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853
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(2#1#) re)ea+e, ,iscre0ancies in ca,ence i,enti3ication (ha+3
)s6 authentic) among 0ro3essiona+ music theorists: he was not
suggesting any =in, o3 harmonic con3usion:
he was
i,enti3ying 0assages with am?iguous segmentation6
E)ent segmentation theory 0ro)i,es an eA0+anation 3or
musiciansB tra,itiona+ em0hasis on ?eginnings (3or instance:
when assessing 0hrases as 0ara++e+ or contrasting)6 More
signi3icant+y: e)ent segmentation is ineAtrica?+y +in=e, to the
notion o3 c+osure (see Pee?+es 2#11): which in turn is a
0rinci0+e e+ement o3 musica+ 3orm6 In,ee,: one o3 the most
im0ortant 3eatures rein3orce, ?y music teachers is the ca,ence:
which is o3ten com0are, to 0unctuation at the en, o3 a written
sentence in +anguage6 (Punctuation mar=s: o3 course: are an
assortment o3 )isua+ sym?o+s that re0resent )arying +e)e+s o3
segmentation in written +anguage F segmentation that wou+,
?e ?o+stere, through timing an, in3+ection in s0o=en
+anguage6)
G+though ca,ences are o3ten 0ortraye, to
?eginning stu,ents as harmonic 0atterns that create a sense o3
c+osure (e6g6: the authentic ca,ence in)o+)es a V chor,
3o++owe, ?y a " chor,): a so0histicate, teacher wi++ ,iscuss the
interaction o3 harmony an, other mar=ers o3 c+osure6 Hhi+e
the V- " harmonic 0attern ,oes in,ee, coinci,e with strong
,i)i,ing 0oints (that is: ?oun,aries ?etween re+ati)e+y +ong
segments): c+ear+y not e)ery V-" succession wou+, ?e
,escri?e, as a ca,ence6 Jarmony contri?utes to a sense o3
c+osure: ?ut harmony a+one cannot create musica+ c+osure6
In 3act: harmony might more accurate+y ?e ,escri?e, as
ha)ing the 0otentia+ to un,ermine musica+ c+osure6 Konsi,er:
3or instance: the en,ing o3 the secon, mo)ement o3 Jan,e+Bs
Koncerto Lrosso: M06 N: no6 12 (re,uce, 3rom its origina+
orchestra+ teAture in Oigure 1)6
Gs any e,ucate, musician =nows: the reso+ution o3 V to vi
(rather than to i) in Oigure 1 constitutes a ,ece0ti)e ca,ence6
Dece0ti)e ca,ences ha)e ?een a,,resse, in ,etai+ ?y many
authors (e6g6: Juron 2##N): an, so I wi++ not ,iscuss them
3urther here6 It is worth mentioning: though: that F Tust as
not e)ery V- " succession constitutes an authentic ca,ence F a
V-vi succession wi++ not necessari+y ?e inter0rete, as a
,ece0ti)e ca,ence6 Konsi,er the ?eginning o3 the secon,
theme 3rom Ueetho)enBs VHa+,steinW Xonata (Piano Xonata
No6 21: M06 QY): 0ro)i,e, in Oigure 26
!i#$%& () *a%,-ny -0&%%i1&s a %&s34s i,5li7a3i-n -8 7l-s$%&
Music theory teachers argua?+y re)erse the natura+ +earning
0rocess ?y out+ining 0atterns a musician wou+, i,ea++y acZuire
through hours o3 attenti)e +istening F that is: through
statistica+ +earning F an, then as=ing stu,ents to memori[e
them6 In this sense: c+assroom e,ucation cou+, ?e accuse, o3
re0+acing in,e0en,ent eA0erience6 I ,o not consi,er this a
serious criticism: though: ?ecause i,ea++y this im0arting o3
=now+e,ge wi++ ser)e not as a su?stitute ?ut rather as a
shortcut: +ea,ing to more e33icient statistica+ +earning ?ecause
it ,irects the +istenerBs attention to common 0atterns6
G greater 0ro?+em: in my o0inion: is that we ten, to
em0hasi[e what is hear,: an, occasiona++y what is eA0ecte,:
?ut we rare+y ana+y[e why it is (or is not) eA0ecte,6 In other
wor,s: we i,enti3y signi3icant musica+ e)ents: we name them
(o3ten with a,,itiona+ ,escri0tors to re0resent 0articu+ar
su?categories): an, we out+ine the or,er in which they
ty0ica++y occur6 He are +ess +i=e+y to 3ocus on the sty+istic
e+ements that a++ow an eA0ert +istener to 0re,ict that a 0assage
is a?out to mo,u+ate: that a 3ami+iar theme wi++ soon return: or
that a ca,ence is a00roaching6 G+though there is nothing
inherent+y wrong with such a 0e,agogica+ a00roach: it is
oriente, aroun, retros0ecti)e musica+ un,erstan,ing6
I
suggest that there is 0ractica+ )a+ue in a,,ressing antici0atory
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Xtatistica+ +earning +ea,s an eA0erience, musician to
antici0ate that the tonic wi++ 3o++ow the ,ominant: an, in this
sense the thir, chor, is sur0rising6 Jowe)er: a com0etent
+istener wou+, not eA0ect a ca,ence o3 any sort a3ter on+y one
measure: an, thus the musica+ e33ect resu+ting 3rom the V- vi
succession in Oigure 2 is entire+y ,i33erent 3rom that o3
Oigure 16 In,ee,: the 3irst measure o3 Oigure 2 seems 3air+y
unremar=a?+e ?ecause our eA0ectations are so wea= at the
?eginning o3 a new segment6 Xuch ,istinctions +ea, some
music theorists to a,o0t the term V,ece0ti)e reso+utionW as
,istinct 3rom V,ece0ti)e ca,enceW: a ,ece0ti)e ca,ence can
on+y occur at the moment when a +istener eA0ects an authentic
ca,ence: whereas a ,ece0ti)e reso+ution can occur when a
non-ca,entia+ tonic chor, is eA0ecte,6 Ggain: a nuance,
un,erstan,ing o3 the mutua+ in3+uence o3 harmony an, 0hrase
structure re+ies u0on conscious =now+e,ge o3 eA0ectation an,
segmentation6
IV. =>?: :!!:@A= >B CD=A:BDBE
Mr,inari+y a +ong note 3o++owe, ?y si+ence (as in the secon,
measure o3 Oigure 1) is inter0rete, as a mar=er o3
segmentation: many 0hrases conc+u,e with a +ong note an, a
successi)e rest: an, +arger musica+ segments are increasing+y
+i=e+y to ?e set a0art ?y +ong notes an, rests6 In this case:
howe)er: the harmony hear, ,uring the +ong note F the vi
chor, F is not associate, with musica+ en,ings6 G++ other
3actors (e6g6: rhythm: meter: me+o,y: register: an, 0rece,ing
harmony) +ea, an eA0erience, musician to antici0ate a
segmenta+ ?oun,ary at this 0oint: ?ut the uneA0ecte, harmony
(vi rather than i) is su33icient to ,isru0t the ca,ence6 Gny
+istener 3ami+iar with the Hestern music sty+e wi++ await a
more ,e3initi)e c+osing gesture: which occurs two measures
+ater6 Ggain: though: notice the interaction o3 harmony an,
c+osure: a+though ,uring this rest a com0etent +istener wi++ ?e
antici0ating the arri)a+ o3 the tonic tria,: the root-0osition
tonic tria, on the ,own?eat o3 the 3o++owing measure is
insu33icient6 Not on+y ,oes this tonic chor, occur too soon 3or
the schematic eA0ectations o3 an eA0erience, +istener: ?ut the
me+o,y ( QR rather than 1R) an, the 0rece,ing harmony (iv rather
than i) ,o not signa+ c+osure6
854
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The %irst thing to observe %rom 0igure 5 is the remar4ably
high rate o% identical responses: 5 o% the 14 patterns elicited
identical continuations %rom at least 10 o% the 22 students ?ho
completed the assignment, and 9 o% the 14 patterns elicited at
least 9 identical continuations. Pattern ! ?as by %ar the most
predictable o% these basic ideas, inspiring precisely the same
one-measure continuation %rom 20 o% the 22 students. Notice
that this particular pattern eFhibits t?o important traits that
contribute to predictability: it strongly implies tonic-todominant motion (?hich in sentence structure is typically
%ollo?ed by dominant-to-tonic motion), and it elaborates an
overall step?ise rising pattern %rom 1I to 2I , suggesting a
continuation up to 3I.
Students ?ere generally able to assess the predictability o%
the patterns provided: their ratings correlated strongly ?ith
the number o% identical continuations composed (r L .617,
p O .05P incidentally, studentsQ ratings o% predictability also
correlated ?ith my o?n. r L .685, p O .01). 0urthermore,
patterns %or ?hich a studentQs o?n continuation matched the
most popular response received signi%icantly higher ratings
(p O .01).
0inally, an in%ormal observation: students in my class
distinctly outper%ormed their peers enrolled in other sections
o% the same course (?ho had not participated in any o% these
supplemental activities) on %inal eFam Suestions relating to
sentence structure.
!II.
CONCLUSIONS
Cognitive research involving eFpectation, schema theory,
and event segmentation theory is highly relevant to the
analysis o% musical %orm and phrase structure. Pedagogical
approaches that eFplicitly address listener eFpectations and
the musical %eatures that contribute most strongly to %orming
these eFpectations may lead students to a deeper and more
nuanced understanding o% musical organiUation and its basic
principles.
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