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SOUTH AND CENTRAL ASIA IN EURASIAN INTEGRATION:
KEY TO PROSPERITY AND STABILITY
By
Prof. Dr. Zahid Anwar
Department of Political Science
University of Peshawar, KP, Pakistan
Phone: +92919216751,[email protected]
INTRODUCTION: This paper explores to understand the impact of South and
Central Asian connectivity in the overall ambit of evolving Eurasian matrix. Will
Economic integration of South and Central Asian regions augment Central Eurasian
prosperity and stability? The history of Silk Road shows that Indian subcontinent
was one of the exotic destinations of the Central Asian Caravans. The empirical
evidence of cross-regional interactions between Russia, the Caucasus, Central Asia
and the larger developing world highlights that South Asia has contributed to
prosperity of Eurasian region. In antiquity Central Asia was connected with South
Asia through trade routes. From time immemorial people and goods crisscrossed the
two regions. South Asian society, culture, religions, history, architecture, economies
and political systems reflect Central Asian imprint and vice versa. In Middle Ages
trade along the present day Afghanistan and Pakistan flourished between South Asia
and Central Asia. This paper explores how regional economic integration will
increase trade, commerce, investment and other economic activities and also gauges
the impact of increased economic activity as a result of South and Central Asian
integration on the prosperity and stability of Eurasian Space.
HISTORICAL SETTING: In antiquity Central Asia was connected with South Asia,
West Asia, Europe and China through the network of routes known as the Silk Road.
Aside from geography, Central Asia bridged time as well. On one hand it connected
different physical region on the other it was a big bond between ancient times and
the modern world1.In the development of the civilizations of Europe, China, Persia,
Arabia and India trade on the Silk Road played important role. The Silk Road
Network is distinctive evidence from antiquity, of intercontinental collaboration and
cooperation of trade, commerce, ideas and cultures. It spread over about eleven
thousand km from Roman Empire to China, Central Asia, northern India and
Parthian Empire covering the period from two hundred BC to 14th century AD. The
interaction among these civilizations through the Silk Road enriched philosophies,
religions and technologies. In ancient times the major traders were Indians and
Bactrian, then from fifth to eighth century AD the Sogdians traders played a leading
role and afterward the Arab and Persian traders dominated the economic
scene. India was part of the Silk Road network centuries ago and the geographical
space now called Pakistan was entryway to the South Asian region. The Grand Trunk
Road connected Calcutta through the Khyber Pass to exotic Central Asian
destinations. People, goods and cultural exchanges took place through the Silk Road
that facilitated the people of these regions to know each other’s` history, culture and
thought process.
ROUTES AND REGIONS: Xian (Changan) was the capital of ancient China and
the northern route started from there. The other most used route was southern one.
The southern route (Karakoram route)was basically a single route which passed
through the Karakoram mountains. Broadly it persisted to present day Karakorum
Highway that connects China to Pakistan. Crossing through northern Pakistan, over
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the Hindu Kush Mountains, it re-joined the northern route in Turkmenistan near
Merv. Experts underline that the southwest route was the one that passed through
Brahmaputra / Ganges Delta 2 . Another route known as Ledo Route linked
Bangladesh, Myanmar and China3.
During Kushan Empire Indus valley and Central Asia were unified in the first and
third centuries. That political development strengthened the role of the traders from
Taxila and Bactria as well as nurtured multi-cultural relationship. In Central Asia,
Muslims expanded from the seventh century onward and trade flourished in that
part of the world. There were thousand and one trading cities on the Silk Road
ranging from the Middle East to Europe, North Africa to the Indian Subcontinent.
Some of the cities on the southern route are still important urban centres of
Afghanistan, Pakistan and India like Kabul, Kandahar, Peshawar, Taxila and
Ahmedabad.
In ancient world Badakhshan, a province of contemporary Afghanistan was famous
for Lapis lazuli. Lapis lazuli was traded as far as Egypt. Then its trade was extended
to the valleys of Tigris and Euphrates in fourth millennium and afterwards in 3rd
millennium BC it was stretched to Indus valley particularly Mohenjo-daro and
Harappa 4 .Silk, paper, spices, sandalwood, horses, camels, carpets, fruit, vases,
dishes, gold, silver, rice, tea, medicines and military equipments were also traded on
the Silk Road. It is not a story of few decades but a narrative of thousands of years of
trade and communication5.These exchanges laid the foundations of modern world6.
With the discoveries of direct sea routes, by passing the Ottoman Empire, the
significance of the Silk Road decreased.
GEOGRAPHIC COMPULSIONS: The diversity of topography makes the Central
Asian Region distinct. The Central Asian Terrain reflects its natural beauty. There are
great mountain systems in the region which include Hindu Kush, Tienshan, Kunlun,
Pamir, Kopet Dagh, Altai and Karakoram. There are world famous deserts in the
region like Taklimakan, Karakum, Kyzylkum, Dasht-e-Margo and Registan. It is
custodian of great water bodies for instance Caspian, Aral, Assykkul, Balkhash,
Kaindy and Changan. The region`s rivers feed its lands since time immemorial e.g.,
Amu Darya, Syr Darya, Murghab and Kashgar. The people of Central Asian Region
are broadly divided into Turkic and Non-Turkic groups. The Turkic group of people
include Kazakh, Kyrgz, Turkmen and Uzbeks while the non-Turkic group includes
Tajik, Pakhtun, Russian, Korean, and Germen.
POLITICAL MOSAIC: Political instability in one part of Eurasia is harming
political stability in other parts of the region. Keeping in view this fact great powers
as well as neighbouring countries of Afghanistan have developed a consensus to coop
with the situation in Afghanistan. The best way to coop with that situation is develop
commonality of interests and this can be done by making Afghanistan a bridge for
economic interaction between South and Central Asia. It seems that with passage of
time China will play pro-active role in regional stability specifically in Afghanistan.
The purpose of Istanbul process is stability and security in Afghanistan. It was the
result of an agreement between several Central Asian states, Russia and China in
Istanbul in November 2011. Its fourteen members include Afghanistan, China, India,
Iran, Kazakhstan, Pakistan, Russia and Turkey. Its supporting parties include the US,
the UK, the United Nations and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. This
regional mechanism has played a positive role in promoting Afghanistan's
reconstruction7.
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CENTRAL ASIAN CONTEXT: Central Asia is a bridge between Europe and Asia.
Its location has reinforced its centrality in the Post-Cold War scenario. South Asia`s
role in Central Eurasia is determined by its cultural and Silk Road connections and
energy needs8.In the last few decades the economic progress has helped millions of
people of the Asian continent to come out of their abject poverty. Some experts opine
that South Asia‘s growth rate will rise again and progress at six to eight per cent until
20309. High and sustained growth rate can be speedily achieved by pooling regional
resources through mutual economic cooperation. The slow progress in achieving
regional cooperation has been due to various reasons like underdeveloped
infrastructure, poor connectivity, bureaucratic hurdles in decision making,
preoccupation with security issues and political instability. Regional economic
collaboration will benefit all South Asian countries in their economic development
and in alleviating poverty in the region. Integration will be easier if has been done in
stages and region wise.
In the context of Central and south Asia the foundation of ECO is an important
development. In this point in time its potential is not fully realized. Economic
interaction between the two regions can be increased through this type of new
regionalism. The ECO members have signed agreements in 1995 which have
specified the establishment of an ECO Reinsurance Company based in Pakistan
along with a shipping company and an airline and an ECO Trade and Development
Bank to be based in Istanbul,. Despite commitment execution of these agreements
has not yet materialized. There is no denying the fact that there are many
possibilities and vivid prospects for greater integration between South Asian
countries and their Central Asian neighbours.10.
Central Asia is Centre of Eurasia and Eurasia means all of Europe and Asia, including
the Arab World. In the Eurasian space many new regional organizations have
emerged. Since the advent of the 21st century Central Asia and South Caucasus have
experienced a process of rapid economic growth and of internal and external
integration. Eurasian economic integration will be much influenced by the
performance of SCO (Shanghai Cooperation Organization), EurAsEC (Eurasian
Economic Community) and CAREC (Central Asia Regional Economic Cooperation) 11.
The economic cooperation trend will continue to shape regional dynamics, as the
Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO)’s scope has broadened from regional
security issues to stability, trade, and science. The Shanghai Cooperation
Organization`s Council of Heads of Government accentuated the significance of
regional cooperation in gas and oil exploration and distribution networks,
transportation and telecommunications in October 2005. In the meeting India, Iran,
Mongolia, and Pakistan participated as observers 12. The economic corridor between
Pakistan and China connects Gwader port with Xinjiang. Chinese government intend
to make Xinjiang a key transportation, trade, logistics, culture, science and education
center and a core area on the Silk Road Economic Belt. The Silk Road Economic Belt
is a China-proposed initiative to boost cooperation with Central, South and West
Asian countries. Xinjiang has so far opened 107 international road transport routes
to adjacent countries, accounting for 43% of the total number in China. Chinese
Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region is rich in oil and gas.
Chinese President Xi Jinping visited Pakistan on 21 April, 2015 to launch projects
worth $46 billion. Xi oversaw agreements on pipelines, power plants and other
projects as part of a massive $46 billion joint development programmme that Beijing
hopes will stabilize its long-time ally's economy. Pakistan hopes that the investment
plan will end a chronic energy crisis and transform it into a regional economic hub13.
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SOUTH ASIAN VISTA: Notwithstanding the current difficulties, South Asia and
Central Asia are important in the 21stcentury because of its important role in world
politics economics and history. The formation of SAARC (South Asian Association of
Regional Cooperation) was a new leap in New Regionalism. One of the big issue
regarding SAARC‘s slow progress is due to the member nations` inability to fuse
their domestic agendas with the SAARC agenda. There are many ways to address the
difficulties confronted by the two regions. For instance the dynamics of smooth
intra-regional trade if brought into play can be pivotal in strengthening the
economies of all SAARC and ECO countries by unleashing a soft process that might
create a helpful environment for resolving long standing regional political issues,
which would further boost mutual economic cooperation. There is huge potential for
intra‐state electricity trade among the SAARC countries which is reflected in the
formation of SAARC Working Group on Energy. Besides, the creation of a Power
Pool would enable the region to utilize its sources of electricity optimally by
balancing the demand and supply. This could make electricity cheap and reliable.
Moreover, this would create interdependence among the regional states.
ECONOMIC DYNAMICS: Getting a greater connectivity is a global challenge for
all countries. There is big congruence between externally promoted mega-schemes
for regional integration and regions` own vision of its economic evolution. There are
sub-regions in the Central Eurasian Space and in tuning regional interests with the
interests of the Central Eurasian Region will further enhance the process 14 .
Afghanistan’s fortunes remain tied to its neighbourhood, just as the neighbourhood’s
fortunes remain tied to Afghanistan. This region is important for global security view
point and a region full of economic opportunity and human potential. Pakistan offers
the critical overland routes and connectivity for mutually beneficial trade and energy
transactions intra regionally and inter-regionally15.A more interconnected region can
serve as a driver of economic development and as an anchor of peace and security 16.
Regional cooperation is spurred by the global energy dynamic and the need to
develop transnational pipeline networks17.
Regarding regional economic integration Pak-China Economic corridor is another
important development. People in Pakistan have attached many hopes regarding the
success of the project. It is stated that Pakistan China economic corridor will raise
people`s living standards. The completion of the projects under the recently signed
agreements between Pakistan and China will help in reviving the economy of
Pakistan. Chinese investment in infrastructure and power projects is thrice the
collective foreign investment in the country during the last ten years. The ripple
effects of these projects will create thousands of job opportunities in Pakistan. The
said corridor will attract investors, builders, developers and develop engineering
sector, revive construction industry, and boost housing and construction
sectors18.Another development in this connection further highlight the significance of
the economic corridor. The coastal city of Qingdao, East China's Shandong province,
signed an agreement to establish sister-city relations with Pakistan's port city
Gwadar on 23 April 2015 in accordance with the central government's Belt and Road
Initiative. The move is designed to boost the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor,
which connects Kashgar in China's Xinjiang Uygur autonomous region to Pakistan's
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Gwadar Port on the Arabian Sea, and to establish closer links between two pivotal
port cities, Qingdao and Gwadar, along the "Belt and Road" 19.
Source: http://www.piffapk.com/downloads/reports/PIFFACountrreport.pdf
It has been said that Xinjiang has huge potential in oil and gas exploration and
production. Resource assessment shows the region has 22.8 billion tonnes of oil and
14 trillion cubic meters of natural gas20. There is talk about a project connecting
power grids in China and Pakistan. Its materialization will bring development
opportunities to Pakistan and neighbouring Kashgar in south Xinjiang21.
MODES OF TRANSPORT: Transport plays significant role in economic activity
and social development. There is no denying the fact that the Eurasian space with its
geographical contiguity has a great potential for cooperation in the connectivity
sector. For the improvement of regional connectivity all modes of transport including
railways, roads, aviation, and maritime shipping are important. And each one has its
distinct operational and physical features. Connectivity challenges in the region
include both hard (structural issues) and soft (agreements, legal framework) issues
that require better understanding and adequate support. Some other glitches in this
respect are restrictive policy regimes and institutional issues. The strategic aspect of
cross-border trade in energy cannot be overlooked. It has a tremendous potential for
creating cooperation among the states. The significant point in this connection is that
energy trade is a win-win situation for every state as it is an economic gain for
importer and exporter alike as well as for the transit country. The New Silk Road
Strategy integrates Afghanistan with neighbouring states and that strategy opens
India to Afghanistan and Central Asia through Pakistan.
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PAKISTAN AND REGIONAL INTEGRATION: Pakistan has taken some steps to
upgrade its roads, railways, pipelines and seaports to play its role in regional
connectivity projects. The construction of the Gwadar port is an important
component of Pakistan’s overall initiative to facilitate trade with the landlocked
states of Central Asia22. It is actively participating in TAPI, CASA-1000 and many
other such projects so that to connect South Asia, China and Central Asia. A major
development is the proposed Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan (TAP) pipeline
designed to carry some US$ 4 trillion worth of oil and natural gas to Asia and Europe
via Arabian Sea ports23. Some phases of its Motorway Project are already completed
and the work on the rest is going on as per plan. The latest addition is Hazara
Motorway which is a component of the Pakistan-China Economic Corridor. That
sixty kilometers long four lane fenced expressway will cost $30 million. It will reduce
drive time from the capital Islamabad to Havelian town to just thirty minutes and
will provide road to the Havelian Dry Port project. Different towns on the way like
Haripur, Abbotabad, Mansehra, Batagram and Kohistan will be linked to Motorway.
The project is part of the networks of motorways to connect Pakistan with China,
Afghanistan and Central Asian Republics. It will give rise to socio-economic uplift,
new business ideas and employment opportunities in the region24.
Pakistan is geographically lucky enough to become hub operating as a focal point of
logistics to the neighboring countries particularly Afghanistan, Azerbaijan,
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan. Hydrocarbon
rich Central Asian and Trans-Caucasian Republics need a corridor and a transit route
to export their energy resources to South Asia. An important component of regional
integration is Pakistan and Afghanistan`s agreement on the broad parameters of
Afghan exports to Pakistan and India and the use of Afghan territory for Pakistan’s
exports to the Central Asian states. The bi-lateral Afghan-Pakistan Transit Trade
Agreement (APTTA) with both commercial and non-commercial logistics has added
to the importance of Pakistan as a prominent trade corridor. If Pakistan`s efforts
yield results and it succeeded in penetrating the Central Asian markets then without
an iota of doubt it can become a major trade corridor through the seaports of
Karachi, Port Qasim and Gwadar. Another important aspect of this development is
emergence of international freight forwarding industry since the early 1980s in
Pakistan. Currently, the industry comprises about 550 entities with an estimated
annual turnover of Rs 43 billion, over 12,000 employees and geographical coverage
in the major export-oriented centers25. The Government of Pakistan in 2005 has
launched major initiatives around the National Trade Corridor (NTC) to reduce the
cost of trade by improving transport logistics infrastructure and services 26.
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Source: http://www.piffapk.com/downloads/reports/PIFFACountrreport.pdf
Iran is also developing with Indian support its Chahbahar seaport to make it
attractive for the landlocked countries of Central Asian Region. The Iranian
government has declared Chahbahar as a Free Trade and Industrial Zone. Better
transit services and developed physical infrastructure will enable Pakistan to tap this
potential and will boost its reviving economy. Pakistan is also geo-economically
significant for China. To sustain its economic growth China needs way in to other
countries for trade development and extension. Pakistan provides China with the
transit trade routes for western region, energy corridor to import oil from the Gulf
region and naval facilities on the Arabian Sea coast to protect its energy supply line
from the Middle East. Pakistan is facing many challenges to become logistics hub for
transit trade. If it overcome these challenges then it will be great leap forward to
South Asian prosperity because nothing opens up an area to economic development
better than good transportation networks with good transit rules and an ability to
transport goods and people effectively27.
CHALLENGES: For mutual regional connectivity the road, rail, air and
communication links needed to be improved. Multilateral agreements relating to
economic development contribute towards socio-economic development of
individual states leading to regional cooperation. Some experts have highlighted that
the following Non-Tariff Measures (NTMs) are holding back progress: a strong focus
on food security and self-sufficiency; complexities and variations in licensing;
permits and tariffs; anti-dumping duties and quantitative restrictions; duties and
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charges over and above tariffs; import of specific products through specified ports
only; transportation restrictions; import only by state trading agencies; and stringent
visa regimes etc. To enhance intra-regional trade the countries of South Asian Region
should minimize NTMS. These are: sensitive lists; poor connectivity and transit
crisis; insufficient transit; poor logistics affecting cost of export and import;
institutional constraints; bi-lateral free trade agreements (FTAs); non-tariff and
para-tariff barriers; exclusive focus on ―trade in goods; identical comparative
advantage; fear of loss of revenue; lack of trust; and trading blocs with countries
outside the region. To implement SAFTA on priority basis these issues should be
addressed by the SAARC states mutually and through negotiations at SAARC level28.
Source: http://www.piffapk.com/downloads/reports/PIFFACountrreport.pdf
In 2011 it was projected that average per capita income in Asia will likely cross US$
42000 by 2050 with Pakistan crossing US$ 7900 and India $42000. It is in the
interest of the region that all countries of South Asia put their own houses in order to
be winners in the 21st Century. The promotion of travel and tourism within the
SAARC region is necessary to build confidence amongst the people of the region for
greater economic cooperation and to establish joint infrastructure funds to facilitate
connectivity in the region. Another helpful step in this direction will be the
establishment of a joint investment company or SAARC Bank to facilitate trade and
investment. No dispute resolution mechanism can effectively work without
demonstrated political will to resolve the disputes by the involved parties. SAARC
can learn much from ASEAN in this realm. The annual summit and periodic
ministerial meetings at SAARC level provide an opportunity to member states to
exchange views on controversial issues nevertheless the SAARC does not have a
forum like ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) where the states could discuss their
political disputes with honesty of purpose29. Despite geo-economic significance of
Pakistan it needs to properly coop with challenges so that it can play its due role in
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this regional connectivity project. This aspect was precisely highlighted by Takehiko
Nakao, Asian Development Bank chief that Pakistan still faced a host of challenges
hampering its potential growth, forecast at 4.5 per cent of GDP this year. He
elaborated that there were quite a lot of challenges Pakistan faced currently. The
challenges included security situation on the borders, the standards of human
resource that required to be improved and financial inclusion and infrastructure
development and power sector were other areas where Pakistan was deficient 30.
WIN-WIN PERSPECTIVE: Working together to restore Eurasian region to its
historic role as a vital hub of global commerce, ideas, and culture will give rise to
win-win situation. The Central Asian Republics are focus of a struggle for
hydrocarbons in which many players are involved 31. The efforts to resume traditional
trading routes and reconstructing significant infrastructure links broken by years of
violent conflicts are now showing its results. South and Central Asia are constructing
through Pakistan and Afghanistan new North-South trade and transit routes that
supplement vital East-West connections across Eurasia. Another positive aspect of
the development in the region is reduction of barriers to trade, investing in each
other’s economies, and supporting international development and cross-border
projects. The countries of the region have slowly and gradually realized that they
have more to gain economically by working together. It’s the world least
economically integrated region and promoting connectivity in a region is not an easy
task yet it’s worth taking keeping in view its long term benefits.
To materialize this vision recent efforts of the International Community in four key
areas are particularly noteworthy. Firstly, to create regional energy markets. There
are more than 1.6 billion people in South Asia and its economies are growing rapidly
and its demand for reliable, efficient and inexpensive energy is growing in turn.
Central Asia is a source of vast resources of oil, gas, and hydropower. Turning some
of these resources from the republics of Central Asia to the countries of South Asia,
through Afghanistan, would be beneficial for the region’s energy users and energy
suppliers alike. In this connection the U.S. has provided support for CASA-1000
regional electricity grid, including a $15 million contribution following the March
2014 World Bank commitment of $526 million and support for the CASA Secretariat;
more than $1.7 billion in support of energy transmission lines, hydropower plants,
and associated reforms in Afghanistan since 2010; and adding 1,000 megawatts to
Pakistan’s power grid, supplying power to more than 16 million people.
Secondly, trade and transport: Improving trade and transit in South and Central Asia
means improving the “hardware” of reliable roads, railways, bridges, and border
crossing facilities. There is need to get neighbours to work together, to harmonize
national custom systems, break down bureaucratic and institutional barriers to trade
and connect regional countries into multi-lateral institutions. The U.S. has provided
more than 3,000 kilometers of roads built or rehabilitated in Afghanistan; support
for Kazakhstan and Afghanistan’s accession to the WTO; technical assistance for the
passage of the 2010 Afghanistan-Pakistan Transit-Trade Agreement (APTTA), and
support for the Cross-Border Transport Agreement (CBTA) between Kyrgyzstan,
Tajikistan, and Afghanistan.
Thirdly, customs and border operations: Profitable regional trade depends in large
part on speedy and efficient transit. It also depends on border security and good
governance that prevents transit of weapons, drugs, and human trafficking. Efforts
are underway to minimize border wait times, increase cooperation at key crossings
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and checkpoints. In the 21st century intraregional trade in Central Asian Region has
increased. Since 2011, the average cost of crossing regional borders decreased by 15
percent; customs procedures have been streamlined at seven Afghan border crossing
points, resulting in expedited trade with average release time down from eight days
in 2009 to three and a half hours in 2013, saving $38 million annually.
Fourthly businesses and people-to-people contacts: Regional economic connectivity
is more than infrastructure, border crossings, and the movement of goods and
services. Sharing ideas and expansion of economic markets also creates
opportunities for youth, women, and minorities and enhances regional stability and
prosperity. The organization of trade delegations, meetings and conferences in
Almaty, Islamabad, Kabul, Mazar-i-Sharif and Termez which have resulted in over
$15 million in trade deals is a good step 32 . Organizing symposia workshops,
conferences, faculty and students exchange of the regional institutions will further
strengthen people to people contacts. Pakistan and Afghanistan are expanding
economic ties an important aspect of which is expansion and up-gradation of
infrastructure, including road and rail links connecting the two countries 33 .
Regarding regional political developments some positive steps which have been
taken recently will exhibit positive results.
CONCLUSION: The most distinctive feature of the twenty-first century is regional
cooperation for accelerated trade and economic development. Political problems
would take time to be solved and the process of resolution of disputes would be
helped by economic relations which would soften up attitudes creating a spirit of give
and take. These new central Asian States are rich in hydrocarbon and are in search of
their identity. They are seeking new routes to export their natural resources and trace
their cultural and historical roots. In this quest they have realized the significance of
West and South Asia. In the current regional geostrategic and politico-economic
scenarios the South and Central Asian independent and sovereign states have
realized the benefits of stronger regional economic interaction. Greater interaction
between South and central Asia will pave the way for sustainable development of
Eurasian Region. Central Asia is rich in hydropower, oil and gas and South Asia is
deficient in oil and gas but rich in other resources. So import and export of these and
many other commodities will be mutually beneficial. Regional integration will usher
economic development which will prove a great leap forward to regional political
stability. Political and economic stability are two facets of the same coin. Enhancing
one will strengthen the other. Steps for regional economic integration will benefit
people which will galvanize peoples` interests in the regional political stability.
Advancements in the communication technology in the 21st century have made it
easy to restore and develop the historical connections between Europe and Greater
Central Asia of the Silk Roads Era. The Eurasian connectivity project particularly
developing its South Asian component will boost prosperity and raise the living
standards of people provided irrevocable commitment is made to build it
notwithstanding challenges. South and Central Asian integration will enhance
stability and prosperity in Central Eurasia if the nation-states of the region succeeded
in turning their focus from zero- sum to positive- sum interplay.
ENDNOTES
1
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2
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