CHAPTER 36
1. Briefly explain the differences between uptown, midtown, and downtown
composers, and give some examples of each. How are these categories useful, and
why do you think they began to break down?
Uptown composers are dedicated to extreme complexity, often in the form of serial
procedures. They tend to be historicist in orientation, and they are closely associated with
university patronage. Examples include Milton Babbitt, Elliott Carter, Roger Sessions,
and Charles Wuorinen. Midtown composers align themselves with the august musical
traditions of the past, embracing a familiar idiom that is more accessible than the music
of their uptown or downtown counterparts. Examples include Leonard Bernstein, Aaron
Copland, and Samuel Barber. Downtown composers work outside of mainstream
channels to mix a diverse range of influences, the result of which can be experimental
(e.g., Cageian chance music) or more popular-oriented (minimalism). Examples include
Steve Reich, Philip Glass, Morton Feldman, and John Cage.
These categories are useful in delineating three parallel, overlapping trends in
contemporary music: the historicist position dedicated to technical progress (uptown), the
non-historicist position invested in timeless musical traditions (midtown), and the
radicals unseating this entire paradigm (downtown). The schema breaks down because
contemporary composers rarely conform entirely to any one category, preferring instead
the infinite shades of gray between them. Further, the end of the Cold War, a leveling of
high/low distinctions among the younger generation, and the rise of Postmodernism make
these clear-cut distinctions problematic.
2. Explain Postmodernism. How does it differ from Modernism? How do collage,
pastiche, performance art, and neo-Romanticism reflect a Postmodernist aesthetic?
Loosely defined, Postmodernism is a cultural condition of technological, late capitalist
society characterized by multiculturalism, skepticism, and relativism. It differs from
Modernism in its disavowal of historical progress, “master narratives,” and stable notions
of the truth. A range of recent musical trends reflects these values: Collage disrupts
notions of organic unity by juxtaposing unrelated sounds; pastiche and neo-Romanticism
challenge historical continuity by imitating music from the past; and performance art
(practiced primarily by women) mixes media to disturb traditional hierarchies of
representation.
3. Since the nineteenth century, historicism has been a defining feature of the
Western musical narrative. How does Postmodernism pose a challenge to this
narrative? Which composers and trends of this chapter best represent the ideals of
historicism, and which pose the greatest challenge to it?
1 Postmodernism challenges the paradigm of historicist progress through its skepticism of
“master narratives” and stable, singular notions of the truth. In music, this is expressed
through a stylistic eclecticism that levels the differences between high/low, Western/nonWestern, and old/new. By non-ironically employing musical codes from the past,
Postmodern composers invalidate the necessity for linear historical advancement.
In addition to Babbitt, Carter, and other “uptown” composers, the “New Complexity”
movement exemplified by Brian Ferneyhough and Michael Finnissy demonstrates the
enduring influence of historicism. In contrast, composers who utilize collage and pastiche
techniques to scramble the historical succession of stylist development, including George
Rochberg, George Crumb, and John Zorn, represent a considerable challenge to the
prevailing paradigm of historicism.
4. Describe the continuing influence of collage in the last four decades. Describe the
approaches that Luciano Berio and Alfred Schnittke have taken to collage.
Collage techniques question the relationship between the present and the past by putting
the two into close, incongruous contact. Such juxtaposition radically alters the listener’s
interpretation of the original source material. In his Sinfonia, Berio uses a movement
from a Mahler symphony as the basis for a montage of fleeting references, including
direct quotations from many canonical works. Throughout, the vocalists contribute with a
disjointed mixture of spoken words, syllables, political slogans, and readings from LéviStrauss. In his Concerto Grosso No. 1, Schnittke uses collage techniques to emphasize
extreme stylistic contrasts. The piece consists of three overlaid styles: neo-Baroque violin
passages, atonal orchestral background, and Soviet pop on a prepared piano. Instead of
direct quotations, Schnittke draws primarily from stark genre juxtapositions,
incorporating everything from Medieval chant to jazz and rock.
5. What is pastiche, and how is it reflected in the works of George Rochberg?
Pastiche is the imitation of past works or styles. Rochberg employed this technique in his
music in a way that registers sincerity, not distance or irony. For example, his Third
Quartet features a movement that sounds remarkably like Beethoven: The style and
syntax are consistent with nineteenth-century practices, and there is nothing to give away
its modern date of composition. This use of pastiche calls into question certain historicist
assumptions, especially the “necessity” of historical, stylistic progress. It also implies that
expression in the modern world is impossible without referencing the past, that the
composer must come to terms with the expressive limitations of this “fallen” age.
6. What is performance art? How do performance artists such as Meredith Monk
and Laurie Anderson challenge traditional concepts of music and musical
categories?
2 Performance art consists of the combination of different artistic media in performance.
The music of Monk and Diamanda Galás is based on the possibilities of the voice;
Anderson’s music employs a range of digital processors and other sound-altering
technologies, and is presented in multimedia shows. These artists challenge traditional
concepts of music by blurring the line between musical categories in their eclectic
arrangement of materials. Moreover, their music is transmitted entirely through
performance and recordings, not notation.
7. Explain and analyze the impact that technology has had on the culture and
practice of art music.
Technology has had a vast impact on the creation, performance, and transmission of art
music. The act of composition has been simplified and democratized by inexpensive
music software on personal computers, including MIDI, sampler, and sequencer
technologies. Performers are free to utilize cutting-edge technologies (e.g., Laurie
Anderson), but electronic music also has had the effect of eliminating the necessity of
performers (e.g., Babbitt, who saw the potential for an asocial utopia of individual
creativity). Other composers have integrated live performers and new digital
technologies; for example, Reich uses a sampler in Different Trains. Further,
transmission has been profoundly affected by technology: Rather than notated scores,
many composers and musicians now disseminate their music through recordings. With
the advent of the Internet, downloading and file-sharing has drastically changed the way
many consumers acquire new music.
8. Which genres of art music have been the most successful with audiences in the
past two decades? Why do you think this is so?
In the past two decades, opera, performance art, and spiritually influenced art music have
enjoyed a good deal of success with audiences. A number of important new opera
premieres have taken place as companies come to understand the marketability of the
genre; technological advances such as the Met’s live streaming transmit opera
performance far and wide to audiences around the world. Many new operas have
topically relevant themes (e.g., Nixon in China). In addition, performance artist Laurie
Anderson scored a major, unexpected hit with her multimedia piece O Superman. And
spiritual music—including the work of Adams, Golijov, Pärt, Górecki, and Saariaho—
has also proven successful. These genres have gained popularity because they offer
audiences something television and movies cannot give them: music that engages with
eclectic, topical, multicultural, and spiritual themes relevant to (post)modern society.
9. In what ways does Kaija Saariaho’s opera L'Amour de loin reflect society in the
new millennium?
3 Saariaho’s opera explores the spiritual connections between the West and the East,
showing the reciprocal cultural influence between the two. It draws freely from a range of
musical styles, including Medieval, Modernist, and Postmodern, reflecting a pastiche
sensibility. Further, the libretto deals with themes of national and gender identity, as well
as spirituality. The multiculturalism and stylistic eclecticism of the opera reflect the
diversity, pluralism, and cultural preoccupations of society in the new millennium.
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