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PROMOTING
SUSTAINABLE
BIOFUELS
What are biofuels?
Biofuels are made by processing food crops and other plants, animal products
or wastes (collectively known as biomass). These can be burnt to generate
electricity or heat and are increasingly being used as transport fuels.
Changes in government energy policies
are accelerating demand for liquid or
gaseous biofuels used in transport (see
facing page).
Transport biofuels can be distributed using
existing technology and used in today’s
vehicles without modification when mixed
with petrol or diesel, or in adapted vehicles
if used neat or in high concentrations.
[1] FIRST-GENERATION BIOFUELS: BIOETHANOL
Production process
blends of up to 20%4. Specially designed
vehicles can run on 100% biodiesel.
Second-generation biofuels
Sugarcane
Corn
Starch
Sugar
There are many different biofuels, made
using a variety of production processes
and feedstocks. There are two categories:
Fermentation
Second-generation biofuels are made from
non-food feedstocks, such as wood and
straw. The production process uses the
whole plant, rather than just the plant
starches or sugars that are used to make
first-generation biofuels. This means waste
materials from agricultural and forestry can
be used as feedstocks.
Bioethanol
First-generation biofuels made from
food crops. These are widely used today.
[3] SECOND-GENERATION BIOFUELS
Second-generation biofuels made from
non-food crops. These are in development
and will not be widely commercially
available for at least five to ten years.
First-generation biofuels
First-generation biofuels are made from
food crops including wheat, rapeseed,
corn, soya and sugarcane.
There are two main types of first-generation
biofuels now in commercial use:
Bioethanol
Bioethanol is made by fermenting sugars
produced by plants (similar to beer and
wine production). Bioethanol accounts for
around 85%1 of global biofuel production
and is mainly produced from corn and
sugarcane.
Bioethanol is usually blended with petrol –
today’s fuel standards allow bioethanol to
be mixed with petrol in volumes up to 5%
in Europe and 10% in the USA. Bioethanol
can be used at higher concentrations
or neat. For example, in Brazil all petrol
contains at least 20–25% bioethanol and
many vehicles have been adapted to run
on 100% bioethanol.
Biomass to liquid
production process
Celluose ethanol
production process
Biomass including
agricultural
residues
Special crops such
as fast growing
woody plants
Thermochemical
treatment:
gasification
Biochemical
treatment:
enzymatic hydrolysis
Synthesis gas
Sugar
Synthesis
Fermentation
Hydrocarbons
Cellulose ethanol
Diesel mix
Petrol mix
Petrol mix
Biodiesel
Biodiesel is a blend of methyl esters (a type
of biofuel) and diesel. Methyl esters are
produced by a chemical reaction between a
vegetable oil and an alcohol. They are made
from rapeseed (primarily), palm oil and
soybean oil, and account for around 15%3
of global biofuel production.
Biodiesel is the most commonly used
biofuel in Europe where fuel standards
allow 5% blends. USA fuel standards allow
[2] FIRST-GENERATION BIOFUELS: BIODIESEL
Production process
Soybean oil
Palm oil
Transesterification
Methyl esters
Bioethanol has a lower energy density
than petrol. This makes it about 40%2 less
fuel efficient.
Diesel mix
Rapeseed oil
There are a number of second-generation
biofuels under development. These include:
cellulose ethanol which is produced from
straw using enzymes and can be mixed
with petrol; biomass-to-liquid fuel which
is made from wood feedstocks and can be
blended with diesel; and biomethane, a
gas made from organic material (such as
manure and straw) which can be used in
modified petrol and diesel engines.
What’s driving biofuels growth?
Biofuels have existed for over a hundred years – Henry Ford designed his Model T
to run on bioethanol – but they have mostly been unable to compete with fuels
derived from crude oil. New government energy policies, subsidies and tax
exemptions are now stimulating biofuels production which has doubled since
1998 and is predicted to double again by 20115. There are a number of reasons
why governments favour biofuels.
[4] BIOFUEL CO2 LIFECYCLE IMPACTS
Processing
Harvesting
Transporting
Transporting
CO2
CO2
CO2
CO2
Fertilising
Use
CO2
CO2
N2O
CO2
Growing
Energy
Energy
Energy
Energy
Energy
Combating climate change
Transport is a significant contributor to
climate change, accounting for around
25% of man-made greenhouse gas
emissions globally.
In principle, the use of biofuels can help
reduce transport’s impact on climate
change. This is because the plants used
to make the fuels absorb carbon dioxide
(CO2) – the most important greenhouse
gas – as they grow. The gas is later
released when the biofuels are used.
However, biofuels are not carbon neutral.
It takes energy to grow and harvest the
plants and to process and distribute
biofuels. The entire process emits CO2
and fertilisers emit nitrous oxide (N2O), a
powerful greenhouse gas (see graphic 4).
The amount of energy needed to make
different biofuels varies considerably. This
makes it vital to take the entire production
process into account when assessing
the potential of biofuels to help reduce
transport CO2 emissions. Read more about
CO2 performance overleaf.
Technology and innovation
Unlike other renewable fuels, such
as hydrogen, the infrastructure to
Energy
manufacture and distribute biofuels is in
place today. Biofuels are also compatible
with today’s vehicles and power
generation technology.
In 2006, $26 billion6 was invested in
biofuels. The International Energy Agency
(IEA)7 estimates that between 2005 and
2030 it will cost $160 billion to expand
biofuel production to fuel 4% of global
road transport, and $225 billion to fuel 7%.
Energy security
Global energy demands are increasing
rapidly. The world’s population has
doubled in the last four decades – to
around 6.6 billion in 2004 – and is
expected to exceed 9 billion8 by 2050.
Rapid development, particularly in China
and India, is increasing wealth and this is
boosting demands for energy and transport.
There were around 900 million vehicles
on the road in 2000, but this is forecast to
increase to over 2 billion by 20509.
Fossil fuels (oil, coal and gas) are
expected to be the dominant source of
energy for the foreseeable future. But
production has already peaked in many
major oil-producing countries and new
developments are increasingly located in
environmentally challenging and politically
unstable parts of the world. This has
resulted in high oil prices which the IEA
predicts will remain between $48–$62
until 203010. Some analysts predict 2030
prices could be as high as $10011. High oil
prices hit developing countries the hardest
– some spend six times as much on fuel as
on health12.
Biofuels are seen by governments as a
secure source of energy and a way to
reduce reliance on imported fossil fuels.
Brazil has replaced around 15%13 of its
petrol consumption with bioethanol,
according to the IEA. The Washington Post
puts this figure at 40%14.
Rural development
Biofuels can help boost farm incomes.
Globalisation and the industrialisation of
farming have reduced the price farmers
get for their produce. Demand for the
agricultural commodities used to make
biofuels is reversing this trend. In the
developed world this is creating jobs
and reducing the need for subsidies
for farmers.
Unintended consequences
Biofuels could help boost rural development while reducing CO2 emissions and reliance
on crude oil. But if biofuel strategies are not fully evaluated they could do more harm
than good, stimulating poor performing biofuels and stifling innovation.
CO2 performance
Biofuels can help fight climate change
but CO2 savings vary significantly
between fuels (see graphic 5).
This is because the amount of energy needed
to produce different feedstocks (type of
crop and where it is grown) and to process
them into fuels varies considerably. For
example, using US corn it takes 0.6–0.8
litres of fossil fuels to produce an amount of
bioethanol equivalent to 1 litre of mineral
oil, whereas it takes less than 0.1 litres of
fossil fuels to produce the same amount of
bioethanol using Brazilian sugarcane15.
[5] CO2 REDUCTION OF BIOFUELS COMPARED
WITH FOSSIL FUELS (%)
Bioethanol
(corn)
USA
Biomass to liquid
(2nd generation)
Bioethanol
(wheat)
EU
100%
100
87
<10
10
30
Bioethanol
(sugarcane)
Brazil
Fossil
fuel
40-60
Biodiesel
(rapeseed)
EU
Source: IEA: Energy Technology Perspective 2006
Second-generation biofuels produce even
less CO2 as their feedstocks require fewer
agricultural inputs and production processes
are much more efficient.
Biofuels cost more than petrol or diesel per
unit of energy because of the high cost of
feedstocks and production. Using biodiesel
and bioethanol from crops grown in Europe
and the USA as a carbon reduction strategy
will cost around $200-$250 per tonne of
CO2 avoided, at 2004 prices. The cost of
bioethanol from sugarcane, as in Brazil,
can be comparable to that of fossil fuels
(see graphic 6). Bioethanol from cellulose
(a second-generation biofuel) could already
provide CO2 reductions at less than $200 a
tonne. It is likely to remain expensive to
reduce CO2 using biodiesel and bioethanol
from US and European crops even after
2010. The cost of using second-generation
biofuels could come down to under $100 a
tonne with large-scale production.
As more governments encourage the use of
biofuels and set mandatory targets, demand
will outstrip supply leading to higher prices
for first- and second-generation biofuels.
Deforestation and land-use
change
The demand for soya and palm oil
threatens rainforests in Brazil,
Indonesia and Malaysia, which
are being cleared for plantations. These oils
are used by a number of industries, but the
growth in biodiesel production is increasing
demand significantly.
[7] RAINFOREST DEFORESTATION IMPACTS
Carbon storage and CO2 emissions per hectare in SE Asia
230
830
48
tonnes
carbon
tonnes
CO2
tonnes
carbon
[6] BIOFUELS SAVINGS
Biofuels cost per tonne GHG reduction
($ per tonne CO2 equivalent)
Bioethanol
(sugarcane)
Rainforest
Carbon stored
above ground
Bioethanol
(corn)
Bioethanol
(grain)
Bioethanol
(cellulose)
2002
Post 2010
Biodiesel
(rapeseed)
Biodiesel
(biomass)
-50 0
200
400
600
800
Source: IEA: Biofuels for transportation.
An international perspective, 2004
Deforestation
Carbon released as
CO2 due to clearing
and burning
Palm plantations
Stores only 20% of
carbon per hectare
compared to rainforest (equivalent to
165 tonnes CO2)
Sources: see back page
Rainforests store large amounts of carbon
above ground and in the soil, which is
released when they are cleared (see
graphic 7). A much smaller amount of carbon
is absorbed by the plantations which replace
the forests. This means biofuels grown in
tropical countries can contribute more to
climate change than fossil fuels when their
land-use impact is taken into account.
Studies have shown that biodiesel made from
palm oil produces three16 to ten17 times more
CO2 than an equivalent amount of fossil
fuel. The situation is even worse for biodiesel
made from soya, as the crop yields less oil
and stores less carbon than palm plantations.
Peat lands, wetlands and grasslands also
release large amounts of carbon if converted
to agricultural use. Most biodiesel is made
from rapeseed oil rather than palm oil and
soya bean oil. But as an increasing share of
rapeseed oil is used for fuels rather than for
food, more soya and palm is being planted
to compensate.
Deforestation and land-use change means
that while biofuels can appear to help
governments meet their national greenhouse
gas emissions reduction targets, they could in
reality be more damaging to climate change
globally when land-use impact is considered.
This means that it is vital for national policies
to take into account the full life-cycle climate
impact of different biofuels.
Biodiversity loss
The destruction of tropical forests
and grasslands to make way for
soya and palm plantations causes
significant destruction of plant and animal
species, including endangered species such
as the orang-utan.
Biofuel feedstocks are often grown as a
single crop over a wide area. Known as
monoculture, this brings high yields but
harms biodiversity. These impacts can be
reduced to an extent through mixed planting
and leaving wild areas.
Water scarcity
Both first and second-generation
biofuels require large amounts of
water to grow and process the
feedstocks. For example, it takes between
1,500 and 4,600 litres of water18 to produce
just one litre of bioethanol. There are already
water shortages in many regions and population
growth and climate change will further increase
competition for clean water and increase its cost.
Land-use and food availability
The world’s population is rapidly
increasing and is expected to exceed
9 billion19 by 2050. To feed this
growing population will require 50% more food
in the next 20 years.
[9] PROPORTION OF CROP USED FOR BIOFUELS (%)
Brazil: sugarcane
[10] BIOFUELS ENERGY DELIVERY
(x 1,000 litres of diesel equivalent per hectare)
USA: corn
Biodiesel
(rapeseed oil)
70
50
43
39
Bioethanol
(sugar cane)
4.05
10
Biomassto-liquid
Biomethane
(energy crops)
20
4.5
1995
2005
2015
1995
2005
2015
1.3
EU: cereals
2.5
4
EU: rapeseed
90
60
Bioethanol
(wheat)
1st generation biofuel
2nd generation biofuel
[8] PROJECTED GROWTH IN FOOD CONSUMPTION
Source: FNR
20
150%
-
140%
-
130%
-
120%
-
110%
-
100%
-
2004
Oil and
oilseed
meals
Sugar
Meat
Cereals
Dairy
2009
2014
2019
Source: OECD-FAO 2006
In the past, farmers have increased production
to meet growing demands. But they are now
finding it hard to keep up – in three of the four
years20 between 2003 and 2007 demand for
grains to feed people and livestock outstripped
supply. As countries such as China and India
develop, more people can afford meat and dairy
products. This is driving up demand for agricultural
commodities. The booming biofuels industry is
contributing further to this escalation in demand.
First-generation biofuels compete with food
crops, leading to rising food prices. In future, this
could jeopardise the world’s ability to feed its
growing population. Many other industries also
rely on raw materials, like palm oil, which are
being diverted to biofuel production.
0
1.6
1995
2005
<15
2015
1995
2005
2015
Source: The German Marshall Fund of the USA
While higher food prices will benefit some
producers, they negatively impact the economies
of food-importing countries. Poor people, who
spend a large proportion of their income on
food, will suffer disproportionately compared
with the wealthy. Mexico has already experienced
some of the negative consequences of the
growing US bioethanol industry. In 2006,
Mexicans took to the streets to protest at the
high price of tortillas (a corn bread staple), made
more expensive by demand for maize from USA
bioethanol producers.
In 2007 the UN World Food Programme which
fights famine in Africa announced that it could
no longer afford to maintain its current level of
support due to high commodity prices. Its food
purchasing costs rose by almost 50% between
2002 and 2007. 854 million23 people suffer from
hunger and this is increasing by an average of
4 million a year at current trends. Increasing
food prices will mean that even more people will
depend on food aid.
Land is a finite resource
Increased demand, higher prices
The biofuels industry is using an
increasing share of the world’s food
crops (see graphic 9), which is driving
up prices. Global food prices rose by 10%21 in
2006 due to an increase in corn, wheat and soya
bean oil prices. Prices are predicted to rise by
20–50%22 over the next decade (compared with
average levels over the last ten years).
Demand for biofuel feedstock increases prices
of other crops. For example, high demand for
corn to make bioethanol means US farmers are
producing less soya and wheat, which is boosting
prices for those crops. Biofuels are also raising
meat and dairy prices by pushing up the price of
animal feed.
Some biofuels are much more land
efficient than others, because of
higher feedstock yields per hectare and
more efficient production processes (see graphic
10). If we are to feed a growing population using
the finite amount of agricultural land available,
it is vital that governments choose to promote
biofuels that deliver the maximum possible
energy per hectare.
First-generation biofuels
Bioethanol and biodiesel made from non-tropical
feedstocks (rape, wheat and corn) are not land
efficient. It would require a minimum of 26% of
the world’s arable land to run just 20% of its cars
on these fuels.
Bioethanol and biodiesel made from palm oil
and sugarcane are more land efficient, but
there is limited potential to expand production
of the feedstocks without causing significant
environmental damage through loss of natural
forests and grasslands.
Second-generation biofuels
To run 20% of the world’s vehicles on secondgeneration biofuels would require 7% of its
arable land. The feedstocks for these fuels can
also be grown on other types of land, such as
pastures and forests.
Trade
Even at today’s high oil prices, most
biofuels cannot compete on cost with
petrol and diesel. Biofuel producers
rely on government subsidies for their profits.
Governments are beginning to set mandatory
targets to stimulate investment and demand
for biofuels. This is further boosting the price
of agricultural commodities and contributing to
trade distortions.
In Brazil, a well-established biofuel industry and
low production costs means Brazilian bioethanol
is cost competitive with petrol and diesel. The
EU and the USA have set trade barriers to
protect domestic biofuel industries from cheap
Brazilian bioethanol imports. This is encouraging
the development of less cost-effective and less
sustainable biofuels. This makes it more difficult
for those developing countries that are better
suited to biofuels production to compete on
world markets.
Many governments have proposed mandatory
biofuel targets that exceed their country’s
production and land capacity. In future, this
could make these countries dependent on
foreign imports, which will undermine their
energy security. Commodity prices will continue
to rise as competition increases for limited
global supplies.
[11] GLOBAL IMPACTS AND UNINTENDED CONSEQUENCES
USA
EU
China
TARGET
Biofuel as % of transport fuel
TARGET
Biofuel as % of transport fuel
TARGET
Biofuel as % of transport fuel
2030: 30%
2020: 10%
2020: 15%
BIOETHANOL PRODUCTION (2005)
BIOETHANOL PRODUCTION (2005)
BIOETHANOL PRODUCTION (2005)
11,800,000 tonnes
730,000 tonnes
800,000 tonnes
USA accounts for 15% of global
biodiesel production
Europe accounts for 85% of
global biodiesel production
China has imposed a moratorium
on projects making bioethanol
fuel from corn and other basic
food crops
USA: corn, wheat and soybean
Reduction in US land
used for food crops
pushes production
elsewhere, potentially
causing deforestation.
Bioethanol production
has pushed up corn
prices, sparking
protests in Mexico.
Europe doesn’t have
enough land to meet
its biofuels targets
and will be dependent
on imports.
Europe: rapeseed oil and wheat
European demand for
biodiesel feedstock
raises palm oil price,
causing deforestation.
98% of Indonesia’s
natural rainforest will
be degraded or gone
by 2022.
The world’s poorest
are already being
affected by higher
food prices.
Brazil: sugarcane and soybean
KEY:
Issues with food security
Issues with GHGs
Issues with sustainability
Brazil
India
Issues with trade
TARGET
Biofuel as % of transport fuel
TARGET
Biofuel as % of transport fuel
2010: 10%
2020: 20%
BIOETHANOL PRODUCTION (2005)
BIOETHANOL PRODUCTION (2005)
12,900,000 tonnes
240,000 tonnes
Feedstocks
Areas of tropical rainforest
Trade
Unintended consequences
Sources: F.O.Licht, UN
Sustainability criteria
The social and environmental impacts
of biofuels vary considerably,
depending on the type of feedstock
used, where it is grown and the processes
needed to turn it into biofuels.
Sustainability criteria are required to provide
confidence in the labelling and identification
of specific types of biofuel. The criteria should
cover the lifecycle CO2 emissions and impacts
on natural habitats, as well as socio-economic
factors, such as the availability of food for the
local population where feedstocks are produced.
In 2007, the Dutch Government announced
sustainability criteria and has proposed a system
to enable traceability of feedstocks by 2020.
The UK Government has proposed that 80% of
biofuels meet sustainability standards, including
CO2 reduction requirements, by 2010–11. The
EU is developing sustainability criteria.
Business is also developing sustainability
standards through initiatives such as the
Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (chaired by
Unilever) and the Roundtable on Sustainable
Biofuels. The latter aims to launch draft
sustainability standards in early 2008.
The Unilever position
Unilever supports sustainable biofuels that deliver social and environmental
benefits across their entire lifecycle.
Unilever supports renewable energy
initiatives that deliver benefits on a lifecycle
basis, helping to combat climate change and
reduce dependency on fossil fuels. Around
17% of the energy we use for our operations
comes from renewable sources.
Why the issue matters to Unilever
Two-thirds of the raw materials we use
come from agriculture. These materials are
essential to our business and Unilever has
a clear interest in how they are grown and
in securing future supplies. That is why
we have worked to improve the social and
environmental standards of agriculture
for more than a decade. Our sustainable
agriculture programmes include palm oil,
oilseed rape, sunflowers, spinach, tomatoes
and tea. We are also a member of several
sustainability initiatives including the
Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil.
Demand for biofuels feedstock has already
reduced the availability of raw materials and
driven up prices. We are concerned that
increased demand will destabilise world
food supply and undermine sustainable
agriculture. Use of vegetable oils, such as
rapeseed oil, for biofuels could also create
shortages, driving consumers to less healthy
animal fats.
Lifecycle analysis
Unilever believes that individual biofuels
should be examined carefully to ensure
that the unintended environmental
(deforestation and biodiversity loss) and
socio-economic (food security) consequences
do not undermine the positive impacts.
Biofuels must also be evaluated across their
lifecycle to achieve genuine greenhouse gas
(GHG) reductions.
Biomass is a valuable resource. Using it
to generate heat and electricity is a more
efficient and cost-effective way of reducing
CO2 emissions than using it to make
transport fuels24. New vehicle technologies,
such as electric and hybrid, and more
efficient engines, offer significant scope
to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
from transport.
First-generation biofuels
Unilever believes that some first-generation
biofuels are neither environmentally efficient
nor cost-effective ways to reduce emissions.
Many studies have shown that several firstgeneration biofuels have poor performance
with regard to reducing GHG emissions and
dependency on fossil fuels. Some even cause
more GHG emissions than the fossil fuels
they replace25.
We are concerned that the use of valuable
food crops for energy purposes will increase
pressure on ecosystems and biodiversity.
Deforestation, particularly to make way for
palm oil and soya beans, could lead to the
devastation of the last remaining rainforests
in Borneo and the Amazon region.
Second-generation biofuels
Unilever believes that the development
of second-generation biofuels that don’t
compete with food crops and have low
carbon emissions is essential. The mainstream
market introduction of second-generation
biofuels would provide a strong incentive
for the application of renewable energy
technologies while minimising the negative
repercussions on food markets and food
security. Unilever believes there is a strong
case for government and business investment
in new technologies and further research on
the sustainable use of biomass. Support for
second-generation biofuels could be
accelerated through:
■
R&D facilitation and technology transfer
■
Tax exemption and/or subsidies
■
Phasing out support for poor performing
first-generation biofuels
Second-generation biofuels should be
required to achieve at least 50% GHG
savings compared to fossil fuels.
Assessing sustainability
We believe governments worldwide have
the responsibility to subject their biofuel
policies to a full impact assessment. These
assessments should cover environmental,
social and economic impacts, from the
regions of production to the end use.
Policies which aim to reduce GHG emissions
should contain full lifecycle assessments for
individual biofuels. This should ensure that
change in land use is included in the carbon
balance. We propose that government
targets should be based on CO2 reductions
rather than volume as well as on availability
of feedstocks.
Sustainability standards
Unilever believes sustainability criteria should
be introduced for the use of biomass within
energy programmes. These should include
criteria at the production level as well as
criteria at a macro-level such as overall GHG
balance and energy efficiency, food security,
and the protection of biodiversity and
ecosystems. The use of biomass for energy
should not be stimulated by government
programmes without the application of
transparent sustainability criteria. Proceeding
without these safeguards will risk unintended
consequences that could result in worse
climate change impacts, natural habitat loss
and disruption of staple food supplies.
Sources of information:
1
International Energy Agency: World Energy Outlook 2006
17
Delft Hydraulics
2
International Energy Agency: http://iea.org/textbase/work/2004/
eswg/21_NCV.pdf
18
Based on Food and Agriculture Organization data available
at www.waterfootprint.org
3
International Energy Agency: World Energy Outlook 2006
19
United Nations: World Population to 2300, 2004
4
http://www.biodiesel.org/resources/fuelfactsheets/standards_
and_warranties.shtm
20
Economist, 23/6/07
21
International Monetary Fund: World Economic Report,
April 2007
Writing and consultancy
Context
22
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development/
Food and Agriculture Organization: Agricultural Outlook 20072016
Design and production
Red Letter Design
23
Food and Agriculture Organization: State of Food Insecurity
in the World 2006
24
International Energy Agency: Biofuels For Transport: An
International Perspective, 2004
25
Reijinders L. & Huijbrechts M.A.J. (2006) and Delft Hydraulics
5
United Nations: Sustainable Bioenergy: A Framework for
Decision Makers, 2007
6
United Nations Environment Programme: Global Trends in
Sustainable Energy Investment, 2007
7
International Energy Agency: World Energy Outlook 2006
8
United Nations: World Population to 2300, 2004
9
World Business Council for Sustainable Development: Energy &
Climate Change Facts and Trends to 2050, 2004
10
United Nations: Sustainable Bioenergy: A Framework for
Decision Makers, 2007
11
Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Outlook,
2007
12
United Nations: Sustainable Bioenergy: A Framework for
Decision Makers, 2007
13
International Energy Agency, World Energy Outlook 2006
14
Washington Post 20/08/07
15
International Energy Agency: Biofuels for Transport –
An International Perspective, 2004
16
Reijinders L. & Huijbrechts M.A.J., 2006
Unilever N.V.
Weena 455, PO Box 760
3000 DK Rotterdam
The Netherlands
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F +31 (0)10 217 4798
Commercial Register Rotterdam
Number: 24051830
Unilever PLC
PO Box 68
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United Kingdom
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Unilever PLC registered office
Unilever PLC
Port Sunlight
Wirral
Merseyside CH62 4ZD
United Kingdom
Registered in England and Wales
Company Number: 41424
www.unilever.com
Rainforest Deforestation Impacts [7] graphic:
Journal of Cleaner Production 2006, Palm Oil and the Emission
of Carbon-Based Greenhouse Gases, Reijinders L. & Huijbrechts
M.A.J.
Journal of Tropical Forest Science 2005: An Assessment of
Changes in Biomass Carbon Stocks in Tree Crops and Forests in
Malaysia, Henson I.E.
Oil World Annual 2007: ISTA Mielke GmbH
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: Guidelines for
National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Volume 2, Energy, 2006
Illustrations
(Graphics 4 and 7)
KJA-artists.com
Printing
Scanplus
(on paper made from responsibly
managed forests)