However, conventional
Figure 3.6 Juanita Bay boardwalk through seasonally wet
portions of the site
pressure-treated lumber can destroy flora and fauna by leaching toxic chemicals into wetlands. Douglas fir
pressure-treated with ACZA (ammoniacal copper zinc arsenate) proves to be a non-leaching treatment.49
ACZA-treated fir, trade name Chemonite, was used for a boardwalk system in Juanita Bay Park on the
northeast edge of Lake Washington by the landscape architecture firm Jongenan Gerrard McNeal (JGM).
To maintain the finish grade of the boardwalk and avoid filling or grading the site, bigger Douglas-fir logs
were place in low spots and smaller ones in high spots. JGM adapted traditional pile-support techniques in
areas that were too wet for the Douglas fir. In these areas, the trail rests on 4x12 inch wood beams
supported by two-inch diameter steel pipe piles that were chosen to avoid discharging pollutants into the
water. The piles were driven as much as 60 feet into the soft peat soil by a single operator on moveable
scaffolding with an air hammer; this eliminated the need for heavy pile-driving equipment and site repair
after construction. The “battered” piles, alternating left and right for stability, are spaced 25 feet on center.
The use of plastic lumber and other composite building materials eliminate the chemical treatment resulting
in greater lifespans of the trail and protection of natural habitats.50
Bruce Dees & Associates, based in Tacoma, Washington, has experimented with recycled tires in
Figure 3.7 Steel Pipe Pilings with diagonal bracing for
stability
the construction of wetland trails. In the Hood Canal Wetlands Project in Belfair, Washington, the firm
48
49
Dock Construction Guidelines in Florida (Accessed 4 January, 2004)
El-Aidi, 120
25
used tires filled with Styrofoam and sealed with plastic to act as floats to support a boardwalk. The floating
boardwalk, moving up and down with the fluctuating water levels, allows water to move freely across the
site. The boardwalk, preassembled off-site to minimize site disturbance, was installed in leap-frog fashion
with the first section acting as support platform for the dropping the next section into place. In locations
that are both wet and wooded, the boardwalk is supported by “pinned piles.” This method places pressuretreated vertical wood posts four inches deep into wetland soil. Each post is supported with galvanized pipe,
or “pins”, driven through a metal bracket. The pins transfer the load to the supporting soils when they are
forced into close contact with driving slots of the metal brackets. These pins only need to be four to eight
feet long, even in weak and saturated soils.51
The regulations on wetlands propose limits to most architects, but it is important to realize that
Figure 3.8 Boardwalk in Hood Canal Wetlands,
supported by recycled tires
creative design solutions are available. While allowing the life of the marsh to continue, structures can still
be built that respond to these demands.
Genius Loci
Any built form and its relationship between man and nature can affect the Roman concept of
genius loci, or the “spirit of place.” With a human presence, it is the genius, or guardian spirit, that gives
life to people and places, and determines their character.52 Christian Norberg-Schulz was the first to
develop the idea of genius loci, particularly within the natural environment. He believes each ‘natural
place’ in the environment has ‘spirit of place’ regardless of its scale; the common ground is that each of
these is comprised of earth and sky.
According to Norberg-Schulz, the primary components of a meaningful, or “sacred” place, are
rocks, vegetation, and water. Rocks have been given importance by various cultures because of their
strength and permanence. The vegetation is viewed as a manifestation of living reality. The nature of
water is the source of life for all forms. The presence of water gives identity to a particular area. He writes
Figure 3.9 “Pinned Piles” system
50
51
El Aidi, 120-121
El Aidi, 121-122
26
that in the biblical story of the Great Flood, the deluge over forty days and forty nights represents a “loss of
place.” Mircea Eliade wrote: “The most primitive of the ‘sacred places’ we know of constituted a
microcosm: a landscape of stones, water and trees.” He points out, however, that these places were simply
discovered, not chosen, by man. 53
This spirit of natural place has a direct relationship to how building in fragile areas will affect
sensitive ecosystems and lifecycles already present on the site. The wetlands located near the Western
Basin of Lake Erie in Magee Marsh contain a spirit of their own. Comprised of the primary components of
“sacred” place discussed by Norberg-Schulz, this site contains an earthen dike constructed from rocks,
freshwater marshes, rich vegetation and borders Lake Erie. The naturally occurring activities of the life
cycles of the flora and the annual migration habits of the fauna bring to it a spiritual quality. Hence,
Figure 3.10 Shoreline between Lake Erie and Magee
Marsh
everything that is involved with architectural expression, from the arrival to the departure, should enhance
the spirit and experience for both man and the ecosystem.
The Jonas Salk Institute for Biological Studies near La Jolla, California was built by Louis I. Kahn
in 1965 and is one example of how a building can enhance the spirit of place. Kahn’s interest in the space
between buildings is prominent in its axial composition. 54 The approach is indirect and through a ‘filter’ of
trees. The central gate has steps leading up to the exterior courtyard. Here, the eye focuses on the infinity
of the Pacific Ocean horizon as it is framed by the laboratory spaces. A thin line of water draws the sky
and light down into the space, creating shadows that are almost tangible. 55 While retaining the natural
spirit of place, Kahn has produced a building that has succeeded in evoking a deep, emotional response
from its visitors.
Figure 3.11 Courtyard of Salk Institute
52
Norberg-Schulz, 17
Norberg-Schulz, 27
54
Curtis, 521
55
Curtis, 521-522
53
27
ECOTOURISM
“Travel can mean a lot more than a leisure activity. It might form part of a broader philosophical
reflection relating to the self and nature. It might involve trying to find answers to many of the problems
experienced when living in a westernized, industrialized country.”56
This quote on the Ladakh Farms Project in India embodies the underlying theme of ecotourism. It
attempts to become a ‘New Moral Tourism’ by supporting the rural, ‘sustainable’ lifestyles. Ecotourism
also seeks to enlighten and educate the tourist during the experience, while exhibiting a love for nature in
every respect. 57
Characteristics of Ecotourism
Ecotourism is less than fifteen years old but gaining popularity in today’s market. It is an
adventure excursion in which participants are able to learn about nature and various cultures, while still
being able to enjoy a vacation. Despite being relatively young, its impacts and effects have been
significant.
The editor of the United States based Specialty Travel Index reports that travel to sites outside of
the United States makes up about 3% to 5% of total tourism. Ecotourism, with its increasing popularity, is
Figure 4.0 Headlines for ecotourism resorts in thirdworld countries
responsible for more than half of that percentage. Most ecotourists, being from Europe, North America,
and Japan, have an abundance of wealth and leisure time compared to the inhabitants of developing
countries where most ecotours occur. In the United States, ecotourists, of either sex, are typically
professional or retired between the ages of 31 and 50 and have previous experience traveling abroad. Also,
about 1/3 of all ecotourists are repeat customers.58 Ecotourism and its market niche are geared towards the
affluent social class, resulting in a very exclusive, yet alluring vacation. This “elitist” market segment has
led to the scattering of ecotourism resorts throughout the world. It is important to realize that if this market
is broadened, more people will have the opportunity to learn about the natural environment.
56
Butcher, 29
Butcher, 29-30
58
Whelan, 5
57
28
An area of concern is that constant activity and adventure has imposed on some of the most
beautiful third-world landscapes. However, this impact can be minimized so that these once-beautiful
ecosystems remain intact. The severe increase in the number of ecotourists has also overloaded fragile
environments. The number of visitors to Nepal, for example, has risen from 45,000 in 1970 to 223,000 in
1986 while the trekkers rose from 12,600 to 33,600. While providing numerous jobs and income for the
residents of Nepal, the result was the building of more than 200 mountain lodges and the clearing of large
areas in order to supply firewood for lodges and trekkers.59 In each case, the benefits of ecotourism must
be weighed against the consequences in order to determine appropriate building decisions.
Figure 4.1 Sabi Sabi Ecolodge near Kruger National
Park, South Africa
Ecotourism has also run into difficulties with the local cultures and economies. One of the biggest
shortcomings of ecotourism is lack of involvement for the locals in the planning process or implementation
when they are forced off lands that were traditionally theirs. The economic aspect must be analyzed so as
to get the maximum benefit for the local community. Rarely, are all of the ecotourism profits seen by the
local community. For example, only $0.07 per $1.00 of a trekker in Nepal is actually part of the village’s
income.60 This thesis project, sited in a naturally occurring wetland where no natives must be displaced,
will be able to reinvest its profits towards further research and education for the visitors.
A unique aspect of ecotourism is the fair amount of learning involved. This usually takes place
through observation of the surrounding environment, and does not require a high academic caliber.
Sometimes the visitors simply experience ecotourism with flimsy pamphlets as proof of education.61
Because the educational element should play a primary role, this learning experience needs to be enhanced
and made more interactive in order for ecotourism to achieve its highest potential.
59
Whelan, 12
Whelan, 9
61
Mowforth, 103
60
29
Guiding Principles in Architecture
Ecotourism attempts to be a more ethical form of tourism, focusing on relatively undisturbed areas
so the visitors can appreciate the scenery and wildlife, assist in environmental preservation and develop an
environmental conscience. Hector Ceballos-Lascurain, who first coined the term ecotourism, also
describes it as a mean of developing an eco-consciousness in order educate tourists and hosts to lead better
lives, more in harmony with nature.62 The notion of ecotourism implies having a minimal impact on the
environment while visitors explore and learn about the nature and wildlife of the particular area. As a
result, most of the facilities and lodges for ecotourism resorts are made with a bare minimum of aesthetic
value.
Regardless of the ecotourism destination, the “eco” always implies a relation between the tourist
and the environment. However, not all interpretations of ecotourism imply the protection or intelligent use
of natural resources.63 The ecotourists are more geared towards the outdoor experience rather than the
buildings, but there is still an opportunity to enhance the whole package through design, from arrival until
departure. Even buildings can become part of the educational experience by exposing visitors to ideas
Figure 4.2 National Park Tourism Model
about natural resources and designing to ‘fit in’ with the environment rather than ‘standing apart’ from it.
With the fragility of such a sensitive ecosystem as a wetland, it is necessary to develop a design
approach for ecotourism to enhance the relationship between man, flora, and fauna. In an attempt to
minimize the impact on natural resources, destinations tend to locate most major tourist services along the
edge of a park rather than within it. In Tourism Planning, Clare Gunn developed a model for these
functions to be planned and incorporated into ecotourism destinations and protected preserves.64 Pamela
Wight has also developed the following design principles for ecotourism:65
•
•
It should not degrade the resource; it must be environmentally sensitive
It should provide hands-on, enlightening learning experiences
62
Butcher, 28
Gunn, 89
64
Gunn, 90
65
Gunn, 89
63
30
•
•
•
•
•
•
It should be educational for everyone involved-locals, government, non-governmental
organizations, industry, and tourists
It should incorporate and relay the core values of the natural resource
It should involve the acceptance of the resource as its own entity, and realize its limits
It should promote understanding and teamwork between all parties involved-government, nongovernmental organizations, and locals
It should develop and promote moral and ethical responsibility and behavior
It should provide long-term benefits to the resource
Defining the Destination
Within the United States, ecotourism is gaining popularity. In 1989, there were over 265 million
recreational visits to the national parks. This includes both domestic and foreign ecotourists. These
visitors have been a great source of income for the states. Wyoming, home to a majority of Yellowstone
National Park, estimates revenue of nearly $1 billion annually from visitors.66 Ecotourism, proven to be
effective in the United States, has the capacity to expand beyond the national park systems with proper
planning and execution.
Tourism planning, when dealing with sensitive natural environments, must be carefully integrated
Figure 4.3 Eco-destination diagram showing intended
areas of use
at every level, from regional to site-specific. The destination zone, according to Gunn, is comprised of the
functional and spatial elements of access, gateway, attraction complexes, communities, and linkages
between these.
The attraction complexes provide the visitor with activities. Using the term complex implies value
in clustering similar attractions together, either physically or by tour. These attraction complexes may be
located within a city, nearby, or in a remote area such as a national park. Linkage corridors bridge the gap
between city and attraction complexes. Providing a visual prelude to the attraction, these provide the tourist
with interesting explorations of the background and characteristics of the ecosystem being traversed.67 A
66
67
Whelan, 6-7
Gunn, 223
31
careful utilization of land resources as well as consideration for the visitor’s desires and needs is of utmost
importance.
Destination zones cannot function without one or more cities, or communities. The cities tend to
be the terminus for all modes of transportation. Offering the greatest financial feasibility, cities may
contain basic infrastructure that would be costly to develop at a remote location. It is also important to
assure easy access for outside visitors, including easily navigable signage. The information centers, or
gateways, should be celebrated off the main access and provide maps, brochures, and personal guidance.68
68
Gunn, 223-224
32
PROGRAM
Goals of the Program
With fragile ecosystems such as Magee Marsh and the Lake Erie, the impact of building must be
of utmost importance. The programmatic functions of the design project will include: an ecological
research laboratory for the wetland and lake ecosystems, a learning center for children, a nature museum
for public use, and lodging facilities. These functions will be integrated with one another in a manner that
enhances learning opportunities for the users. At the same time, the building program must be carefully
organized to allow minimal impact. The users should encompass all age groups, ethnicities, and religions,
with common interest focusing around a love of nature and education.
Besides the actual facility, the methods of arrival and departure must be carefully configured in
order not to damage the inherent beauty and natural structures of the site. The departure from either
facility, though differing from the path of entry, will be equal in magnitude in terms of its enhancement of
the experience of the environments.
The facility aims to provide an enchanting experience while ensuring the fragility of the
landscape. The design should allow the visitor to fully experience and discover the site while traveling
around the periphery of the wetlands. There will be places for the visitors to stop alongside the road to
further their knowledge about the lake and wetland ecosystems. During all seasons, visitors may observe
the various waterfowl and wildlife that are prevalent in the marsh. Even if they are unable to see any
wildlife, the arrival sequence will build anticipation for the final destination, whether it is the laboratory or
lodging facility. With the separation of functions between learning and living, a dialogue between the two
building masses is created.
The facility, inherently, should reflect a certain spirituality and sensuality that will draw visitors to
it and embed them with an appreciation of the grandeur of nature.
33
Program Requirements
ECO-RESEARCH LABORATORIES
These areas are geared towards research for waterfowl, wetland mammals, endangered wetland
species, and Lake Erie flora and fauna. Some of the activities include monitoring the Bald Eagle nests,
reintroductions of the Trumpeter Swan and Osprey, and identifying and testing biological agents for Purple
Loosestrife that has displaced native wetland vegetation such as cattails and provides no value to the flora
and fauna of wetlands. These investigations are usually accomplished through aerial nest and wildlife
surveys, the marking of individual animals, and the interpretation of this data. The laboratories will require
a large amount of sensitive equipment. Users will be ecologists, biologists, and other researchers whose
foci are mainly in the field of wetlands and lake geomorphology. Though some of the experiments will
require absolutely sterile conditions, it would maximize the tourists’ experience if they are able to
experience at least some portion of these laboratory spaces. Natural light is required for the lab spaces, but
special consideration should be given so that sunlight does not have a negative impact on the productivity
of the researchers.
Offices, for both the researchers and staff, are required. The administrative staff, consisting of one
or two assistants, could share the same space because of the similar nature of their duties. There will be an
Figure 5.0 Purple Loosestrife in Magee Marsh
office for the information technology. This should be a more secure office because of the supplies and
equipment that will be present. The offices for the researchers will also be private, but capable of being
manipulated depending on each researcher’s specialty. Each of these offices should have a source of
natural light and views towards the wetlands or Lake Erie. Being more academic and private in nature,
these offices should all be located away from the public circulation corridors.
A conference room will be used for meetings and presentations by the researchers on a constant
basis. Its size will be adequate for seating 8-10 people and be equipped with state-of-the-art technology.
This will include a projection screen, video and data ports, and independent climate control. Natural light
is required, and as a result, some type of operable shade will be present in order to control the amount of
light that enters the conference room.
34
Open Lab Space
Floor Area: 3,000 ft2
Activities: Research of wetland and lake ecosystems and wildlife
Occupants: Ecologists and biologists/ visitors during restricted times
Space Adjacency: Must have a direct association with the fume hood room, isolated clean lab space,
equipment room and be located near the offices
Safety & Security: Restricted access is required; researchers and maintenance are only groups with fulltime access
Design Qualities: Open-plan to promote interaction and comfortable atmosphere; visual access to the
wetlands and lake would be optimal. Visual access with classrooms allows for interaction between
children and researchers.
Behavioral Qualities: There will be an attempt to make these labs feel less “sterile” than typical labs
Acoustics: Should be acoustically separated from other areas in order to provide quiet working area
Illumination: Electric lighting will complement natural light
Heating/Cooling/ Ventilation: Because of the nature of the research with animals and plants, these labs will
require independent climate control and ventilation systems
Furniture & Equipment: Lab tables, refrigerators/freezer space/ultra cold freezer,
freeze dryer, fume hoods, seating for 4-6 researchers
Special Needs: Sprinkler systems and emergency stations will be installed in case of accidents
Isolated Clean Lab Space
Floor Area: 200 ft2
Activities: Research of wetland and lake ecosystems and wildlife
Occupants: Ecologists and biologists
Space Adjacency: Must have a direct association with the fume hood room, open lab space, equipment
room and be located near the offices
35
Safety & Security: Restricted access is required; researchers and maintenance are only groups with fulltime access
Design Qualities: Visual access to the wetlands and lake would be optimal
Behavioral Qualities: There will be an attempt to make this space feel less “sterile” than typical labs
Acoustics: Should be acoustically separated from other areas in order to provide quiet working area
Illumination: Electric lighting will complement natural light
Heating/Cooling/ Ventilation: Because of the nature of the research with animals and plants, this lab will
require independent climate control and ventilation systems
Furniture & Equipment: Lab table, lab equipment, and seating for 1-2 researchers at a time
Special Needs: Sprinkler systems and emergency stations will be installed in case of accidents
Offices
Floor Area: 100 ft2 each
Activities: Private study of wetland and lake ecosystems and wildlife, secretarial duties, information
technology study
Occupants: Ecologists and biologists/administrative staff/IT representative
Space Adjacency: Should be located near the laboratory space but off of the public circulation corridor
Safety & Security: Restricted access to researcher offices
Design Qualities: Flexible; visual access to the wetlands and lake would be optimal
Behavioral Qualities: Studious environment is required
Acoustics: Should be acoustically separated from other areas in order to provide quiet working area
Illumination: Electric lighting will complement natural light
Heating/Cooling/ Ventilation: The HVAC will part of the central system
Furniture & Equipment: Desk, chairs, computers, shelving
Special Needs: Data ports, LAN connections, phone lines
Conference Room
Floor Area: 200 ft2
36
Activities: Presentations
Occupants: Ecologists and biologists/administrative staff
Space Adjacency: Located near labs and offices
Safety & Security: N/A
Design Qualities: Promotes interaction and thought processes
Behavioral Qualities: Welcoming for morning meetings, outside researchers, and presentations
Acoustics: Should be acoustically separated from other areas in order to provide quiet space
Illumination: Electric lighting will complement natural light
Heating/Cooling/ Ventilation: The HVAC will part of the central system
Furniture & Equipment: Conference table, seating, projection screen, data ports, operable shades, climate
control
Special Needs: Must be flexible
CLASSROOMS
The classrooms will be the primary educational tool for the students who come to visit. The time
spent in the classroom will allow the children to learn about the importance of wetlands and lakes, and how
they function in the grand scheme of nature. The classrooms should provide places to do hands-on
activities and exercises in order to make the learning fun. Hopefully, the results will be the early
development of an ecological conscience.
Classroom (4)
Floor Area: 600 ft2
Activities: Lectures, Group Activities, Presentations
Occupants: Students (primarily elementary school)/ecologists and biologists
Space Adjacency: Located near labs and offices
Safety & Security: N/A
Design Qualities: Sightlines to the front of the room should be unobstructed, adequate room to walk
around and perform group activities. Visual access to the laboratories is desirable.
37
Behavioral Qualities: Should provide a comfortable learning environment
Acoustics: Should be acoustically separated from other classrooms
Illumination: Electric lighting will complement natural light
Heating/Cooling/ Ventilation: The HVAC will part of the central system, operable windows
Furniture & Equipment: Seating for up to 30 students, projection screen, data ports, operable shades,
climate control
Special Needs: Must be flexible
NATURE MUSEUM
This serves as an attraction for the ecotourists and locals who are nature-oriented. The display
will consist of the history of Magee Marsh along with species of all of the wildlife present in the wetlands
and Lake Erie. This will also help educate the visitors about each of the ecosystems. These displays will
show the benefits of the ongoing research at the facility, changing as new developments are encountered.
This museum will require the ability to house an aquarium display featuring some of the fishes of Lake Erie
along with a wetland environment showing the various species of plants and animals. Because of the live
animals that will be in the displays, this area will require special ventilation requirements and different
climatic zones as well.
In order for visitors to enhance their learning experience at this facility, there will also be a
presentation room. This will be used to show videos about the Magee Marsh and Lake Erie during the past,
present, and future. Similar to a movie theater, no natural light will be required in this space, but there
should definitely be an independent, variable lighting system for this presentation room.
Museum Display
Floor Area: 2000 ft2
Activities: Walkthroughs by visitors, guided tours
Occupants: Mainly for use of the visitors
Space Adjacency: Should be centrally located for easy access for visitors and researchers
38
Safety & Security: N/A
Design Qualities: Wildlife and aquarium exhibits offer clear understanding of ecosystems
Behavioral Qualities: Informational yet enjoyable
Acoustics: Should be acoustically appropriate so as not to disturb exhibits
Illumination: Electric lighting will complement natural light as needed
Heating/Cooling/ Ventilation: Because of the nature of the research with animals and plants, the displays
will require independent climate control and ventilation systems
Furniture & Equipment: Limited seating, filters for aquariums and wetland displays
Special Needs: N/A
Presentation Room
Floor Area: 1,200 ft2
Activities: Movies, Presentations for visitors
Occupants: Mainly visitors
Space Adjacency: Located near Museum Display
Safety & Security: N/A
Design Qualities: Stadium seating to maximize views, movie-theater style
Behavioral Qualities: Fun-filled atmosphere where visitors can learn about Magee Marsh and Lake Erie
Acoustics: Should be acoustically separated from other areas in order to minimize noise to other areas of
the facility
Illumination: Variable lighting control, no natural light required
Heating/Cooling/ Ventilation: The HVAC will be part of the central system
Furniture & Equipment: Projection screen, digital projector
Special Needs: N/A
39
Cafe
Floor Area: 500 ft2
Activities: Gathering space offering refreshments and light menu for visitors and employees
Occupants: Ecotourists/schoolchildren/researchers
Space Adjacency: Located near Museum Display
Safety & Security: N/A
Design Qualities: Space should offering panoramic views of site from observation decks both inside and
outside
Behavioral Qualities: Should offer the researchers an escape from the academia and allow visitors to
become ‘part’ of nature
Acoustics: Should be acoustically separated from other areas in order to minimize noise to other areas of
the facility
Illumination: Variable lighting control, natural light required
Heating/Cooling/ Ventilation: The HVAC will be part of the central system
Furniture & Equipment: Café tables, chairs, waste collection
Special Needs: Storage/kitchen area
LODGING FACLITIES
The requirements for ecotourism lodges are usually at the bare minimum of survival; however,
since the site has at least been touched by human activity before, there should be adequate infrastructure to
accommodate a motel for a large number of visitors, children and adults. There will be sixteen separate
rooms provided for the ecotourists, with the flexibility to accommodate families and single visitors, similar
to a motel. There will also be sixteen units to provide lodging for students who stay overnight. Since the
visitors are mainly birdwatchers and nature lovers, each room will require views out towards the wetlands
and/or to the lake.
Individual Units (32):
Floor Area: 400 ft2 each
40
Activities: Overnight lodging and gathering
Occupants: Visitors for the ecotours/ schoolchildren
Space Adjacency: Each unit should be located near the café
Safety & Security: Key card entry, changed nightly
Design Qualities: Standard layout with views towards the outside
Behavioral Qualities: Should enhance experience, regardless of weather, even while being indoors
Acoustics: Should be acoustically separated from one another in order to ensure privacy
Illumination: Electric lighting will complement natural light
Heating/Cooling/ Ventilation: The HVAC will be part of the central system
Furniture & Equipment: Beds, dressers, table, television, full bathroom
Special Needs: Non-smoking for all units
41
Complete Program Requirements
Quantity
Gross SF
1
1
1
2
10
1
2
3,000 ft2
200 ft2
200 ft2
600 ft2
1,000 ft2
200 ft2
140 ft2
5,340 ft2
Classroom
4
2.400 ft2
Museum Display
Café
Presentation Room
Control Room
Storage
Storage
Total
1
1
1
1
1
1
2,000 ft2
500 ft2
1200 ft2
250 ft2
750 ft2
750 ft2
5,450 ft2
Individual Units
Check-In
Laundry
Storage
Employee Lounge
Lobby
Total
32
1
1
1
1
1
12,800 ft2
150 ft2
150 ft2
200 ft2
150 ft2
400 ft2
13,850 ft2
Observation Deck
Parking (50 spaces)
Loading Dock
Waste Removal
Total
Plus 15% efficiency
Plus 10% efficiency
1
1
1
1
400 ft2
17,500ft2
250 ft2
150 ft2
18,300 ft2
6,801 ft2
4,534 ft2
Eco-Research Labs
Open Lab Space
Isolated Clean Lab Space
Fume Hood Room
Equipment Room
Offices
Conference Room
Restrooms
Total
Classrooms
Nature Museum
Lodging Facilities
Miscellaneous
Total Square Footage
56,675 ft2
42
Program Precedents
This thesis project aims to unify the aims of research and tourism. Since the ecotourism market
has been increasing in popularity and is relatively new, there are only a small number of legitimate
exemplary projects that incorporate both research and lodging.
It seems that ecotourism is deeply rooted in, and has a strong connection with, the early lodges of
the National Parks in the United States. With the extension of railroads such as the Northern Pacific came
profits for the promotion of package "coupon" tours of Yellowstone. The 5-day tour, costing $40 in the
early 1900s, would take the “couponers” by horse-drawn stagecoaches to Mammoth Hot Springs.
Figure 5.1 Old Faithful Inn, Yellowstone National Park
However, a majority of these guests wanted to spend more time in Upper Geyser Basin, near Old Faithful.
Under pressure from the affluent customers, the Yellowstone Park Association, with loans from the
Northern Pacific Railroad, hired an architect named Robert Reamer in 1902 to design and build the Old
Faithful Inn as an answer to the customers’ request. Each of the guest rooms was slightly different in size
and shape, unique in its own design. Some of the rooms, even when dark, resembled the rustic old-west
atmosphere.69
There is one project that seems to have been successful in ecotourism while minimizing its impact
on the natural environment. Rara Avis, in Costa Rica, contains a rustic lodge, a modern lodge, and a
biological station. It is located in Braulio Carrillo National Park and the Zona Protectora La Selva. There
are various types of lodging at Rara Avis, allowing the tourist to choose the level of “authenticity” that
he/she wishes to experience. The rustic Waterfall Lodge has eight rooms, each with a private bath. The
bare necessities are provided here with the choice of double beds, bunkbeds, or loft beds. The maximum
occupancy for this lodge is 28, at quadruple occupancy. Albergue El Plastico, formerly a jungle prison
colony, has been restored with is traditional layout and architectural features. Bunkbeds, flush toilets and
shared showers have been added, along with kerosene refrigeration and lighting, and radio communication.
There is a 30 person limit for these seven rooms. This lodge also has a separate classroom, with one large
Figure 5.2 Rara Avis Hotel, Costa Rica
open room, that is mainly used by biologists and students. The final and plusher lodge is La Cabina. It
houses two bedrooms and two bathrooms with hot water and solar-powered electric lights. Rara Avis also
43
has an extensive series of trails throughout the Costa Rican rainforest, with hiking levels suitable for all
abilities.70
Another example would be the research site of La Selva Biological Field Station located near
Puerto Viejo in Sarapiquí, Costa Rica. The program for La Selva, “the jungle” in Spanish, is fairly stripped
down. There are modern barracks, a few housing cabins, a dining room, and a laundry room. Each room is
equipped with the basic necessities of bunk beds, bathrooms, running water, and electricity.71 The facilities
include the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Figure 5.3 La Selva Biological Station
•
•
•
•
•
24- hour line power with generator backup (110/220v, 60 cycle)
Air-conditioned work spaces, including 9 double occupancy offices
Screened work space with running water
(6) -4x10 meter shade houses
One screened seminar/course room (space for 60 people)
A library containing a collection of reprints of La Selva-related publications, floras of
Costa Rica, Barro Colorado Island, Panamá, Guatemala, and Río Palenque, basic
biological and statistical references; and a small but highly pertinent collection of books
related to rain forest and tropical biology.
GIS (Geographic Information System) laboratory
Wood/metal/electronic shop
50 kilometers of footpaths
5.2 kilometer paved bicycle path providing access to western portion of property
Public-use bicycle and cargo bike, and covered bicycle parking area72
A more contemporary project, focused more on the ecological research aspect, is the Marine
Resources Center, in Woods Holes, Massachusetts, designed by Tsoi/Kobus & Associates, Inc. The facility
itself is located along the water of Eel Pond, a safe harbor in the historic fishing village of Woods Hole
Figure 5.4 Marine Resources Center
where new architecture is not exactly welcomed. The program goal of this laboratory was to provide highquality marine specimens, such as shark, squid, and crab, for research purposes.73 With a large amount of
69
Old Faithful Inn (Accessed 25 November, 2003)
Rara Avis (Accessed 25 November, 2003)
71
Whelan, 51
72
La Selva Biological Station (Accessed on 23 November, 2003)
73
Linn, 90-91
70
44
live animal captivity, the whole ground floor is pretty much dedicated to animal holding. The conference
rooms, offices, and administrative areas are located on the third floor. This exemplifies a vertical
differentiation in program.
With a similar program to the ecological research laboratory is The Woods Hole Research Center
Ordway Campus, which is located in Woods Hole, Massachusetts. Its purpose is to provide research
facility for researchers who study forests and global carbon and nitrogen cycles to determine the effects of
deforestation and human activities on the environment. The new facility, conceived by William
McDonough and Partners, is a good example of the union between modern construction techniques and its
Figure 5.5 Woods Hole Research Center, Ordway
Campus
surrounding environment.
The main programmatic functions that were required were offices, a research laboratory, and
common meeting spaces. In total, McDonough and Partners completed this project through a 7,500 square
feet renovation and a new addition of 12,500 square feet. The 17-room Victorian summer home, “Hilltop”,
will provide a central location for the center’s scientific, policy, and administrative staffs. The prominent
design elements include a two-story “Commons” providing the user with panoramic views and a 100person conference area that utilizes the northern light on the lower level. McDonough and Partners’
design, from its systems, site location, and orientation, drew upon the natural energy flows of the sun, earth,
Figure 5.6 Thomas J. Watson Research Center, floor plan
and wind. At the same time, climatic design strategies have drastically reduced the building’s energy
consumption, up to 60% below energy code.74
The IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center by Eero Saarinen was completed in 1961 in
Yorktown, New York. His goal was to produce a facility with the most efficient and flexible laboratory
and research spaces of the twentieth-century. The laboratories, placed back to back, are separated by a
laboratory utility core. Similarly, the research offices are divided by a specially designed modular storage
system in the walls between them. In an attempt to maximize natural light and ventilation, the north
corridor is constructed totally of glass while the south corridor is made of glass and stone. There are many
human and economic advantages of the program. It provides the desired concentration, privacy, flexibility,
Figure 5.7 View down north corridor of Thomas J.
Watson Research Center
74
William McDonough and Partners (Accessed 28, September, 2003)
45
and easy communication line while saving laboratory utility costs. The reduction of outside walls led to
reduced overall cost. The floor-to-ceiling glazing offers unobstructed views of the beautiful landscape and
a relaxing encounter with nature for those leaving the laboratories and offices.75
The Arizona Sonora Desert Museum, in Tucson, Arizona was completed by Line and Space
Architects. The museum’s mission is to “teach not only the wonders of biological complexity and
diversity; but the meaning of good desert citizenship. Architecture can help convey this message.” 76 The
architecture of the museum responds to cultural influences such as the “masterful geometry of Pueblo
Bonito, the power of Palenque, and the early settlers’ use of "A" Mountain Basalt.”77 The 20,000 square
Figure 5.8 Site Plan of Arizona Sonora Desert Museum
foot museum also uses environmentally-sensitive ideas such as recycling, micro-climatically tempered
outdoor dining areas, and grey water harvesting to achieve a symbiotic relationship between building and
the land.
The museum collection itself consists of 2,744 animal taxa, 1,217 plant taxa, and 14,482 rock and
mineral specimens. More than 175 of the plant and animal specimens are of conservation concern in the
Sonora Desert. As a result, the museum programs revolve heavily around educating the visitor. The
programs include photography classes, lectures, galas, and self-guided tours. There are also sessions that
use live animals, museum artifacts, and interactive demonstrations to educate schoolchildren from
kindergarten to the high school level.78
Figure 5.9 View from café in Arizona Sonora Desert
Museum
75
Saarinen, 70
Line and Space Architects (Accessed 31 March, 2004)
77
Line and Space Architects (Accessed 31 March, 2004)
78
Arizona Sonora Desert Museum (Accessed 31 March, 2004)
76
46
SITE
Documentation
The site is on the north shore of Magee Marsh, along the Western Basin of Lake Erie. It is located
along State Route 2 in Oak Harbor, OH. Magee Marsh, in Crane Creek State Park, is 25 miles East of
Toledo and 17 miles West of Port Clinton. This area covers 2000 acres and is made up of wetlands that are
abundant in animal and plant life. The wetlands support more species of plant and animal life than any
other habitat.
Wetland destruction is the second leading cause of wildlife endangerment in the state of Ohio. Of
the 129 species of wildlife on Ohio’s endangered list, over 60% of these are found in the wetlands. Over
30% of Ohio’s endangered birds, including the bald eagle, common tern, and sandhill crane are all wetland
dependent. Although wetlands only make up about two percent of Ohio’s landscape, they have the inherent
ability to help the environment. Acting as “natural sponges,” they can absorb excess water from heavy
Figure 6.0 Aerial image of Western Basin of Lake Erie
rains and spring runoff. As a result, the wetlands can control and prevent floods and erosion by storing this
excess water and allowing it to slowly permeate the ground or evaporate. These wetlands also filter out
certain nutrients and harmful sediments from agricultural, residential, and roadway runoff. The wetland
foliage and microorganisms can then break down these harmful substances into nontoxic elements.79
Opportunities exist in the fact that the site is adjacent to two unique, yet fragile ecosystems-Lake
Erie and Magee Marsh wetlands. Some advantages of the wetlands involve recreation such as walking
trails for bird watchers, waterfowl migrations, and beach trails. Towards the lake, activities include
swimming, picnicking, boating, fishing, and snowmobiling during the winter months.
Lake Erie is not the smallest Great Lake in terms of area, but it has the least volume with a mean
depth of 58 feet. This shallowness has led to problems of overfertilization. This overfertilzation results
from the deoxygenation of the hypolimnion, the cold, deep layer of a shallow lake. Under normal
conditions, the bottom mud is covered by a thin layer of insoluble iron in the state of ferric hydroxide. This
Figure 6.1 Lake Erie Shore with Davis Besse Nuclear
Power Plant in Background
47
absorbs much of the phosphorus from the water and prevents the exchange of nutrients from the mud to the
water because of its insolubility. In Lake Erie, the abundance of pollution stimulates algal blooms that
decompose and deoxygenate the lake bottom. Nutrient-rich mud is exposed and allows for nutrient
exchanges with the water. The result is the production of even more algal blooms, decomposing to the lake
bottom, and continuing the vicious cycle.80
Bordering industrial cities such as Erie, Buffalo, Cleveland, Toledo, and Detroit, Lake Erie
receives large amounts of both treated and raw sewage that can be detrimental to the ecosystems around it.
The fauna in Lake Erie have experienced a drastic decline as a result. The 1920s were prosperous for
fishing, with an annual amount of about 50 million pounds of cisco, whitefish, pike, and sturgeon. By
1965, this number was down to just 1000 pounds.81
The Magee Marsh is one of the best locations in the Midwest to watch the spring migration of
Figure 6.2 Red-tailed Hawk
warblers and songbirds, especially from the boardwalk bird trail. Birdwatchers, from late April through
May, travel from many miles to observe over 150 species of songbirds. Some of these species include
wrens, vireos, flycatchers, tanagers, and orioles. As the warblers fly north, over 38 species provide a
spectacle for those who are in Magee Marsh. The attraction for the birds is the remnant beach ridge that
provides an abundant food source and shelter.
The events that take place in Magee Marsh are heavily dependent on the cycles of the seasons.
For example, a visitor in March may find a flock of tundra swans in flight and, of course, hear the calls of
the many geese. Bald eagles, whose nests in the area are monitored, can also be seen at certain times. On
rare occasions, some of the fortunate visitors may hear the clarion call of a sandhill crane or see the air
ballet of the peregrine falcon as it plunges towards the earth at 175 miles per hour.82
The most prominent species of wildlife are the waterfowl because the site is situated at the
intersection of two major flyways, in which birds migrate to and from the Atlantic Coast and Mississippi
Figure 6.3 Great Bur Reed
79
Ohio Department of Natural Resources, 5
Wagner, 395-396
81
Wagner, 393
82
Ohio Department of Natural Resources, 11-12
80
48
Delta. Twenty-nine species of ducks and four species of geese can be observed. Besides the spring
migration of ducks, geese, and coots, the hunting season brings mallards, wood ducks, trumpeter swans,
and Canada geese to Magee Marsh. The open water and water grain help retain a winter population of
waterfowl. During the warmer season, there are many species of marsh birds. These include herons,
egrets, bitterns, rails, gallinules, coots, and a few ibis and white pelicans. Simultaneously, there are
shorebirds present that add to the magic with their dynamic flight patterns and unique calls. The birds of
prey such as bald eagles, ospreys, peregrine falcons, and great horned owls make up a small population of
the species. The winter may also bring short-eared owls and Northern harriers to Magee Marsh along with
sandhill cranes being spotted throughout the year. An amazing 307 species of birds have been seen at
Figure 6.4 Muskrat in Magee Marsh
Magee Marsh, with 143 of these nesting in the wetlands. Besides all of the species of birds, there are also
many species of mammals that are present in Magee Marsh. These include the muskrat, minks, raccoons,
coyote, skunks, opossums, foxes, woodchucks, cottontail rabbits, and fox squirrels. The white-tailed deer
are plentiful during the winter months as well.83 All of these characteristics of Magee Marsh, from its early
history to its current animal fauna and flora, result in it being a tourist destination for over 70,000 people
per year.
History of Lake Erie
The bedrock of Lake Erie was created during the Paleozoic Era, 300 to 500 million years ago. The
sedimentary bedrock in western Lake Erie was deposited as lime muds in shallow, warm Silurian and
Devonian seas, covering the region from 410 to 375 million years ago. The glacial geology of Lake Erie is
relatively young, with the last glacier retreating from the area less than 12,000 years ago. The first ice
sheets came to the Lake Erie region from the northeast about one million years ago. Occurring during the
Ice Age, or Pleistocene Epoch, the ice collided with the limestone, resulting in the formation of Niagara
Falls. As the ice overrode this, it dug deeply into the Devonian shales of western New York. However, the
glacial sheets were deflected to the west because of the Portage Escarpment which lies a few miles inland
Figure 6.5 Bathymetry map of Western Basin of Lake Erie
83
Ohio Department of Natural Resources, 14-15
49
of the present-day south shore of the lake between Buffalo and Cleveland. Crashing into an outcrop of soft
shale, these shales formed the deep bottom of the narrow eastern basin. The central basin was created from
in a wider shale belt, and the glacial erosion resulted in a broad, yet shallow area of the lake. The western
basin is the shallowest because of the Devonian and Silurian limestones and dolomites that resisted glacial
impact.84
History of Magee Marsh
On November 1, 1615, Etienne Brulé landed in present-day Ottawa County at a Lake Erie
tributary. Today, it is called Toussaint Creek because it occurred on All Saints Day. Early records of
Western Lake Erie show that it was surrounded by 300,000 acres of marsh and swamp from Vermillion,
Figure 6.6 Green Heron in marsh
Ohio to the Detroit River in Michigan. In Ohio, the marsh averaged about 2 miles wide, with some parts
extending south into the Great Black Swamp. These marsh areas were abundant with waterfowl and fur
and game animals. The French later settled in the area known as Magee Marsh. The way of life focused on
hunting, trapping, and trading with the Native Americans. German immigrants soon moved in and cleared
and drained the land in order to establish agriculture. As the population rose, the species in the wetlands
gained importance and market hunting thrived. By 1900, most of the swamp had been drained, with the
rich soil being cultivated to the edge of the marshes. Parts of the marsh were diked and drained for
cultivation, but the lake levels were incessantly fluctuating because of the rainfall and seiches (wind-blown
tides). Eventually, the dikes proved to no avail, and water once again dominated the region.85
In 1903, artificial marsh construction began in the northwest counties bordering Lake Erie. The
earliest significant of these constructions was in Magee Marsh and was designed to convert the once
useless wetland into productive truck cropland. However, the marshland was not able to be completely
drained because of the constant seepage from Lake Erie during spring storms. As a result, the marsh
owners allowed the lands to be returned to wetland for waterfowl shooting and muskrat trapping.
84
85
Bolsenga, 45
Ohio Department of Natural Resources, 2-3
50
Waterfowl hunting was prominent on Magee Marsh, especially between the 1920s and 1950s.
During this time, the marsh was leased to a group of waterfowl hunters on an annual basis. The Ohio
Department of Natural Resources purchased Magee Marsh in 1951 once the increased maintenance costs
from higher lake levels and damage to the barrier beach took a toll on the private owners.
Magee Marsh is divided between two divisions: The Division of Parks and Recreation owns one
mile of the shore area 400 feet wide while the remaining acreage is controlled by the Division of Wildlife.
With the ODNR as the new owners, controlled waterfowl hunting was initiated immediately. This has
provided outdoorsmen with a very successful hunting area; most hunters average about one duck per
hunting trip.86
Hundreds of wildlife species, including waterfowl, are solely dependent on these wetland areas of
Magee Marsh. As a result, the North American Waterfowl Management Plan (NAWMP) was created in
1986 to restore declining waterfowl populations and revitalize the wetlands. This agreement was signed by
Figure 6.7 Atlantic Coast Migration Pattern
the United States, Mexico, and Canada to set attainable goals to restore wetlands and their populations
through the year 2000. Ohio had been proactive in the NAWMP as a member of the Lower Great Lakes
Joint Venture. It completed six projects that resulted in nearly 6,000 acres of public wetlands and helped
cost-share with another 2,500 acres of privately-owned wetlands. The Magee Marsh has undergone some
restoration in its history. As a part of the Turtle Creek restoration on Magee Marsh, 185 different species
of birds were observed in the wetlands by members of the Black Swamp Bird Observatory.87
Physical Analysis
The site in Oak Harbor is at 41°37’31” North Latitude and 83°10’24” West Longitude. This
means that the site exists in Climate Region 1, according to Norbert Lechner, with a severe climate of
mostly cool and cold temperatures that fall below freezing during the winter months. The winter winds,
enhanced by the lake effect, usually come from a northwesterly or westerly direction. The summers in this
part of the country tend to be more temperate, but have short hot periods. An extreme annual temperature
Figure 6.8 Mississippi Delta Migration Pattern
86
Ohio Department of Natural Resources, 7-8
51
range can reach up to 120°F, making this region one of the most intense climatic regions in the United
States. During the summer, the winds tend to come from the south, providing some comfort when the
humidity and heat are extremely overbearing.88 There are some annual environmental factors that will play
a major role in the design concept:89
Rainfall: 32”/yr.
Snowfall: 37”/yr.
January High Temp: 32.4°F average
July High Temp: 83.8°F average
Wind Speed: 9.5 mph
Days of Precipitation: 136
Lake Erie has a drastic effect on temperature patterns of the surrounding land area. During the
summer, the waters of Lake Erie heat up less than the surrounding land. In fall, however, the land cools
more quickly. The water responds less rapidly to heating and cooling because of its transparency,
evaporation, heat capacity, and mixing. The lake is fairly transparent to incoming solar radiation so its heat
energy penetrates to certain depths and is dispersed rather than staying on the surface layers as with the
land. A surface cools because heat energy is required to change liquid into vapor when evaporation occurs.
This cooling of the water inhibits any warming processes that occur. The heat capacity refers to the greater
amount of heat required to produce a similar temperature change in water than land. Lake Erie’s large
volume also forces heat absorbed from the sun to be mixed throughout the lake. The mixing process relates
to thermal conductivity. If the water in Lake Erie was static, the thermal conductivities of land and water
would be 0.0015 and 0.0013 respectively. However, the water’s motion increases this conductivity value to
50. This large amount of mixing, though more effective than the surrounding land’s, is responsible for
87
Ohio Department of Natural Resources, 6
Lechner, 46
89
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (Accessed 28 September,2003)
88
52
Lake Erie’s slow response to heating and cooling.90 The culmination of these four properties results in a
“lake effect” on the air temperature patterns that decreases the range of air temperatures over the water and
shore areas throughout the year.
The coastal processes of Lake Erie also affect the shoreline site. Shore erosion has been a problem
since record high water levels in 1985. The shore of western Lake Erie is comprised of low banks of lake
clay which were originally fronted by barrier spits and islands.91
Site Precedents
Very few architectural projects have taken place in wetlands. Even fewer, if any, have been
Figure 6.9 Crosswinds Marsh Interpretive Preserve at
Sunset
attempted to straddle a site between wetlands and lake ecosystems. However, there are some exemplary
works that have built on, or constructed, similar site characteristics.
The Crosswinds Marsh, in Wayne County, Michigan, is a 1,000 acre preserve offering learning
opportunities in a variety of wetland environments, including, forested wetlands, wet meadows, shallow
water emergent wetlands, and deep water habitats. This preserve has recently been improved as a result of,
ironically, Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport’s expansion. Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County
Airport has undergone expansions during the past two years, and this has had a detrimental effect on nearly
400 acres of wetlands. One aspect of this expansion program, totaling $2 billion, includes compensation of
these lost wetland areas because of an aggressive permitting and mitigation process.92 The Smith Group,
with offices scattered throughout the United States, won the commission for this wetland compensation in
the form of the Crosswinds Marsh Interpretive Preserve. The master plan, consisting of over 640 acres of
created wetlands, achieves a balance between interactive public learning areas and other areas designed
specifically for waterfowl nesting and migration, flood control, and protection of rare species of plants and
wildlife. Over 150 species of birds, 170 species of plants and numerous species of fish, mammals, reptiles
and amphibians have been recorded at Crosswinds Marsh since its completion. The area offers a blend of
Figure 6.10 Aerial photograph of Crosswinds Marsh
natural and man-made wetlands, wildflower meadows and upland forests, attracting over 200 species of
90
91
Bolsenga, 113-114
Bolsenga, 88-89
53
birds, 30 species of mammals and a variety of reptiles, amphibians and fish. The marsh offers year-round
activities including trails for hiking, horseback riding and cross-country skiing; and areas for picnicking,
canoe rentals and fishing. Future plans for Crosswinds include a nature center, 40 foot observation tower,
and campground. Boardwalks, canoe trails, interpretive trails and wetland gardens offer learning
opportunities for over 20,000 people who visit the area annually. 93
The Adam Joseph Lewis Center, by William McDonough and Partners, is a center for
environmental studies at Oberlin College in Oberlin, Ohio. The design focuses on three tenets of nature:
waste equals food, use current solar income, and respect diversity. The Adam Joseph Lewis Center for
Environmental Studies has attempted “to celebrate and to regenerate human and natural environments,
aspiring to be as bountiful and effective as a tree.” McDonough hopes that the building, whose materials
Figure 6.11 Adam Joseph Lewis Center
promote a healthy relationship between human and environmental ecology, will allow the center to become
a net-energy exporter. 94
It is 13,600 square foot facility consisting of classrooms, office space, an auditorium, a small
environmental studies library, resource center, and wastewater purification center in a greenhouse and an
open atrium. This site serves three main purposes: natural habitat, food production, and water
management. In order to accomplish this, the design team constructed a wetland area. It provides a natural
habitat for over 70 indigenous plant and animal species. The wetland collects and retains the stormwater
on-site, lowering the cost and demand for Oberlin’s sewage system. Once the relatively young wetland,
constructed in 2000, matures, it will irrigate the grasses, gardens, and orchard on the site.95
Dutch architects explored the ramifications of a design solution in wetland areas because many of
the structures in Holland were sinking. The solution to this was the Amphibious Living design
competition. Its main goal was to improve and stabilize houses in the marshy environment. Amphibious
Living was organized by the Dutch province of South Holland under the title ‘The Art of Creating Water,
Figure 6.12 Section: First Prize, Amphibious Living
Competition
92
Michigan: Wayne County Parks ( Accessed 17 October, 2003)
The Smith Group (Accessed 17 October, 2003)
94
William McDonough and Partners (Accessed 28 September, 2003)
95
Office of Efficiency and Renewable Energy (Accessed 25 November, 2003)
93
54
South Holland Culture Province 2000.’ The problems that this province was facing were almost
uncontrollable, and something needed to be done. The South Holland province is dominated by water,
rivers and the delta, such that a majority of the landscape is so inundated with water that roads, sewers, and
even gardens and whole parks are sinking at an incessant rate. 96 Unfortunately, the need for buildings in
wetlands was inevitable because there was no more solid building ground in South Holland.97 As a result,
the competition was held to incorporate innovative ideas into future projects for wetlands.
The first prize in the competition went to MG architecten from Rotterdam, Netherlands. This
unique design approach offered contemporary architects a new way to think about building in wetlands.
The infrastructure consists of grass tracks, roads and floating jetties. Some of the houses float while
revolving around the mooring post to which they are anchored according to the wind direction and current.
The houses use their skins, comprised of vegetation, to purify their own water. The design does not utilize
Figure 6.13 Rendering: First prize, Amphibious Living
Competition
piles because the weighted amount of soil and water removed from the wetland was equal to that of the
house. The rest of the landscape is left unscathed from roads and infrastructure. This design allows for,
while respecting the wetland, the floatation and settling of the homes depending on the conditions of the
wetland.98 The wetland sites, serving as a transition between wet and dry in the Netherlands, have allowed
the Dutch to have a clear vision of ‘amphibious living’ when working with the ecosystem rather than
avoiding it.99
Elizabeth Diller and Ricardo Scofidio’s Blur Building, an installation for Swiss Expo 2002, is an
architectural precedent whose site is solely on a lake. Built off of the shore Lake Neuchâtel in Switzerland,
the steel structure appears to be a white cloud hovering above the surface of the water. This was achieved
through the use of a fog of mist created from filtered lake water being sprayed through 31,000 fog nozzles.
“It was an exhibition pavilion with nothing on display, except for our cultural dependency on vision,” noted
Figure 6.14 Blur Building on Shores of Lake Neuchâtel
96
Venhuizen, 10
Venhuizen, 17
98
Venhuizen, 88
99
Venhuizen, 28
97
55
Elizabeth Diller. The Blur Building includes a 90,000-square foot media art center for exhibitions,
educational facilities and artists’ studios all adjacent to a ribbon of concrete. A robotic drill, named
"Mural”, penetrates the wall at random through the duration of the expo. The incessant sound of the drill is
intended to make visitors aware of the walls as foreground entities themselves.100
100
Arcspace.com (Accessed 1 November, 2003)
56
DESIGN APPLICATION
The Principles
This thesis explored the evolution of conservation ethics, deeply rooted in ecology, and how they
are applied in architecture. In order to fulfill design goals, however, it is imperative that each designer
establish his/her own values. Similar to Aldo Leopold, I believe that humans are just a small portion of a
larger community of interdependent parts. As a result, we must fulfill our role as a “member” of this
community and act as stewards of the land. To achieve this, the delicate relationships in nature, between
humans, flora, and fauna, must be established and maintained. The architect must balance decisions based
on want and need and respond appropriately. Architects and planners have used various models, diagrams,
guidelines, and value judgments to achieve their goals.
As a result, I must establish my own values and guidelines, or “Actionable Principles,” that will
help to inform design decisions. They serve as the cornerstone for design tactics and strategies that will
determine the limits and outcome of the project. Since the concept of stewardship, or living with the land,
is of utmost importance, the following principles must reflect this attitude while acknowledging the project
limits and aesthetic demands of architecture and construction. These Actionable Principles, being largely
personal, attempt to achieve a harmonious balance between humans and nature:
1. Minimize the construction impact on the natural environment, including the flora and fauna of
the lake and wetland ecosystems.
2. Maximize the learning experience for all users, including visitors, employees, and wildlife.
3. Provide panoramic views from the facilities to the natural resources on site.
4. Maintain the natural limits of the site and allow Magee Marsh to be central component of
design.
5. Celebrate the presence and coexistence of man in nature
57
Translation
The design project intends to promote the survival of the ecosystems, and as a result, the impact of
the building must minimize its negative effects. The facilities are placed on piles, or pilotis, so that a
minimal amount of ground must be excavated, allowing the site to maintain its organic ground plane. The
height that the facilities are raised will also affect the ecosystem. The buildings must be high enough off
the ground to allow sunlight to reach the water below so that communities below continue to thrive. Also,
placing the learning facility completely in Lake Erie may also help to minimize the negative effects for the
wetlands.
The second principle is to maximize the educational component for all visitors and workers. As a
result, the facilities are aimed to educate the visitor on the significance of wetlands, witness current
research, and observe the wildlife in their natural habitat. This is achieved by allowing visitors to stop at
each of the four corners on the main road to learn about the flora and fauna of Magee Marsh and Lake Erie.
The visitors could get out of their vehicles and meander onto the constructed trails that lead out into the
wetlands. These trails will be equipped with information on all the major species found within the
ecosystems. The sectional qualities of the eco-research facility will also attempt to maximize the
educational experience. Hoping to gain maximum interaction between schoolchildren and laboratory
researchers, it is a goal that there is constant visual access, at least, from the laboratories to the classrooms.
Allowing for panoramic views from each facility is important because of the abundance of wildlife
that occupies the site on a daily basis. It only seems appropriate that the visitor has maximum exposure to
the marsh, even while they are inside. The eco-research facility attempts to provide maximum extroversion
out to Lake Erie and Magee Marsh, and as a result, is enveloped in glass. This allows the task-oriented
researchers a release from work each time they leave the laboratories. However, it is evident that having an
all-glass structure in an area dominated by birds may pose a potential threat. The structure needs to be
visible as a ‘mass.’ This may require use of a mesh or exterior structure, or perhaps even a sonar-controlled
system that prevents birds from injuring themselves during flight.
The design, separated by functions of lodging and research, embraces the natural beauty of Magee
Marsh. The facilities are located around the periphery of the marsh, on earthen dikes that are evidence of
58
man’s prior intervention on site. There is a constant dialogue between the lodging and research facilities.
The constant visual access also demarks the limits and boundaries of the natural site.
Leaving the main
tourist facilities outside of Magee Marsh allows for varying levels of privacy. The roads along the earthen
dikes provide vehicular access while the trails through the wetlands are suitable for individuals on foot.
The Spirit of Our Time
Buildings in fragile ecosystems possess the ability to use contemporary construction techniques to
achieve goals that are responsive to the natural environment. One example is the Swaner Nature Preserve,
near Park City, Utah, set in a 1,000 acre swampy meadow that is a natural habitat for cranes, beavers,
foxes, fish, and moose. The preserve acts as a wildlife refuge and an educational center, while acting as an
Figure 7.0 Swaner Nature Preserve Education Center,
rendering
important receptacle for storm drainage. Designed by Prescott Muir Architects, the education center helps
to prepare visitors for the subtle wonders of the surrounding ecosystem.101
To have a minimal footprint on site, Prescott Muir raises the facility on pilotis. A gently curved
rectangle houses exhibition, classroom, office, and research space and connects to a glass lobby and
greenhouse. A pier extends out into the meadow from the greenhouse so that visitors can experience the
ecosystem without destroying it.102
Muir realized that the wet meadow ecosystem presents a problem. To most people, grass is just
grass, but to scientists, the meadow contains infinite possibilities. Hence, the design allows the visitor to
explore the preserve in three ways: a perimeter trail, the elevated pier that cuts through the meadow, and
by simply staying inside. The interior exhibits include live video feed from various habitats in the preserve,
allowing visitors to witness a beaver building a dam or an egret tending her nest.103 The design allows
visitors to experience the excitement of the ecosystem while simultaneously seeing how the architecture
embraces the site.
Figure 7.1 Swaner Nature Preserve Education Center,
rendering
101
102
Guiney, 42
Guiney, 43
59
Design Process
Figure 7.2 Site plan
103
Guiney, 43
60
Figure 7.4 Longitudinal section facing west
Figure 7.3 Laboratory floor plan
Figure 7.5 Parti diagram
61
Figure 7.6 Perspective from rock embankment, rendering
Figure 7.7 Perspective from nature museum, rendering
Figure 7.8 Perspective from laboratory, rendering
62
Bibliography
Black, John. The Dominion of Man: The Search for Ecological Responsibility. Netherlands: Edinburgh
University Press, 1970.
Bolsenga, Stanley J. and Charles E. Herdendorf. Lake Erie and Lake St. Clair Handbook. Detroit: Wayne
State University Press, 1993.
Butcher, Jim. The Moralisation of Tourism: Sun, Sand…and Saving the World? London: Routledge,
2003.
Campbell, Louis W. The Marshes of Southwestern Lake Erie. Athens: Ohio University Press, 1995.
Curtis, William J.R. Modern Architecture Since 1900. London: Phaidon Press Limited, 1996.
Darwin, Charles. The Origin of Species. New York: Gramercy Books, 1979.
Disch, Robert. The Ecological Conscience. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1970
El-Aidi, Polly. “Innovations in Wetland Construction.” Landscape Architecture, July 1993, 120-122.
Fox, Warwick. Ethics and the Built Environment. London: Routledge, 2000.
Guiney, Anne. “On the Boards.” Architecture, November 2001, 42-43.
Gunn, Clare A. Tourism Planning. New York: Taylor and Francis Books, Inc., 2002.
The Holy Bible: Revised Standard Edition. Thomas Nelson Inc. Nashville: 1971.
Lechner, Norbert. Heating, Cooling, Lighting: Design Methods for Architects. New York: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., 1991.
Lehotay, Denis C. The Relationship of Man and Nature in the Modern Age: Dominion Over the Earth.
New York: The Edwin Mellen Press, 1993.
Leopold, Aldo. A Sand County Almanac and Sketches Here and There. New York: Oxford University
Press, 1987.
Linn, Charles D. “Laboratories in Low-Tech Contexts.” Architectural Record,
March 1994, 90-97.
63
Marton, Deborah. “Nature Reconstructed.” Landscape Architecture, July 1997, 54-59.
McDonough, William and Michael Braungart. Cradle to Cradle. New York: North Point Press, 2002.
McHarg, Ian. Design with Nature. Philadelphia: The Falcon Press, 1969.
Middleton, Victor T.C. Sustainable Tourism. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1998.
Mills, Jeffrey H., Dwight Merriam, and Patricia A. Ayars. “A Wetland is a Wetland is a Wetland…”
Urban Land, May 1986, 34-35.
Mowforth, Martin and Ian Munt. Tourism and Sustainability: Development and New Tourism in the Third
World. London: Routledge, 1198.
Murphy, Alexander B. and Douglas L. Johnson, ed. Cultural Encounters with the Environment: Enduring
and Evolving Geographic Themes. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2000.
Norberg-Schulz, Christian. Genius Loci: Towards a Phenomenology of Architecture. New York: Rizzoli
International Publications, Inc., 1980.
Ohio Department of Natural Resources. Magee Marsh: Cradle of Wildlife. Ohio: 1999.
Pearson, David. “Making Sense of Architecture”. The Architectural Review 1991, 1136: 68-70.
Saarinen, Eero. Eero Saarinen on His Work. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1962.
Sideris, Lisa H. Environmental Ethics, Ecological Theology, and Natural Selection. New York: Columbia
University Press, 2003.
Stoner, Jill. “The Falcon’s Return.” Places, Spring 1999 v.12, 48-50.
Toy, Maggie, ed. Architectural Design Magazine: The Architecture of Ecology, Profile 125: 1997.
Venhuizen, Hans. Amfibisch Wonen. Netherlands: NAi Publishers, 2000.
Wagner, Richard H. Environment and Man. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1978.
Whelan, Tensie, ed. Nature Tourism: Managing for the Environment. Washington, D.C.: Island Press,
1991.
64
Zeiher, Laura C. The Ecology of Architecture: A Complete Guide to Creating the Environmentally
Conscious Building. New York: Watson-Guptill Publications, 1996.
Website: Anasazi Indians
Accessed 23 March, 2004. Available http://www.desertusa.com/ind1/du_peo_ana.html
Website: Arcspace.com
Accessed 1 November, 2003. Available
http://www.arcspace.com/architects/DillerScofidio/aberrant_architectures/index.htm
Website: Arizona Sonora Desert Museum
Accessed 31 March, 2004. Available http://www.desertmuseum.org/
Website: Line and Space Architects
Accessed 31 March, 2004. Available http://www.lineandspace.com/main/
Website: Churchill, Manitoba
Accessed 31 March, 2004. Available http://www.churchillmb.net/~cnsc/ab-attrac-bears.html
Website: Dian Fossey
Accessed 31 March, 2004. Available http://myhero.com/myhero/hero.asp?hero=dfossey
Website: Dock Construction Guidelines in Florida
Accessed 4 January, 2004. Available
http://caldera.sero.nmfs.gov/habitat/pnc/dockguid/dock2001.pdf
Website: Executive Order 11990
Accessed 4 January, 2004. Available http://hydra.gsa.gov/pbs/pt/call-in/eo11990.htm
Website: Florent Rougemont
Accessed 11 October, 2003. Available
http://architettura.supereva.it/architetture/20010405/index_en.htm
Website: La Selva Biological Station
Accessed 23 November, 2003. Available http://www.ots.ac.cr/en/laselva/
Website: Michigan: Wayne County Parks
Accessed 17 October, 2003. Available
http://www.artba.org/transportation_builder/pdf/TB_Oct_2002_Globe_Award_ph_crosswinds.pdf
65
Website: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Accessed 28 September, 2003. Available http://www.noaa.gov/
Website: Office of Efficiency and Renewable Energy
Accessed 25 November, 2003. Available
http://hpb.buildinggreen.com/reports/project_18/project_18_2.pdf
Website: Old Faithful Inn
Accessed 25 November, 2003. Available
http://www.geocities.com/yellowstone_88/Yellowstone_Notebook.htm
Website: Rara Avis
Accessed 25 November, 2003. Available http://www.interlog.com/~rainfrst/
Website: The Smith Group
Accessed 17 October, 2003. Available http://www.smithgroup.com/
Website: United States Environmental Protection Agency
Accessed 4 January, 2004. Available http://epa.gov
Website: William McDonough and Partners
Accessed 28 September 2003. Available http://www.mcdonoughpartners.com/index.htm
66
Appendix
EXECUTIVE ORDER 11990
PROTECTION OF WETLANDS
By virtue of the authority vested in me by the Constitution and statutes of the United States of America,
and as President of the United States of America, in furtherance of the National Environmental Policy Act
of 1969, as amended (42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.), in order to avoid to the extent possible the long and short
term adverse impacts associated with the destruction or modification of wetlands and to avoid direct or
indirect support of new construction in wetlands wherever there is a practicable alternative, it is hereby
ordered as follows:
Section 1.
(a) Each agency shall provide leadership and shall take action to minimize the destruction, loss or
degradation of wetlands, and to preserve and enhance the natural and beneficial values of wetlands in
carrying out the agency's responsibilities for
(1) acquiring, managing, and disposing of Federal lands and facilities; and
(2) providing Federally undertaken, financed, or assisted construction and improvements; and
(3) conducting Federal activities and programs affecting land use, including but not limited to
water and related land resources planning, regulating, and licensing activities.
(b) This Order does not apply to the issuance by Federal agencies of permits, licenses, or allocations to
private parties for activities involving wetlands on non-Federal property.
Sec. 2.
(a) In furtherance of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (42 U.S.C. 4331(b)(3))to improve and
coordinate Federal plans, functions, programs and resources to the end that the Nation may attain the
widest range of beneficial uses of the environment without degradation and risk to health or safety, each
agency, to the extent permitted by law, shall avoid undertaking or providing assistance for new construction
located in wetlands unless the head of the agency finds
(1) that there is no practicable alternative to such construction, and
(2) that the proposed action includes all practicable measures to minimize harm to wetlands which
may result from such use. In making this finding the head of the agency may take into account
economic, environmental and other pertinent factors.
(b) Each agency shall also provide opportunity for early public review of any plans or proposals for new
construction in wetlands, in accordance with Section 2(b) of Executive Order No. 11514, as amended,
including the development of procedures to accomplish this objective for Federal actions whose impact is
not significant enough to require the preparation of an environmental impact statement under Section
102(2)(C) of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, as amended.
67
Sec. 3.
Any requests for new authorizations or appropriations transmitted to the Office of Management and Budget
shall indicate, if an action to be proposed will be located in wetlands, whether the proposed action is in
accord with this Order.
Sec. 4.
When Federally-owned wetlands or portion wetlands are proposed for lease, easement, right of or disposal
to non-Federal public or private parties Federal agency shall
(a) reference in the conveyance those uses that are restricted under identified Federal, State or local
wetlands regulations; and
(b) attach other appropriate restrictions to the uses of properties by the grantee or purchaser and any
successor, except where prohibited by law; or
(c) withhold such properties from disposal.
Sec. 5.
In carrying out the activities described in Section 1 of this Order, each agency shall consider factors
relevant to a proposal's effect on the survival and quality of the wetlands. Among these factors are:
(a) public health, safety, and welfare, including water supply, quality, recharge and discharge; pollution;
flood and storm hazards; and sediment and erosion;
(b) maintenance of natural systems, including conservation and long term productivity of existing flora and
fauna, species and habitat diversity and stability, hydrologic utility, fish, wildlife, timber, and food and
fiber resources; and
(c) other uses of wetlands in the public interest, including recreational, scientific, and cultural uses.
Sec. 6.
As allowed by law, agencies shall issue or amend their existing procedures in order to comply with this
Order. To the extent possible, existing processes, such as those of the Council on Environmental Quality
and the Water Resources Council, shall be utilized to fulfill the requirements of this Order.
Sec. 7.
As used in this Order:
(a) The term "agency" shall have the same meaning as the term "Executive agency" in Section 105 of Title
5 of the United States Code and shall include the military departments; the directives contained in this
Order, however, are meant to apply only to those agencies which perform the activities described in Section
1 which are located in or affecting wetlands.
(b) The term "new construction" shall include draining, dredging, channelizing, filling, diking, impounding,
and related activities and any structures or facilities begun or authorized after the effective date of this
Order.
(c) The term "wetlands" means those areas that are inundated by surface or ground water with a frequency
sufficient to support and under normal circumstances does or would support a prevalence of vegetative or
68
aquatic life that requires saturated or seasonally saturated soil conditions for growth and reproduction.
Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar areas such as sloughs, potholes, wet
meadows, river overflows, mud flats, and natural ponds.
Sec. 8.
This Order does not apply to projects presently under construction, or to projects for which all of the funds
have been appropriated through Fiscal Year 1977, or to projects and programs for which a draft or final
environmental impact statement will be filed prior to October 1, 1977. The provisions of Section 2 of this
Order shall be implemented by each agency not later than October 1, 1977.
Sec. 9.
Nothing in this Order shall apply to assistance provided for emergency work, essential to save lives and
protect property and public health and safety, performed pursuant to Sections 305 and 306 of the Disaster
Relief Act of 1974 (88 Stat. 148, 42 U.S.C. 5145 and 5146).
Sec. 10.
To the extent the provisions of Sections 2 and 5 of this Order are applicable to projects covered by of the
Housing and Community Development Act of 1974, as amended (88 Stat. 640, 42 U.S.C. 5304(h)), the
responsibilities under those provisions may be assumed by the appropriate applicant, if the applicant has
also assumed, with respect to such projects, all of the responsibilities for environmental review, decision
making, and action pursuant to the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, as amended.
69
Map of Magee Marsh
70
Aerial Photograph of Magee Marsh and Surrounding Areas
71
Site Photo Legend
72
View #1
View #2
View #3
View #4
73