CHINA PETROLEUM EXPLORATION
Volume 21, Issue 2, March 2016
Control of tectonic cycle in the South China Sea over hydrocarbon accumulation in the Zengmu Basin
Liu Shixiang, Zhang Gongcheng, Zhao Zhigang, Xie Xiaojun, Wang Long, Song Shuang, Guo Jia, Wang
Shenglan, Bi Yankun, Wang Yibo
CNOOC Research Center
Abstract: The Zengmu Basin was gradually formed with the evolution of tectonic cycle in the South China Sea. Since the Cenozoic it has undergone three major structural evolution stages, i.e., foreland fault depression in the Eocene to the Early Miocene,
strike-slip transformation in the Middle Miocene and regional subsidence in the Late Miocene to present. The tectonic cycle in the
South China Sea has controlled the structural evolution of the Zengmu Basin and has played an important role in the hydrocarbon
generation and accumulation conditions. Foreland fault depression is the major controlling factor in the development of principal
source rocks in this basin, and the formation of sandstone reservoirs and structural traps at its southern flank. During the foreland
fault depression stage, delta coal source rocks and terrigenous marine source rocks were generated. Carbonate reservoirs and carbonate formation occurred in the central-northern area of this basin as part of the strike-slip transformation stage. The formation
and distribution of regional cap rocks in this basin have been dominated by the regional subsidence since the Late Miocene.
Key words: tectonic cycle in South China Sea, Zengmu Basin, structural evolution, hydrocarbon accumulation
The South China Sea, one of the most important marginal
seas in the West Pacific Ocean, is located at the southeastern
margin of the Eurasian plate. Affected jointly by the Eurasian, Indo-Australian and Pacific plates, it has a very complex regional tectonic setting and dynamic condition[1–3].
Since the Cenozoic, the South China Sea has undergone multiple stages of spreading. Its structural evolution is characterized by multi-cycle and multi-stage, when two major tectonic cycles of marginal sea arose, namely, the Paleo-South
China Sea and the Neo-South China Sea[4]. The South China
Sea region exhibits different geological features at different
evolution stages. The tectonic cycle of this marginal sea is
the major factor controlling the formation of the tectonic
framework in the South China Sea and has played an important role in formation, structural evolution, sedimentary
filling, hydrocarbon accumulation and oil & gas resource
potential of basins in the South China Sea area. Study on the
Zengmu Basin suggests that the basin was formed gradually
with the evolution of tectonic cycle in the South China Sea.
The South China Sea has controlled the structural evolution
and hydrocarbon accumulation condition of the Zengmu
Basin and, therefore, can be considered as a major factor
controlling the formation and evolution of the basin.
1.
Geological overview of the Zengmu Basin
The Zengmu Basin is a Cenozoic foreland basin located
in the southern part of the South China Sea. The basin covers a total area of 17×104 km2; topography is complicated,
reef-flat and shoal are broadly developed, and the water
depth is generally less than 300 m. According to the geotectonic division on a regional scale, the Zengmu Basin mainly
lies within the Sunda Shelf area and partially extends into
the Borneo Shelf area. The basin is separated from the
Wan’an and West Natuna Basins to the west by the
SN-trending Xiya and Natuna uplifts, and the Brunei-Sabah
Basin to the east and the Beikang Basin to the north by a
NW-trending Tingjia fault zone. To the south, the basin is
situated onto a suture zone between the Zengmu block and
the Borneo accretion system (Fig.1).
Utilizing basement properties, structural features, sedimentary responses and geophysical data, the Zengmu Basin
can be divided into eight second-order tectonic units, i.e.
Western slope, Kangxi depression, Nankang platform, East
Balinjian depression, Suokang depression, Lanai uplift, Tatao horst-graben and West Balinjian uplift (Fig.1). The
Kangxi depression comprises the majority of the Zengmu
Basin and is also the primary depocenter in the basin. This
is a sedimentary depression, where over ten thousand meters
of sediments were deposited, exceeding a maximum depositional thickness of 15000 m[5].
The Zengmu Basin is one of the most important basins
for the oil & gas strategic region in the South China Sea.
Since the discovery of the first oil/gas field in 1953, the
Received date: 23 Dec. 2015; Revised date: 29 Jan. 2016.
Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]
Foundation item: State Natural Science Fund Project “Control of Tectonic Cycle in South China Sea over Hydrocarbon Accumulation in Zengmu Basin”
(91525303); Special and Significant Project of National Science and Technology “Oil & Gas Exploration in and Key Technologies for Offshore Deepwater Area”
(2016ZX05026).
Copyright © 2016, Petroleum Industry Press, PetroChina. All rights reserved.
2
CHINA PETROLEUM EXPLORATION
Fig. 1
Location map of regional structures in Zengmu Basin
basin has experienced 4 large-scale exploration stages. As of
2013, a total of 846 wells had been drilled, and 26×104 km
2D seismic lines and 3.6×104 km2 3D seismic surveys had
been acquired by foreign oil companies in the Zengmu Basin. Within the basin, 134 oil & gas fields were discovered,
which are distributed in 4 tectonic units (Western slope,
Nankang platform, East Balinjian depression and West
Balinjian uplift). At present, 103 oil & gas fields are located
within the traditional territory of China, totaling 4.89×108 t
of recoverable oil in place, 4.43×1012 m3 of recoverable gas
in place and 1.60×108 m3 of recoverable condensate in place
(the equivalent of 50.79×108 tons of oil and gast). This
study of structural evolution and hydrocarbon accumulation
will provide valuable guidance to upcoming oil & gas exploration operations.
2.
2.1.
Vol. 21, No. 2, 2016
Structural evolution features
Tectonic cycles in South China Sea
Tectonic cycles in the South China Sea during the Cenozoic were manifested by two tectonic cycles of the marginal
sea, i.e. the Paleo-South China Sea and the Neo-South
China Sea. They evolved in two stages.
2.1.1. Stage of Paleo-South China Sea’s dying out and
Neo-South China Sea’s development
The Paleo-South China Sea was developed on the basis
of the residual Paleo-Tethys Ocean[6]. It began to spread
during the Early Jurassic and was jointly affected by the
Meso-Tethys and the Paleo-Pacific. Its northern margin has
witnessed a transition from the compressional setting to the
extensional setting as the rate and direction of movement of
the Pacific plate changed during the Late Cretaceous. At that
time, the collision between the Indosinian and Eurasian
plates resulted in the southeastward flow of a deep asthenosphere situated between them and under the effects of NS
stress. This asthenosphere was then obstructed by the Pacific plate to the southeast, forming the ascending mantle
plume[8]. The interaction of these plates caused the Paleo-South China Sea to begin to subduct southward and die
out. The Neo-South China Sea, opened up during the Oligocene, pushed the Nansha block to drift southward and
also accelerated the dying out of the Paleo-South China Sea,
forming the Lupar Line ophiolite belt and a series of subduction-accretion belts. The drifting of the Nanhai block
terminated when it collided with the Borneo accretion system in the Middle Miocene, the Paleo-South China Sea totally died out, and the Neo-South China Sea completely
opened up.
2.1.2. Stage of Neo-South China Sea's rapid subsidence
and shrinkage
From the Middle Miocene to present, the NS seafloor
spreading of the Neo-South China Sea has remained static.
Main tectonic movements include the subduction of the
Philippine plate from southeast to northwest. The northern
and western margins of the Neo-South China Sea are in
rapid subsidence. The subsidence effect decreases succes-
Liu Shixiang et al., Control of tectonic cycle in the South China Sea over hydrocarbon accumulation in the Zengmu Basin
sively from the central oceanic basin to shelf basin, leaving
thick sediments at the influx of a river into the sea. In the
eastern part of the Neo-South China Sea, the obducted Philippine Island Arc caused the oceanic crust lithosphere in the
Neo-South China Sea to subduct eastward, forming a subduction edge[9]. As a result, the eastern part of the
Neo-South China Sea remains closed.
2.2.
Tectonic evolution of Zengmu Basin
The formation and evolution of the Zengmu Basin are
controlled primarily by tectonic evolution of the Paleo- and
Neo-South China Sea. During the Eocene-Early Miocene,
the Zengmu block collided to the south with the Borneo accretion system to form a foreland basin due to the impacts
of the Paleo-South China Sea’s gradual dying out and the
Neo-South China Sea’s spreading. In the Middle Miocene,
the spreading of the Neo-South China Sea ceased, the
strike-slip transformation of the basin occurred as a result of
the counterclockwise rotation of the Borneo accretion system, and under this kind of tectonic stress a torsional fault
depression basin was formed. Since the Late Miocene, the
basin as a whole has entered the regional subsidence stage.
In general, since the Cenozoic, the Zengmu Basin has undergone three major tectonic evolution stages, i.e. foreland
fault depression, strike-slip transformation and regional
subsidence.
2.2.1. Foreland fault depression stage (Eocene to Early
Miocene)
The Lucania block on which the Zengmu Basin rests was
located in the northern part of the Borneo by the end of Late
Cretaceous[10], and was separated by the Paleo-South China
Sea. At that time, the Zengmu Basin was situated on the
passive continental margin (Fig.2a). In response to the
southward subduction of the Paleo-South China Sea, the
Lucania block drifted southward[11], and in the Late Oligocene it collided to the south with the Borneo accretion system (Fig.2b). As a result, thrust nappe structure was developed in the southern part of the Zimu Basin, forming a
foreland basin. This effect lasted to the end of the Early
Miocene (Fig.2c). The Mesozoic to Eocene strata, under the
effects of this tectonic stress, was gradually uplifted to experience erosion or metamorphism, forming the basement of
the basin. Because of collision and compression, the southern part of the basin was highly uplifted to form a foreland
basin and an orogenic belt, which provided the basin with
abundant sediments at later stage (Fig.2d). The northern part
of the Zengmu Basin is predominately in an extensional setting, with extensional normal faults and locally developed
mud diapirs and volcanoes. A considerable thickness of
strata was deposited during the foreland fault depression
3
stage, and at that time the Kangxi depression, the Nankang
platform and the East Balinjian depression were a unified
depression rested on foredeep of the foreland basin. Therefore, during the foreland fault depression stage, the southern
part of the basin had collided and was compressed to form a
foreland basin and an orogenic belt. Since the effect of this
compression was stronger in the south than that in the north,
the structural pattern of the basin can be divided into two
distinct belts – the compressional structure in the south and
the extensional structure in the north. Because the depocenter and subsidence center were located in the northern part
of the basin, the northern part has accommodated thicker
sediments than the southern part.
2.2.2. Strike-slip transformation stage (Middle Miocene)
The Middle Miocene witnessed a considerable change in
regional tectonic settings across the Zengmu Basin and adjoining areas. Firstly, the spreading of the Neo-South China
Sea ceased and the southern part of the basin was no longer
affected by collision and compression. Secondly, the opening up of the Celebes Sea and the Sulu Sea to the east of the
Borneo, and northward progression of the Australian plate
to the south,[12] caused the Borneo, as well as the Zengmu
Basin, to rotate counterclockwise[13]. As a result of this rotation, two strike-slip fault zones were formed in the northern
part of the basin. One is named the western South China Sea
fault zone[14], and the other is the Lizhun-Tinjia fault zone[15].
The northern part of the basin was therefore transformed by
a large number of strike-slip faults. This transformation was,
however, relatively weak in the southern part. Therefore, it
can be concluded that the strike-slip transformation was
strong in north and weak in south. A number of reversal anticlines were formed in the proximity of strike-slip fault
zones under the effect of strike-slip extrusion. Angular unconformities can be formed on the top of these anticlines
where truncation and erosion commonly occurred, and carbonate rocks could form at high positions of anticlines.
Many carbonate formations are present across the basin
during the strike-slip transformation stage, forming a set of
high-quality reef limestone reservoir. Specific examples
include reservoirs of the L gas field on the West slope and
some oil & gas fields in the Nankang platform, all of which
were formed in this setting.
2.2.3. Regional subsidence stage (Late Miocene to present)
Since the Late Miocene, the Zengmu Basin and adjoining
areas as a whole have entered a regional subsidence stage,
during which the basin was predominately subsided on a regional scale under a relatively stable tectonic setting
(Fig.2d). During this stage, the Zengmu Basin underwent a
4
CHINA PETROLEUM EXPLORATION
Fig. 2
Tectonic evolution section of Zengmu Basin
slow subsidence in the Late Miocene and then a rapid subsidence since the Pliocene. However, the tectonic setting
generally remained stable and was neritic to bathyal-dominated.
3.
3.1.
Vol. 21, No. 2, 2016
Petroleum geological conditions
Source rock
Exploration practices have confirmed the presence of two
sets of source rocks across the Zengmu Basin, i.e., the Oligocene delta coal source rock (including mudstone, coal bed
and carbonaceous mudstone) and the Lower Miocene terrigenous marine source rock[16–17]. The Oligocene coal source
rock was developed in the southern part of the basin. It contains Types II2-III kerogen with TOC of 1%–2%, and can be
4000–5000 m thick as revealed by seismic data. Organic
matter in the Lower Miocene source rock is predominately
Type III and partially Type II2 kerogen with TOC of
0.3%–5.5% or 1.4% on average. This can be therefore classified as moderate to good source rock. Geochemical analysis of these source rocks suggests that the Oligocene-Lower
Miocene source rocks are dominant in the basin. It means
that the principal source rock in the Zengmu Basin was developed during the foreland fault depression stage in the
Eocene-Early Miocene.
3.2.
Reservoir
The statistics of discovered oil & gas fields across the
Zengmu Basin indicate the presence of two types of reservoirs across the basin, i.e. sandstone reservoirs in the Oligocene-Middle Miocene strata and carbonate reservoirs in
the Middle to Upper Miocene strata.
Sandstone reservoirs are distributed in the East Balinjian
depression and acts as the primary reservoir of oil fields
Liu Shixiang et al., Control of tectonic cycle in the South China Sea over hydrocarbon accumulation in the Zengmu Basin
discovered in that depression. River mouth bar, distributary
channel and delta plain are main sedimentary facies.
Lithology is dominated by fine- to moderate-grained sandstone. The porosity ranges from 10% to 38%, averaging
14%, and tends to increase from the lower part to the upper
part. The permeability generally ranges from 100 mD to
1500 mD. They are therefore interpreted to have good
physical properties. A series of oil & gas fields with sandstone reservoirs have been discovered by far in the East
Balinjian depression, the Zengmu Basin. Recoverable reserves of these sandstone reservoirs total about 2.6×108 tons
of oil equivalent, accounting for about 9% of the basin’s recoverable reserves.
Carbonate reservoirs, dominated by organic reef-shoal,
grainstone and marlstone[16], were developed in the West
slope and the Nankang platform. By far over 200 carbonate
formations, either platform- or tower-shaped, have been discovered. The porosity is 10%–40%, or 26% on average. The
permeability is 20–1000 mD. They are therefore interpreted
to have very good physical properties. Over 30 gas fields
holding considerable gas reserves have been discovered by
far in West slope and Nankang platform, the Zengmu Basin.
Particular examples are L, E11, F6 and M1 gas fields.
Recoverable reserves of carbonate reservoirs in the Zengmu
Basin total 26.5×108 tons of oil equivalent, accounting for
about 91% of the basin’s recoverable reserves. Therefore,
carbonate reservoirs are considered the main producing layers in the Zengmu Basin.
3.3.
Cap rock
The Cenozoic strata in the Zengmu Basin were deposited
in a setting in which the sea level rose continually and the
sea area spread gradually, which allowed for the formation
of favorable cap rock. The Late Miocene-Quaternary is a in
which the Zengmu Basin subsided on a regional scale. Under this setting a section of neritic-bathyal sediments were
deposited, which could act as a good regional cap rock
across the basin, since it extends continuously and is thickly
bedded and free of tectonic movement[17]. In addition, the
Oligocene-Lower Miocene mudstone interlayer is considered a local cap rock for structural traps.
3.4.
Source-reservoir-cap-rock assemblage
The Zengmu Basin has undergone three stages of tectonic
evolution, with two sets of source rocks (Oligocene and
Lower Miocene), two sets of reservoirs (Oligocene-Middle
Miocene clastic rock and Middle to Upper Miocene carbonate rock), a local cap rock (Oligocene-Lower Miocene) and
a regional cap rock (Upper Miocene-Quaternary). It is depositionally characterized by presence of multi-cycle and
5
rhythmicity. Vertically, the source rocks, reservoirs and cap
rocks are combined to four favorable assemblages.
Assemblage I: the Oligocene mudstone, carbonaceous
mudstone and coal bed as the source rocks, the Oligocene
sandstone as the reservoir, and the Oligocene mudstone interlayer as the cap rock, which together form a self-generation & self-preservation assemblage.
Assemblage II: the Lower Miocene mudstone and carbonaceous mudstone as the source rocks, the Lower Miocene delta sandstone as the reservoir, and the Lower Miocene mudstone interlayer as the cap rock, which together
form a self-generation & self-preservation assemblage.
Assemblage III: the Oligocene mudstone, carbonaceous
mudstone and coal bed, and the Lower Miocene mudstone
and carbonaceous mudstone as the source rocks, the Middle
Miocene sandstone and carbonate rock as the reservoirs, and
the Upper Miocene-Quaternary mudstone as the cap rock,
which together form a lower-generation & upper-preservation assemblage.
Assemblage IV: the Lower Miocene shale and carbonaceous mudstone as the source rocks, the Upper Miocene
carbonate rock/organic reef as the reservoir, and the Upper
Miocene-Quaternary mudstone as the caprock, which together form a lower-generation & upper-preservation assemblage.
For the Zengmu Basin, the hydrocarbon-generating potential of source rocks and the stratigraphic position of oil &
gas discoveries indicate that, Assemblages III and IV are
deemed to be most prospective, and Assemblages I and II
can be classified as good assemblages.
3.5.
Trap type
The Zengmu Basin holds well-developed traps[18], including structural traps (e.g., fault blocks, fault anticlines,
draping anticlines and rollover anticlines) and organic reef
lithologic traps. Structural traps, such as fault blocks, draping anticlines and rollover anticlines, were formed in the
southern part of the basin during the foreland fault depression stage in the Oligocene-Early Miocene and the strikeslip transformation stage in the Middle Miocene (Fig.3).
The Organic reef lithologic traps, which have a large area
and significant amplitude, were developed mainly in the
West slope and the Nankang platform (Fig.3) and are considered to be the main trap for the Zengmu Basin.
4. Control of tectonic evolution over hydrocarbon accumulation
Oil & gas reservoirs are products of the formation and
evolution of a basin. The formation of reservoirs is con-
6
CHINA PETROLEUM EXPLORATION
Fig. 3
Distribution of major traps in the Zengmu Basin
trolled strictly by the tectonic evolution of a basin. The tectonic cycle in the South China Sea has controlled the structural evolution of the Zengmu Basin as well as the hydrocarbon accumulation in the basin. This control is evident in
the development features of source rocks, reservoirs and
caprocks, formation of traps, and geological conditions for
hydrocarbon migration.
4.1.
Control on formation of source rocks
Two sets of source rocks are developed in the Zengmu
Basin, i.e. the Oligocene delta coal source rock and the
Miocene terrigenous marine source rock. In the evolution
process of the basin, both source rocks were formed during
Fig. 4
Vol. 21, No. 2, 2016
the foreland fault depression stage in the Eocene-Early
Miocene. Because of the continual southward subduction of
the Paleo-South China Sea, the Lucania block on which the
Zengmu Basin rests collided with the Borneo accretion system. As a result, the southern part of the basin was compressed to form uplifts and then the provenance zone for the
basin (Fig.4). The substantial presence of fluvial and delta
sediments may provide sufficient materials for formation of
source rocks. At that time, a subsidence area was formed in
the northern part of the basin under an extensional regime,
providing the accommodation space for source rocks.
Within the East Balinjian depression, which was uplifted
later to a shallow buried depth, a coal source rock was
Palaeogeographic map of the Zengmu Basin at the foreland fault depression stage
Liu Shixiang et al., Control of tectonic cycle in the South China Sea over hydrocarbon accumulation in the Zengmu Basin
formed and, given the relatively low geothermal gradient,
has predominately generated oil. Within the Kangxi depression and the Nankang platform, where marine strata were
continually deposited, a terrigenous marine source rock was
formed and, given the relatively high geothermal gradient
(due to a deep burial depth) and connection to deep heat
source (through strike-slip faults formed in a later), has
predominately generated gas[19].
4.2.
Control on formation of reservoirs
During the foreland fault depression stage, the Zengmu
Basin formed the depositional setting of a large-scale slope
that dips northeastward, with uplifts formed in the southern
part (in response to the compression effect) and depressions
formed in the northern part. As a result, a number of sand
bodies of alluvial fan and delta depositional systems were
developed on a gentle slope in the southern part of the basin.
These sand bodies, together with coastal plain mudstone and
Fig. 5
neritic mudstone, comprise a self-generation & self-preservation assemblage. Reservoir bodies of this assemblage exhibit a complex distribution law and are distributed unsteadily. This kind of oil/gas field, such as D18 (Fig.5), often has
multiple producing layers and unsteady productivity.
During the strike-slip transformation stage, a number of
uplifted structures were developed on the West slope and the
Nankang platform in the Zengmu Basin, due to the effect of
strike-slip tectonic deformation in the northern part. Carbonate formations were formed onto these uplifted structures, forming a section of carbonate reservoir. Carbonate
reservoir bodies, which are steadily distributed, exhibit significant thickness and have good physical properties; they
comprise a favorable assemblage in combination with the
overlying bathyal mudstone, a continuously distributed,
high-quality cap rock. This kind of oil/gas field, such as L
(Fig.6), is commonly block-shaped and has a thick producing layer, significant production scale and stable productivity.
Hydrocarbon accumulation section of D18 oil and gas field
Fig. 6
7
Hydrocarbon accumulation section of L gas field
8
CHINA PETROLEUM EXPLORATION
4.3.
Control on distribution of cap rock
Since the regional subsidence stage of the Zengmu Basin,
a set of thickly bedded and broadly distributed neriticbathyal mudstone has been developed in the basin. This
mudstone, with a thickness of 2–6 km and an excellent sealing capability, is considered a favorable regional cap rock
for the basin, and has enabled a good preservation of oil &
gas reservoirs in this area. The drilling results indicate that,
all oil & gas reservoirs in this area were discovered at
depths below the Upper Miocene. This clearly illustrates the
control effect of this cap rock on vertical distribution of
hydrocarbon.
4.4.
Control on formation of trap
During the foreland fault depression in the Eocene-Early
Miocene, the intense tectonic movement in the southern part
of the Zengmu Basin allowed for formation of a number of
fault blocks and faulted anticline traps. Since the effect of
strike-slip transformation was strong in north and weak in
south, a series of structural traps (e.g., rollover anticlines
and draping anticlines) were formed in some low-lying areas and a series of carbonate lithologic traps were formed in
high-lying areas across the central and northern parts of the
basin. Therefore, the structural traps have been shaped in the
central and northern parts of the basin by the end of Middle
Miocene and in the southern part by the end of Early Miocene.
4.5.
Vol. 21, No. 2, 2016
the South China Sea, has undergone three major evolution
stages, i.e., foreland fault depression in the Eocene to the
Early Miocene, strike-slip transformation stage in the Middle Miocene, and regional subsidence stage in the Late
Miocene to present.
(2) The Oligocene-Lower Miocene strata hold the most
principal source rock of the Zengmu Basin. During the
foreland fault depression and strike-slip transformation
stages, a variety of depositional systems including the fluvial-delta, coastal plain-neritic, and carbonate platform were
developed and various reservoir-cap-rock assemblages were
formed. During the regional subsidence stage, good
cap-rocks were formed under the effect of a steady regional
subsidence.
(3) The tectonic cycle in the South China Sea controlled
the structural evolution of the Zengmu Basin as well as the
hydrocarbon accumulation in the basin. This control is
evident in the development features of source rocks, reservoirs and cap-rocks, formation of traps, and geological conditions for hydrocarbon migration.
(4) Since the Zengmu Basin is a key basin in the South
China Sea, a study on main factors that control the hydrocarbon accumulation of this basin can provide reference and
guidance for the future exploration of this basin.
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