Traditionally, livestock has been one of the
most neglected areas in natural resources
policy in the Southwest Pacific. Yet livestock
are an integral part of most rural households,
providing important benefits such as food,
income, weed control, transport and draught
power.
The publication synthesises the substantial
experience of the author and a Southwest
Pacific network of livestock productionists,
including smallholders, plantation farmers,
extensionists and national decision makers,
and provides a broad framework for bringing
about sustainable change. Case studies illustrate the significance of training and support
initiatives for individual households and
communities.
SAPA Publication 1998/1
Grazing Livestock
in the Southwest Pacific
The benefits of improved production
FAO Sub-Regional Office for the Pacific
This book breaks new ground in clearly
establishing the importance of livestock, not
only to individual households but to the
Southwest Pacific region generally. With a clear
focus on improving the feeding, management
and marketing of grazing livestock, it demonstrates the substantial potential for growth
which is both environmentally positive and
sympathetic to alternative land uses. Carefully
documented projections highlight the capacity
for enhanced livestock exports and import
substitution to improve the overall economic
performance of Pacific countries.
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
Grazing Livestock
in the Southwest Pacific
This book will be of value to national
governments, international agencies and nongovernmental organisations in formulating
policies and planning development assistance.
It will also be a rich resource for farmers,
extensionists, managers and agricultural
training institutions.
ISBN 92-5-104178-4
FAO Sub-Regional Office
for the Pacific
9 7 8 9 2 5 1 0 4 1 7 8 9
W9676E/1/11.98/1000
FAO Sub-Regional Office for the Pacific
SAPA Publication 1998/1
Grazing Livestock
in the Southwest Pacific
The benefits from improved production
FAO Sub-Regional Office for the Pacific
Prepared for publication by the
FAO Sub-Regional Office for the Pacific, Apia, Samoa
© FAO 1998
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior permission
of the copyright owner. Applications for such permission, with a statement
of the purpose and extent of the reproduction, or requests for copies
of this publication should be addressed to:
FAO Sub-Regional Office for the Pacific
Private Bag, Apia
Samoa
The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and
do not necessarily reflect those of FAO.
Any reference to the efficacy of any product herein does not imply endorsement
by the author or FAO over any other product. The designations employed and
the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any
opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or
of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
Acknowledgements
Financial contributions from the FAO Crop and Grassland Service (AGPC),
the Farm Management and Production Economics Service (AGSP), the Sub-Regional
Office for the Pacific (SAPA) as well as the French funded FAO Project GCP/SAM/07/FRA
have made this publication possible. The author is especially indebted to Owen Hughes,
SAPA Office, Apia for review, comment and assistance with layout and presentation and
Dr Stephen Reynolds, AGPC, Rome for proofreading and comment as well as Peter Saville,
Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Suva, Fiji for additional technical information.
FAO Cataloguing-in-Publication data:
Macfarlane, David C.
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific:
The Benefits from Improved Production. FAO. 1998.
ISBN 92-5-104178-4
Editor
Barbara Henson
Design and production
Peter Evans
Photography
David Macfarlane
Map prepared by Mapgraphics, Brisbane, Australia
Printed by Merino Lithographics, Brisbane, Australia
Cover photograph:
Cattle graze open and lightly shaded pastures under coconuts, Undine Bay, North Efate.
Back cover photographs from top to bottom:
Samoan Livestock Officer Fogatia Tapelu-Suttie and Savaii cattle farmer
Emmy Trevor develop a fern control plan.
Jean-Baptiste Sanno leads a field day on his farm, Efate, Vanuatu.
Jona Iewere’s daughter from Nagoda, Viti Levu, manages the family goats and milking cows.
Smallholder cattle farmers at a field day.
Many livestock smallholders also produce copra from coconuts.
ii
Foreword
Pacific island states remain committed to sustainable economic development and
improved standards of living whilst attempting to maintain key social and cultural
attributes of the many different ethnic and lingual groups within the region.
The task of achieving planned socio-economic development which is also
environmentally sustainable is considerable. Pressure on marine and land resources
in the region is intensifying, sometimes exceeding the limits of sustainable resource
use. With the exception of Papua New Guinea and Fiji, export bases remain narrow,
and services such as tourism are often crucial for generating export earnings. Trade
between Pacific island states is limited, reflecting the similarity of agriculturally
derived exports and the lack of critical exportable quantities and economies of scale
in many operations.
This book explores the scope for enhancing the livestock subsectors in the
region, and breaks new ground in clearly establishing the importance of national
livestock subsectors within agricultural sectors. It documents the substantial
potential for growth which is both environmentally positive and sympathetic to
other alternative land uses, and highlights the important role of enhanced livestock
exports and import substitution in improving the economic performance of Pacific
countries.
This publication synthesises the substantial experience of the author and a
Southwest Pacific network of livestock productionists including smallholder
farmers, plantation farmers, institutional extensionists, agribusiness managers and
national agricultural sector decision makers. It provides a broad framework for
understanding the range of issues involved in bringing about substantial and
sustainable change, without losing sight of the farming communities, households
and individuals who are at the core of such change. The integral place of livestock
within rural communities is underlined by a generous selection of case studies.
This publication will be of value to national governments, international agencies
and non-government organisations in planning future development assistance
programmes and formulating agricultural policies. It will be of immediate use to
extensionists, grazing system managers and agribusinesses serving rural communities as well as providing a valuable resource for agricultural training institutions.
FAO is confident that the consideration, development and ultimate implementation of assistance opportunities described will make a significant contribution
to sustainable economic development in the Southwest Pacific.
Vili Fuavao
FAO Sub-Regional Representative
Apia, Samoa
iii
iv
Contents
Foreword
iii
Acronyms
vii
Glossary
Map
ix
xiv
Executive summary
xv
1 Introduction: an overview of livestock systems in the Southwest Pacific 1
1.1 Rural households and livestock: key statistics
2
1.2 Background to livestock farming systems
3
1.3 Economic and cultural role of livestock
5
1.4 Potential for improvement
6
1.5 Ruminant livestock overview
9
1.6 Non-ruminant livestock overview
9
1.7 Overall land use and grazing resources
12
2 Increasing livestock production: proven on-farm technologies and
practices
19
2.1 Using better animal husbandry practices
20
2.2 Improving animal nutrition
21
2.3 Matching pastures to soil fertility constraints
31
2.4 Managing weeds
33
2.5 Managing diseases and insect pests
34
2.6 Improving the quality of breeding livestock
34
2.7 Managing within ecologically sustainable limits
35
2.8 Integrating pastures and livestock with cropping
38
3 Providing better support to livestock farmers: skills and training, access to
resource inputs, research, marketing, role of government
40
3.1 Improving extension and training services
40
3.2 Increasing the availability of resource inputs to farmers
48
3.3 Undertaking priority applied research
53
3.4 Improving marketing options
53
3.5 Broad role of governments
61
4 Potential for enhanced production: achieving positive socioeconomic,
trade and environmental outcomes
63
4.1 Grazing resources required for production targets
64
4.2 Regional and national production gains
64
4.3 Community socio-economic benefits
67
4.4 Trade benefits
70
4.5 Environmental benefits
71
v
vi
Contents
5 Increasing the effectiveness of development assistance: lessons learned
from previous livestock projects
73
5.1 General background
73
5.2 Project design, management and implementation lessons
75
5.3 Impact of recent livestock system projects
77
6 Support programmes and initiatives
81
6.1 Key objectives of future livestock systems support
81
6.2 Opportunities for livestock subsector support
82
7 The current challenge
86
8 References and suggested further reading
88
Appendices
1 Additional notes, sources and assumptions
91
2 Existing and projected grazing resources and productivity
94
3 Common and scientific names of Southwest Pacific pasture species
Figures
1 Pig-owning households
9
2 Chicken-owning households
10
3 Horse numbers by country
12
4 Current agricultural land uses in the major livestock countries
98
14
Tables
1 Key rural household livestock statistics for the Southwest Pacific
2
2 Ruminant numbers in the Southwest Pacific
8
3 Overall land use: current and projected areas
13
4 Major current pasture and forage environments
17
5 Quantity (tonnes) and value (US$m) of imported livestock products
56
6 Projected changes in grazing carrying capacity and productivity after
15–20 years development
66
7 Current domestic ruminant animal production and self-sufficiency levels,
and potential production after 15–20 years
68
8 Existing and projected grazing resources after 15–20 years development
9 Current and projected broad regional grazing resource groups over a
15–20 year period
Boxes
1 Cost-effectiveness of additional investment
7
2 Important non-feeding animal husbandry practices
20
3 Common limiting nutrients in ruminants in the Southwest Pacific
4 Farmer responses to nutritional constraints
23
5 The benefits of improving pastures: some examples
26–27
6 Existing grazing resources and increases required to achieve targets
22
64
Note Financial amounts in this publication are expressed in US dollars except where
specified otherwise. In paragraphs where multiple US dollar values are being quoted
the first figure is expressed as US$ followed by $ designations. Conversions from local
currencies to US dollars are based on late 1995 exchange rates. The local currency to
US$ rates were: Fiji dollar (F$) 1.33, New Caledonian franc 110, PNG kina (K) 1.40,
Solomon Islands dollar 3.30, Tonga pa’anga 1.3, Samoa tala (ST$) 2.40 and
Vanuatu vatu (VT) 115. Figures are rounded as indicated in tables.
Acronyms
ACIAR
AI
AHP
AGPC
AGSP
AusAID
AU
CC
CIF
CIRAD
DSE
DAL
DM
EIRR
FAO
f.o.b.
FSD
GIS
KFPL
LLT
LWG
MAFF
ME
MFE
NGO
OIE
PICTs
PNG
PRA
RDB
RIS
SAPA
SPC
SRPM
Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research
artificial insemination
Animal Health and Production Division, MAFF, Fiji
Crop and Grassland Service, Plant Production and Protection
Division, FAO
Farm Management and Production Economics Service,
Agricultural Support Systems Division, FAO
Australian Agency for International Development (formerly
AIDAB)
animal unit
carrying capacity
cost, insurance and freight (included in the price quoted)
Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche
Agronomique pour le Développement
dry sheep equivalent
Department of Agriculture and Livestock, Papua New Guinea
dry matter
economic internal rate of return
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
free on board
farming systems development
geographical information system
Kolombangara Forest Products Ltd, Solomon Islands
local tall coconuts
live weight gain
Ministry of Agriculture, Forests and Fisheries (Fiji)
metabolisable energy
milk fat equivalents
non-governmental organisation
Office International des Epizooties, based in Paris
Pacific Island Countries and Territories
Papua New Guinea
participatory rural appraisal
Rural Development Bank of PNG
resource inventory systems
FAO Sub-Regional Office for the Pacific
Secretariat of the Pacific Community (formerly South Pacific
Commission)
Smallholder Rural Projects Management Ltd
vii
viii
Acronyms
STPLSP
TCP
UHT
UNDP
UNITECH
UNU
USDA
USP
VPIP
WHO
AusAID Samoa Training Personnel in Livestock Sector Project
Technical Cooperation Programme (FAO)
ultra-heat treated
United Nations Development Programme
Papua New Guinea University of Technology
United Nations University
United States Department of Agriculture
University of the South Pacific
Vanuatu Pasture Improvement Project
World Health Organization
Glossary
abattoir
Centralised animal slaughtering facility which produces
carcasses of cattle, pigs and poultry or packaged meat
products for sale or on a fee-for-service basis for local
butchers or exporters. Chilling and freezing facilities are
often attached.
agroforestry
The management of trees with crops including pastures for
livestock.
alley-cropping
The growing of inter-rows of food crops between lines of
perennial shrub and tree legumes spaced 3–10 metres apart.
alluvial
Soils derived from the deposition by floodwaters from eroded
uplands over millennia.
animal husbandry Managing livestock to minimise stress and meet all the
requirements for non-limited animal growth, reproduction,
lactation and body maintenance.
animal unit
A standard measure for relating animal feed demand and
potential feed intake to body size. One animal unit (AU) in
the Southwest Pacific region usually equates to an actively
growing 400–450 kg steer. A lactating beef cow with calf is
1.5–1.6 AU.
biodiversity
The variety of plants and animals in an area. Biodiversity
refers not only to the number of species but also to the
genetic variation within species.
boneless meat
Beef, sheep or goat carcass with bone removed, around 35%
of live weight.
brewer’s grains
By-product from breweries which have fermented barley to
make beer.
brucellosis
Reproductive disease of cattle leading to abortion. It can
infect humans.
carcass
Animal body from which head, skin, blood and viscera have
been removed and which is ready for butchering.
case study
Intensive study over a period of time of a particular farm,
frequently involving all of its household members.
catchment
An area of land from which rainfall run-off drains to a
common stream or lake.
commercial
Farmers who show varying degrees of a commercial attitude,
farmers
that is, the desire to generate income through cash sale of
produce or through exchange for other goods or services.
Farmers who produce crops and livestock for subsistence
and for income are referred to as semi-commercial.
ix
x
Glossary
conservation
Community, individual or government process of restricting
or controlling land use on areas of high natural and
biodiversity value to ensure ecological stability.
copra cake/meal Stockfeed residue once oil is mechanically or chemically
removed from copra.
cost-effective
Where the farmer perceives that additional inputs and costs
will generate sufficient production and financial benefits to
make them worthwhile.
cost-benefit
Comparison of the benefits derived from a project or
commercial enterprise for a specific investment.
customary land
Land is owned by clans or families which is transferred
between generations according to cultural procedures.
farm development The process at a farm, community, catchment or regional
level where the planning needs and aspirations of land users
are carefully balanced with the physical, financial and human
resources available to produce sustainable farming.
development
The process of financial, human resource and physical
assistance
support by national governments and international donors in
assisting community and national development in line with
government policies.
deregulation
The process of steadily or rapidly reducing national industry
protection from domestic and international competition.
disc strip
Ploughing strips in existing pasture land using disc harrows
or disc plough.
draught power
Use of horses and bullocks to plough, pull carts or carry
personnel or produce.
erosion
The process of removal of soil from its place of origin by the
action of water or wind on soil surfaces without adequate
protective vegetative cover.
extensionist
A government, non-government or private sector person
involved in general or specific subject area advisory support
to farmers.
fa’alavelave
Term for traditional ceremony in Samoa for major social and
cultural events.
farming system
A class of all farms with similar land use, environment and
economy: comprising the farm household, its land and the
systems of crop, livestock and forestry production for sale or
household consumption or use as well as systems of
conservation. The farm household is the basic decisionmaking unit.
fertilising
Improving soil fertility and structure with the addition of
specific inorganic and organic materials containing nutrients
and/or organic matter.
forage
Term used for permanent or short-term pastures and annual
fodder crops.
grazing system
The integration of soil, pasture and grazing animal
components, sometimes under tree crops. Grazing systems
integrate with cropping systems on farms.
hardseededness Impervious legume seed coat condition which prevents soil
water entry and germination.
Glossary
harrowing
Covering of seed with uniform layer of soil using a dragged
tool or implement.
hectare
Equivalent to 2.47 acres or 10 000 square metres.
herbicide
Chemical applied to foliage, stems or roots of plants growing
in undesired situations (weeds) to kill, suppress or stop
flowering, to provide an advantage to crops and pastures.
household
One or more families normally living in the same house or
compound in a shared economic community.
native pastures
Land areas comprising one or more grasses (rarely with
legumes) that occurred naturally in Southwest Pacific
environments prior to European contact. Species which were
introduced more than fifty years ago which are now
widespread are termed naturalised: for example, the
introduced legume centro.
improved pastures Improved pastures involve the introduction of one or more
grasses and legumes into an existing or newly developed
grazing system to increase forage availability and/or quality
to the grazing animal.
intensification
Intensification of production from existing grazing lands may
involve pasture improvement, soil nutrient deficiency
correction, direct animal nutritional supplementation,
genetic improvement of livestock, better animal husbandry
and better management of diseases and pests.
inbreeding
Process of mating closely related animals (sires and
daughters/granddaughters, sibling mating) which eventually
increases genetic characteristics which often reduces
production potential.
indigenous
Refers to important information and problem-solving skills
knowledge
developed over time within rural communities, which are
essential for farming system improvement and may not be
widely known outside such communities.
inter-cropping
The cropping of two or more species on the same area of
land, one usually with a height advantage (for example,
coconuts and cocoa, bananas and taro, maize and cucurbits).
lamb/mutton flaps High fat (75%) and cheap flesh from underbelly of lambs and
mature sheep consumed widely by Samoans, Tongans, Fijians
and Papua New Guineans.
land-use planning The systematic assessment of physical, social and economic
factors which assists land users to select production options
which are sustainable and which meet their needs.
legume
Important pasture component involving group of
dicotyledenous plants with creeping, climbing, shrub or treelike habits which fix atmospheric nitrogen.
live weight gain Growth in biomass of animals usually referred to in grams or
kilograms LWG/head/day.
livestock
Component or subsector of an agricultural sector.
subsector
megajoule/kg
Basic energy unit of animal feed value: good pastures have
9 MJ/kg, maize grain has 13–14 MJ/kg, and heavily shaded
grass may have only 6 MJ/kg.
xi
xii
Glossary
metabolisable
energy
The proportion of total energy intake that can be utilised by
livestock for body maintenance and production — meat,
milk, eggs etc.
Melanesian
An inter-government trade group from Papua New Guinea,
Spearhead Group New Caledonia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and Fiji which
allows specified member imports without duty.
molasses
High energy, high mineral but low protein by-product of
sugar production.
oversowing
The process of introducing new legumes and/or grasses into
an existing pasture.
overstocking
The process of grazing where animal demand for feed
exceeds the regrowth capacity of pastures. This leads to
inadequate daily feed intake, loss in animal production (per
head and per hectare) and environmental degradation.
para-veterinarian Professional with a sound understanding of how to manage
basic animal health problems who works with a qualified
veterinarian.
pasture ley
Pasture leys are short-term legume or legume/grass
combinations which follow a cropping phase for sufficient
time to rebuild soil organic matter levels and other soil
fertility attributes whilst achieving income from livestock
production. This contrasts with pure legume, grass or
regrowth fallows with no livestock usage.
plantation
System of land use involving non-customary but leased or
freehold land, clearly defined boundaries, organised
management, paid labour, commercial goals and above
average areas of land. Usually, no more than three production
enterprises are involved.
PRA
Participatory rural appraisal — process of community-based
interview and discussion establishing and recording
community defined problems and constraints, perceived
solutions and programmes of action.
reafforestation
Replanting trees for future utility or commercial value.
rehabilitation
Process of steadily reducing natural or man-made factors
such as low natural soil fertility, weed infestations or soil
erosion, which are limiting agroecosystem productivity.
ruminant
Species such as cattle, sheep, goats, deer and buffalo which
possess four stomach compartments which allow the
digestion and utilisation of plant materials high in cellulose
and lignin, which are less able to be efficiently used by nonruminants (single-stomach animals) such as pigs, chickens,
rabbits and horses.
shade tolerance
Ability of some grasses and legumes to grow adequately
under various levels of shade.
silvopastoralism A component of agroforestry which involves the deliberate
management of livestock and trees simultaneously or
sequentially on the same area of land, for example, cattle
under coconuts.
silage
The fermented product made by enclosing and compacting
plant material of high energy and protein value in an air-tight
environment (underground pits, above ground bunkers,
Glossary
plastic bags). It is later fed to livestock, mainly ruminants,
during periods of feed shortage.
slaughterhouse
A small hygienic livestock killing facility in provincial areas,
usually without refrigeration.
smallholder
Members of a rural household or a group of households
operating a particular farming system, usually on traditional
land, whose land use and production technologies range
from traditional to a mix of traditional and contemporary.
stocking rates
The number of grazing animals per unit area expressed in
animals or animal units.
subsistence
Farming and fishing to meet the daily living needs of
households.
supplementation The specific feeding of concentrated nutrients which are
inadequately supplied in common forages.
sustainability
The capacity to continue undiminished over time: for
example, maintaining farming practices, social and cultural
stability, environmental quality production and economic
viability to ensure the needs of rural communities are met on
a long-term basis.
tuberculosis
Disease of the respiratory system of cattle and pigs which can
infect humans.
turkeys’ tails
High-fat parts of turkeys usually imported from the United
States by some South Pacific countries.
VAM
Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae, fungi which attach to plant
roots, especially those of trees, and increase the nutrient
absorption capacity (particularly in the case of phosphorus),
allowing growth in less fertile soils.
weeds
Plants growing in sufficient quantities in subsistence and
commercial agricultural areas which cause loss of food
security or economic returns. A weed in one situation could
be a valuable crop in another, for example, guava.
zero-till
Mechanical technique of planting, at controlled depth,
improved legumes and grasses into existing pastures.
Herbicides are usually applied along strips into which the
seeds are planted.
xiii
Southwest Pacific
xiv
Executive summary
Summary
This book describes the current status of forage-based livestock systems in the
Southwest Pacific. It also outlines practical techniques which are available for
improving livestock production while maintaining, improving or rehabilitating the
environmental quality of grazing systems.
It describes strategies to provide better support to farmers and the potential for
realistic production improvement given specific assumptions of institutional
support and farmer adoption over a 15 to 20 year period, as well as the likely social,
economic and environmental benefits. A brief analysis of the successes and failures
of past development assistance is used to guide recommendations for future support.
1
Overview of grazing livestock systems
The major livestock producing countries in the Southwest Pacific (Fiji, New
Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga and Vanuatu)
support about 6 million people including 760 000 rural households. With
subsistence and commercial livestock raised by 65% of these rural households,
livestock are an integral part of Southwest Pacific farming systems.
Livestock provide rural households with many important benefits such as
consumption of animal protein as meat or milk, income flows and capital reserves,
social status, weed control in a range of cropping systems, transport and draught
power. Prices for livestock products are less variable than for commercial crops
and their production is less adversely affected than crops by drought, cyclones, pests
and diseases.
Southwest Pacific livestock subsectors are predominantly smallholder based.
Smallholders may be subsistence, partly commercial or highly commercial in their
approach to managing livestock. Though the relative importance of large
commercial plantations is declining, there are increasing examples of cooperation
between plantations and their surrounding smallholders, with clear mutual benefits
such as employment, technology transfer, enhanced volumes to market, and better
market access.
Recent experience in livestock system extension and training support projects
indicates that Pacific farmers are willing to change their system management when
a 50% productivity improvement or a 50% lowering in costs can be demonstrated.
Most livestock owners have paid for their major capital investments, and for modest
additional investment, improvements in the productivity of grazing systems in the
order of 50–300% are attainable.
While ruminant livestock are numerically less significant than small, nonruminant livestock, they have a significant potential to increase smallholder incomes
xv
xvi
Executive summary
through the adoption of proven practices in pasture improvement, grazing system
management and animal husbandry. However, both intensive and extensive pig and
poultry production would also benefit from improved feeding and management
such as making better use of local stockfeeds and quality forage legumes in diets.
Currently, 867 000 ha or 1.6% of total land area in the major producing countries
is devoted to grazing. This represents 46% of all currently used agricultural land,
comprising arable (annual, perennial and tree crops) and pastoral land (FAO
1997).1 There is significant scope for intensifying production from existing grazing
lands and under-utilised non-grazed areas, without compromising other land uses
such as inter-cropping.
2
Increasing livestock production through
proven on-farm technologies and practices
Major opportunities exist for Southwest Pacific farmers to improve their livestock
production through the use of proven, cost-effective technologies and basic
husbandry practices in regard to watering, shelter, parasite management, dehorning
and castration, breeding and other factors.
The potential for ruminant (cattle, sheep, goats) and village-based non-ruminant
(pigs, poultry and horses) production and performance in terms of growth,
reproduction, lactation and draught power is largely determined by the quantity
and nutritive quality of daily forage consumption. Practical agronomic approaches
to maximising the quantity of feed consumed, its nutrient content and its
digestibility include the use of high-yielding and high nutritive value grasses and
legumes, and the correction of soil fertility constraints where necessary and where
economic. Where nutrients are not optimally provided by native or introduced
forages, direct supplementation of animals has an important role.
Historically, mismanagement of livestock in specific localities — in particular,
overgrazing — has been partly responsible for destabilising land surfaces and weed
ingress. However, there are proven pasture and grazing management technologies
which can rehabilitate or improve existing grazing lands and weed-infested
ungrazed lands in various states of degradation. Sustainable grazing management
systems emphasise the importance of ecologically sustainable stocking rates, weed
control and catchment management.
The grazing system technologies available are environmentally positive,
affordable and profitable. In environments which are economically and
environmentally suited to production intensification, technology adopting farmers
are able to increase grazing system productivity between 50% and 300%. These
technologies, tailored to different farmer resource levels and capabilities, are relevant
to farmers of any level, from subsistence to highly commercial.
3
Providing better support to livestock farmers
In addition to technologies and practices, a range of other factors are important in
improving pasture-based animal production in subsistence and commercial farming
systems. These include the skills and training milieu, accessibility of resource inputs,
technology improvement through applied research, marketing opportunities, and
the government policy environment.
1
If agricultural fallow lands are included, the livestock component falls to an estimated 26%.
Executive summary
Extension delivery and farmer training can be improved through recognising
the importance of farming system approaches, strengthening and streamlining
institutions, improving management systems, establishing better on-farm
demonstrations and information materials support, improving communications,
and optimising and efficiently using existing human and physical resources.
Adoptive farmers who are leaders in the community have a pivotal role in
establishing and promoting better agricultural practices among active farmer
groups.
Increased production also depends on increased availability to farmers of
resource inputs such as planting materials and mechanised services (where
appropriate), agricultural credit, nutritional supplements, tropically adapted
breeding animals, better transport, problem-solving research and monitoring
programmes and better marketing.
Government also has a key role to play in enhancing the livestock subsectors
of the region. Animal production system performance at the household, district,
provincial or national level is significantly affected by factors such as international
exchange rate controls and government policies reflected in comparative
deregulation or protection, interest rates, and tariffs and duties on imported
livestock products and production inputs. In the Southwest Pacific improving the
capacity for efficient and internationally competitive alternative enterprises,
including livestock, is essential if rural household welfare is to be enhanced or even
maintained.
4
Regional potential for enhanced production
Estimates of the potential for improving livestock production in the major
producing countries are based upon the longer term benefits emerging from
AusAID, UNDP and FAO supported livestock subsector projects over the last decade
and the combined experience of regional livestock specialists. Based on this
experience, projections in this document assume that 50% of farmers adopt
promoted technologies over a 15 to 20 year period. They also assume effective
development assistance and ongoing in-country support, improved marketing
opportunities, responsive government policies, and a continuing positive market
for livestock products.
It is estimated that regional carrying capacity could approximately double and
that animal production capacity could increase by approximately 250%. This could
be achieved by improving approximately half of the existing 887 000 ha grazing
resource and by bringing 327 000 ha of new lands into production. Such new lands
would comprise unused native pasture areas, ungrazed coconut lands which are
not inter-cropped and some regrowth bush and vine-dominated areas.
Currently, the region imports livestock products valued at approximately
US$158 million (CIF) annually. These include beef, sheep meat (mainly high-fat
content lamb/mutton flaps), pig meat, poultry, canned meat, milk and milk
products. Overall, it is estimated that the seven major livestock producing countries
would achieve self-sufficiency gains of US$38.2 million (m) per year in import
substitution and between US$4m and $10.4m per year in increased exports.
Potential achievements over a 15 to 20 year period, using 1994–1995 import figures
as benchmarks, include:
(1) regional self-sufficiency in beef production at 1994–1995 import levels;
(2) a doubling of beef exports for Vanuatu, with a possibility of exportable surpluses
from New Caledonia;
xvii
xviii
Executive summary
(3) modest growth of sheep meat production in Fiji (10% self-sufficiency);
(4) milk and dairy product self-sufficiency growth in Fiji (from 39.5% to 65%),
milk in Samoa (0% to 50%), milk in Tonga (30% to 65%), and milk and dairy
products in Vanuatu (from 8% to 20%).
Such achievements represent significant benefits at the community and
household level. Case studies in the book describe households which have increased
grazing enterprise incomes up to three times following short periods of technology
adoption. In regional terms it is suggested the mean value of household beef and
cattle income could rise from US$466 to $1356 over a 15 to 20 year period in current
dollar terms. Using high-quality legumes in the diets of household pigs and poultry
along with improved basic husbandry could improve domestic protein supplies by
at least 25% with significant nutritional benefit, at the same time generating cash
and/or saving disposable income on canned meats.
In addition, the use of appropriate tree, shrub and herbaceous legume
technology over the described period has the potential to improve soil fertility,
reduce erosion and reduce weed control inputs, thus sustaining subsistence garden
yields over a calculated 15 000 ha. Carefully integrating improved grazing
management with cash crop and forestry has benefits for crop/timber production
yields over a projected 34 000 ha. Adopting technologies will increase household
production and incomes from dairy, small ruminant, pig and poultry and pasture
seed production enterprises which are frequently managed by women.
5
Learning from past development
assistance experience
The relative importance of the economic contribution made by the livestock
subsectors is not reflected in the resources allocated by national governments and
development assistance agencies to livestock extension and development in the
region. In part, some negative influence might still exist from the limited successes
of some inappropriate interventions from the 1960s to the early 1980s. Decision
makers may also be insufficiently aware of the many successes for households and
farmer groups which have arisen from the new style of farming system-oriented,
livestock extension and training projects implemented during the 1980s and 1990s,
and of the range of proven technologies which enhance and sustain forage-based
livestock production in the region.
Development assistance projects have been successful where:
(1) governments have had consistent livestock subsector strategies, and support
has been carefully targeted;
(2) strategies have addressed real rural community needs and built upon existing
livestock enterprises within farming systems;
(3) they have been designed with adequate resources and implementation times,
and executed by national and international staff and consultants with technical,
socio-cultural and managerial experience who have worked closely with their
stakeholders.
There is strong support within governments and communities in the region for
the achievements of recent national and regional projects to be a foundation for
further effort.
Executive summary
6
Continuing development assistance
To achieve the attainable levels of livestock product self-sufficiency and domestic
food security which have been discussed, an integrated regional programme of
development assistance is required. This would improve sustainable commercial
animal production from significant pasture/forage systems in Fiji, New Caledonia,
Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga and Vanuatu. Each country
programme would have specifically designed in-country components involving:
• regional farmer and livestock extensionist training programmes;
• extension support programmes involving on-farm demonstrations, that benefit
rural communities;
• farmer group training and field day activities;
• distribution and use of effective information materials;
• improvement of critically limiting development and marketing services.
The relative importance of each of these components would vary from country
to country. The human resources and demonstrated best farmer practice of some
leading countries would provide regional training opportunities for farmers and
livestock extensionists from minor livestock producing states.
Seventeen other important initiatives which would have direct or indirect
positive impact on Southwest Pacific livestock production have also been detailed
and prioritised in Chapter 6. They cover the development of livestock strategy and
policy, institutional and private sector human resource capability, survey and
monitoring systems, agricultural extension systems, community awareness and
livestock product marketing.
xix
1
Introduction
An overview of grazing livestock systems
in the Southwest Pacific
Summary
The major livestock producing countries in the Southwest Pacific (Fiji, New
Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga and Vanuatu)
support about 6 million people including 760 000 rural households. Subsistence
and commercial livestock are raised by 65% of these rural households.
Approximately 15% of rural households in the major producing countries raise
cattle, goats and sheep but especially cattle. In the small island states, traditional
village pig and poultry production is more important. Livestock are therefore an
integral part of Southwest Pacific farming systems.
The chapter briefly profiles the production of ruminant livestock (cattle, goats
and sheep) and non-ruminant livestock (pigs, poultry and horses) in the major
producing countries, providing key statistics on numbers and the levels of
household participation in respective countries. It also relates livestock raising to
overall land use in the region, indicating the scope for expansion (e.g. in cattle
grazing under coconuts) without compromising other land uses such as intercropping.
Livestock provide rural households with many important benefits such as
consumption of animal protein as meat or milk, income flows, social status, weed
control and transport. Prices for livestock products are less variable than for
commercial crops and their production is less adversely affected than crops by
drought, cyclones, pests and diseases. Such factors appeal to risk-adverse Pacific
farmers.
Southwest Pacific livestock subsectors are predominantly smallholder based.
Smallholders comprise one or more households and may be either purely
subsistence, partly commercial or highly commercial in their approach to managing
livestock. While the relative importance of large commercial plantations is declining,
there are increasing examples of cooperation between plantations and their
surrounding smallholders, with clear mutual benefits such as employment,
technology transfer, enhanced volumes to market, and better market access.
Recent experience in livestock system extension and training support projects
indicates that Pacific farmers are willing to change their system management when
a 50% productivity improvement or a 50% lowering in costs can be demonstrated.
It is considered that around 50% of farmers will adopt affordable and high-impact
technologies for production intensification over a 15 to 20 year period. Many
livestock owners have paid for their major capital investments. For modest
additional investment, improvements in the productivity of grazing systems in the
order of 50–300% are attainable.
Sections 1.5 and 1.6 provide key statistics on ruminant and non-ruminant
numbers in the Southwest Pacific. While in the major livestock countries ruminant
1
2
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
livestock are numerically less significant (687 000 cattle, 24 500 sheep and 231 000
goats) than non-ruminant livestock (1.5 million pigs and 166.9 million chickens,
see figures 1 and 2), they have a potential to increase smallholder incomes
significantly through the adoption of proven practices in pasture improvement,
grazing management and animal husbandry. Corporate pig and poultry production
is significant in Fiji, New Caledonia and Papua New Guinea. Both intensive and
extensive production would benefit from more effective use of local stockfeeds and
quality forage legumes in diets.
Currently, 867000 ha or 1.6% of total land ar ea in the major producing countries
is devoted to grazing. This represents 46% of all used arable and tree crop (excluding
fallow) and pastoral land (see Figure 4; Table 3). If fallow lands are included, the
proportion of grazing land falls to an estimated 26%. There is scope for intensifying
production from existing grazing lands and for bringing new areas into production.
The potential for production expansion in the major countries is discussed in detail
in Chapter 4.
1.1
Rural households and livestock: key statistics
The major livestock producing countries in the region are Fiji, New Caledonia,
Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga and Vanuatu. They have a
combined total population of approximately 6.08 million, including approximately
757900 r ural households. Table 1 shows that of these rural households, 438900
or 58.7% raise pigs; 302600 or 40% raise poultr y; 68800 or 9% raise cattle, 37900
or 4.7% raise goats; and 3300 or 0.4% raise sheep. Overall, an estimated 65% of
rural households have livestock, and of these between 14 and 16% have ruminants
(cattle, goats or sheep). About 23% of households which own ruminants raise their
livestock under, or in association with, coconuts (Macfarlane 1997).
In the small island states (Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Kiribati,
French Polynesia, Marshall Islands, Tokelau and Tuvalu) with a combined
population of about 446000 people, cattle ar e relatively less important than pigs
and poultry and are kept by about 40000 r ural households or approximately 55%
of the population (FAO 1997a).
Table 1
Key rural household livestock statistics for the Southwest Pacific
Rural households with
Country
Cattle 1,2
Pigs
Chickens
Goats
15 000
65 000
24 000
5 000
4 000
200
100
344 700
155 500
9 600
3 100
8 700
550 000
Samoa
12 900
13 300
0.2
0
2 400
15 500
Solomon Is.
35 000
35 000
100
0
300
50 000
Tonga
10 500
9 800
1 000
0
1 700
14 400
Vanuatu
15 800
20 000
3 000
0.03
10 700 6
22 000
438 900
302 600
37 900
3 300
68 800
757 900
Fiji
New Caledonia
PNG
Totals
Sheep
Total
households
100 3
42 900
2 100 5
95 000
11 000 4
Note Except for goats in Samoa and sheep in Vanuatu, all figures rounded to nearest one
hundred (100). Full sources and notes are provided in Appendix 1.
3
Introduction
1.2
Background to livestock farming systems
Smallholdings
Southwest Pacific livestock subsectors are predominantly smallholder based and
the relative importance of large commercial plantations is generally declining. A
smallholding may be defined as a family farming unit of generally limited scale,
where various household members participate in a farming system with a broad
mix of traditional food crops, tree crops and livestock production. This is also
integrated with important domestic, social and customary obligations.
Smallholdings comprise one or more households and may be either purely
subsistence, partly commercial or highly commercial in their approach to managing
livestock. There is considerable variation across the region. In Fiji the terms
households and smallholdings are synonymous; that is, one household equals one
smallholding. In Vanuatu there are 10500 households with cattle which aggr egate
to form approximately 3500 smallholdings, along with 150 operating plantations.
In Papua New Guinea, Banguinan et al. (1996) report 8700 cattle-owning
households but the most recent estimate (K.Galgal, SRPM, Lae, 1995, pers. comm.)
indicates 620 known semi-commercial or commercial smallholdings. Samoa has
an estimated 2400 households with cattle on about 1575 holdings. Overall, the
68800 total cattle households of T able 1 comprise approximately 52000 known
smallholdings and 1000 plantations.
Smallholdings are frequently on customary land which is inherited patrilinearly
or matrilinearly. They also occur on land which is formally or informally leased
from, or granted short- or long-term user rights by traditional landowners.
Customary land often passes from one generation to the next without dispute.
However, the possibility of disputes over customary land use entitlements can deter
agricultural development requiring long-term commitments (e.g. forestry, coconuts,
cocoa, coffee and cattle). Whether a smallholder or a plantation, the investment of
time, capital and physical resources in non-subsistence livestock requires security
of land tenure.
This Samoan smallholder
family plans to improve their
cattle enterprise.
4
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
Agricultural activities are also affected by other issues relating to land, e.g. where
a household’s land consists of disaggregated small pieces. This is common in the
Papua New Guinea Highlands. Some rural households attempt to increase their
rights to land by fencing unused lands for enclosed cattle grazing or by the planting
of coconuts. If a family can demonstrate it has consistently used a particular parcel
of land, customary leaders will often allocate such lands to that family head who
may then pass them on within that family.
Plantations (estates)
Plantations or estates for livestock, crops or both are found on freehold or on lands
leased from customary owners under formal and government-registered agreements
spanning between 10 and 75 years, with or without options for renewal. Such lands
have clearly defined boundaries. Plantation owners or leaseholders may be either
indigenous (non-customary or customary landowners), non-indigenous citizens,
non-citizen expatriates or governments. Some successful plantations involve joint
ventures between traditional landowners and local and/or overseas investors and/
or governments.
Plantations are usually of larger scale than smallholdings although there are some
noteworthy exceptions. Plantations typically have less diverse activities and are
commercially motivated, with overall management assigned to one individual. In
Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Samoa and Vanuatu there are excellent examples of
plantations linked closely with smallholders for mutual benefit. Such benefits could
include:
• employment opportunities which provide management skills to smallholders
• provision of breeding animals by plantations and the subsequent right to
purchase progeny
• larger market volumes leading to rationalised transport and cost savings.
The major livestock activity on plantations involves cattle, which have been
consistently integrated with coconut plantations in the region for up to a hundred
years. Though cattle were initially introduced as weed control agents, they have
assumed increasing importance since the 1930s. Coconut replanting is not keeping
pace with the advancing senility of palms and as a result copra yields are falling.
With smaller canopies and reduced shade associated with ageing palms, more
productive pastures can be grown — hence the increased interest in raising cattle
under coconuts to maintain incomes. In fact, in New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea
and Vanuatu there are many cattle plantations which no longer have viable stands
of coconuts. As with smallholdings, a primary determinant of plantation success
is secure tenure of land over a commercially realistic timeframe.
The distinction between smallholding and plantation or estate can sometimes
become blurred, particularly when scale is used as the principal criterion. For
example, Chief Robert from the Big Bay area of Espiritu Santo, Vanuatu leads a
traditional lifestyle similar to his forbears except that he and his family have very
commercial attitudes to cattle raising. They free-range breeders on unfenced native
grasslands, and grow and fatten cattle for the Santo abattoir on improved pastures
that are fenced adjacent to the main road. While at independence in 1980 they had
fewer than 100 head, in 1994–1996 they were raising about 600 head. Currently,
the median cattle plantation in Vanuatu is about 400 head although plantation
numbers range from 100 to 10000 head.
5
Introduction
1.3
Economic and cultural role of livestock
As noted earlier, livestock are an integral part of rural life in the region, and the
raising of poultry, pigs, cattle, goats, sheep and horses provides many benefits at
the household or village level. These include regular or irregular (customary)
consumption of animal protein as meat or milk, regular or irregular income flows,
social status, weed control in a range of cropping systems, consumption of crop
residues, transport, draught power, manure for cropping, and even hides for clothing
or sale. Grazing also provides rapid income from many grasslands which have no
sustainable options for annual cropping.
Variation in livestock activities
Regionally, there is considerable variation in livestock activities, and usually
smallholders are involved with several animal species. Most smallholder households
which raise pigs also raise poultry — mainly chickens but occasionally ducks. Most
cattle farms also raise pigs and chickens with the exception of Hindu Indo-Fijian
farmers who raise cattle, goats, sheep and pigs, and Muslim Indo-Fijian farmers
who raise only cattle, sheep and goats. Hindu retailers will rarely sell pork for fear
of offending Muslim customers and this reduces availability to potential Fijian
customers who have no religious constraints. In Fiji, about 180000 of the 254000
cattle are classed as non-commerical and are used for household food security and
draught with oxen sold at the end of their working life. Horses are used for draught
and pack transport by Tongans, Fijians, a few Samoans and a growing number of
ni-Vanuatu.
Horse-drawn maize planter
at Montmartre Catholic
Mission, Vanuatu.
6
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
Economic importance of livestock
Pigs, sheep, goats and particularly cattle are assets which are readily saleable and
are relied upon for regular income as well as meeting large individual payments of
rural households such as school fees. In Vanuatu and Samoa which have both
suffered cyclone devastation in recent years, smallholders are increasingly viewing
cattle enterprises as intrinsically more robust than tree crops and relatively cyclone
proof. Samoan interest in cattle has also increased rapidly in the wake of bacterial
blight devastation of the taro industry in 1993 which ended a ST$9 million per
year export industry almost overnight.
Unlike copra, cocoa or coffee, cattle prices have rarely declined over the last
decade, providing income stability. Cattle usually offer superior returns to labour
than traditional tree crops, an increasingly important attribute as smallholder
farmers age, though returns to labour for cash crops can frequently exceed that of
cattle (Opio 1993). Apart from adding to family wealth, the ownership of pigs and
cattle also confers status.
Customary use
The proportion of cattle consumed locally for subsistence or customary (informal)
purposes varies widely. In Samoa approximately 70% of cattle are consumed in the
informal market, whereas on Espiritu Santo 30% of smallholder cattle are consumed
customarily and 70% are sold to the local abattoir. Carcass and boneless beef plays
an important role in customary feasting, though in Melanesia the pig is paramount
in customary significance. The ability to contribute livestock for customary
purposes also confers status.
1.4
Potential for improvement
The majority of Southwest Pacific ruminant livestock smallholders in the
continuum from subsistence to highly commercial enterprises have been involved
in grazing for 10 to 30 years and are very familiar with livestock. Livestock farmers
today compared to 20 years ago are more commercial, searching for income stability,
reduced risk and good returns to labour particularly in later life. They can be more
Smallholder families have
customary obligations.
Introduction
Box 1 Cost-effectiveness of additional investment*
In a 1997 livestock marketing study in Samoa, it was shown that an average smallholder breeder/fattener
with 10–15 ha of unimproved pasture has about US$500/ha invested in infrastructure, stock and
equipment.
An additional investment in pasture improvement of $160/ha (32% of total investment to date) provides
the driving force for increasing carcass turnoff from 53 to 140 kg/ha/year, or by 264% over the whole
farm (STPLSP 1998). The study assumed natural herd increases, some infrastructural improvement, soil
nutrient deficiency correction, better weed control and animal mineral supplementation.
The study also showed that with this additional investment in better feeding, annual fixed (land lease/
customary contribution costs, management, pro rata vehicle and 10% cost of invested capital) and annual
variable costs rose from approximately $170/ha to $266/ha, or by 56%. This was reflected in unimproved
versus improved gross margins (gross revenue minus operating or variable costs) of $100 and $254/ha/yr
with both systems requiring 4–5 person days/ha/year labour input. The study also showed that the leading
cropping alternative, bananas, had gross margins of $390–2280/ha/year (given normal market price
fluctuations) requiring 418 person days input/ha/year.
*Based on a detailed Samoan smallholder model
interested in ruminants than in cropping, provided they have access to adequate
areas of securely tenured land.
Responsiveness to new technologies
Recent experience in livestock system extension and training support projects
indicates that Pacific farmers are willing to change their system management when
a 50% productivity improvement or a 50% lowering in costs can be demonstrated.
Overall, around 50% of farmers are considered responsive over a 20 year period to
clear demonstration of affordable and high-impact technologies for production
intensification. Many livestock owners have paid for their major capital investments
and for modest additional investment, improvements in the productivity of grazing
systems in the order of 50–300% are attainable.
Importance of familiarity with farming systems
Support to farmers in adopting improved methods must always be based on a
detailed understanding of the social and economic realities of households — their
goals and objectives and the many different demands on available time and
resources. Pacific Island farmers, both men and women, spend varying proportions
of their time with livestock, balancing competing demands from other subsistence
and commercial crops, social obligations, domestic duties, off-farm business and
employment commitments, and family time. Men will usually manage household
cattle operations and women small ruminant, pig or poultry operations. For
example, Samoan livestock farmers are more likely to have off-farm incomes than
any other Southwest Pacific group. Some male Tannese cattle farmers from Vanuatu
devote a specific day of the week to livestock, crops, markets and social obligations.
Other ni-Vanuatu cattle farmers are less rigid in time allocation. Such factors must
be taken into account in helping a rural household to change or improve the
efficiency of their farming practices.
Farmer contribution to knowledge base
Pacific Island farmers are observant and innovative, and can contribute their
valuable indigenous knowledge to the grazing system management knowledge base:
e.g. knowledge of the pharmacological properties of native and some introduced
7
8
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
Table 2
Ruminant numbers in the Southwest Pacific
Livestock producing countries
Ruminant type (‘ 000 head)
Beef cattle
Dairy cattle
Sheep
Goats
Deer2
Major
Fiji
254.1
New Caledonia
125
1
Papua New Guinea
91
–
Samoa
20.5
Solomon
Islands1
Tonga
180
–
4
17
12
12
6
–
0.5
–
1
–
9.5
–
–
1
–
5.8
2.2
–
14
–
0.4
1
12
–
30.1
24.5
231
12
7
–
16
–
Vanuatu
151
Sub-total
656.8
26
7.5
Minor
Cook Islands
0.43
–
–
French Polynesia
7
–
0.4
Micronesia
0.54
–
–
4
–
Niue
0.1
–
–
–
–
Wallis & Futuna
0.1
–
–
–
–
Sub-total
8.1
0
0.4
27
0
30.1
24.9
258
12
Totals
664.9
Note Full sources and notes are provided in Appendix 1.
plants, disease susceptibility or the use of fire in preparing for pasture establishment.
Institutional extensionists need to give greater recognition to the integral role of
innovative farmers in the extension process and to emphasise the transfer of proven
indigenous practice between rural communities.
Grazing animal health and pest status
In the Southwest Pacific which is relatively disease free, limitations to livestock
production are overwhelmingly nutritional and management. Nonetheless, isolated
pockets of bovine brucellosis, tuberculosis and trichinellosis in pigs exist which,
with widespread leptospirosis, are of significant concern for public health and
animal health and profitable production in the region (Saville 1994; P. Saville 1997,
pers. comm.). Buffalo fly (Siphona exigua) adds additional costs to beef production
in Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands, and the cattle tick (Boophilus
micropolus) has constrained cattle in the Markham-Ramu area of Papua New Guinea
and is present in New Caledonia. Farmers manage these problems by using
tropically adapted genotypes, integrated insecticide programmes and rotational
grazing. Screw worm treatment of young calves is frequently required in Papua New
Guinea. Internal parasite control in sheep, which is critical for successful sheep
raising in the region, is dependent upon careful use of effective anthelmintics as
well as rotational grazing and correct pasture heights to minimise ingestion of
infective parasitic eggs and larvae.
Introduction
1.5
Ruminant livestock overview (beef cattle,
dairy cattle, goats and sheep)
While ruminant livestock are numerically less significant than small, non-ruminant
livestock, they have a potential to significantly increase smallholder incomes
through the adoption of proven practices in pasture improvement, grazing
management and animal husbandry.
According to Table 2, the combined Southwest Pacific region currently grazes
664 900 beef cattle, 30 100 dair
y cattle, 24900 sheep, 258 000 goats, 12 000 farmed
deer and 110000 feral deer (in New Caledonia), up to 3000 feral buf falo in the
East Sepik Province and an unknown number of feral deer in the Gulf Province of
Papua New Guinea.
Beef cattle, the predominant ruminant livestock species, are raised primarily
for meat production and secondarily for draught purposes, the latter mainly in Fiji.
There are also regionally significant dairy industries in Fiji and Tonga; sheep
industries in Fiji and Papua New Guinea; and an important goat industry in Fiji.
1.6
Non-ruminant livestock overview
(pigs, chickens and horses)
Customary importance of pigs
Across the region, pigs are raised mainly for important ceremonial and customary
occasions. For such occasions pigs are either donated, exchanged or sold for cash.
Native black, grey or striped pigs (e.g. Agouti) have been in Solomon Islands for
5000 years (de Frederick 1979) and even longer in Papua New Guinea.
Source
12
10
8
6
4
Vanuatu
Samoa
Tonga
Solomon Is
PNG
2
pigs per household
14
N. Caledonia
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Fiji
% households with pigs
Figure 1 Pig-owning households
0
% households
with pigs
pigs per
household
FAO 1997a
Over the last century various European breeds have been introduced, and many
crossed with local types. The introduced Saddleback, Berkshire and Tamworth
genotypes have been better suited to free-range conditions than the Large White,
Landrace and Duroc which are better suited to intensive, non-grazing production
systems. De Frederick in his detailed study in Solomon Islands reported an average
annual per capita consumption of up to 2.4 kg pig meat, noting that surveyed
9
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
households feeding fish scraps and legumes to pigs had twice the sample mean
growth rates in their pigs. Most Southwest Pacific households with pigs raise 3–8
head except Samoa, which has 14 pigs per owning household (Figure 1), giving a
total regional population of 1.5 million pigs (derived from the country totals of
percentages of households with pigs x total households [Table 1] x pigs per
household). The lowest household participation rate in pig production is found in
Fiji. Pig production systems vary from completely free ranging (with or without
enclosure of crop areas) to tethering to permanent or evening penning (with pen
feeding) to enclosed grazing.
Village poultry
Village poultry production is dominated by chickens derived from the native fowl
or from various European introductions and all manner of crossbreeds. Regionally,
chicken numbers per owning household vary from 4 in Solomon Islands to 16–27
for Vanuatu, Papua New Guinea, Tonga and Samoa (Figure 2). Fiji, New Caledonia
and Papua New Guinea have large poultry operations so the figures presented would
overstate that found on an average farm. In New Caledonia and Papua New Guinea
30–40% of households have chickens whereas in all other countries at least 60%
of households own chickens. Using FAO (1997a) data, an estimated 16.9 million
chickens are kept by households in the major livestock countries.
100
180
80
150
120
60
90
40
60
Source
Vanuatu
Samoa
Tonga
Solomon
Is.
0
PNG
0
New
Caledonia
30
Fiji
20
chickens per owning household
Figure 2 Chicken-owning households
% households with chickens
10
% households with
chickens
chickens per
household
FAO 1997a
Intensive pig and poultry enterprises
Regionally, intensive pig and poultry industries (eggs and broilers) are most
developed and corporatised in Fiji, New Caledonia and Papua New Guinea. The
corporate sector has its own sources for technical assistance. Most large-scale
intensive pig and poultry units are based on fully prepared rations derived from
imported and local stockfeeds. In Papua New Guinea the corporate poultry industry
relies on a network of contract smallholder outgrowers supported by an efficient
extension service.
However, in Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Samoa and Solomon Islands there are
numerous intermediate-sized, intensive commercial piggery and poultry operators
who have indicated interest in increasing the proportion of locally available
stockfeeds in diets in order to reduce costs and increase gross margins, despite a
possible marginal reduction of growth rates. Demonstrating the more effective use
11
Introduction
Free-range poultry in
Vanuatu.
Free-range pigs in Samoa.
of local stockfeeds combined with balanced use of legumes and specific trace
element, amino acid, vitamin and possibly digestive enzyme supplementation offers
scope for profit gains.
Horses
There are approximately 75000 horses in the r egion of which 43500 ar e found in
Fiji. Figure 3 illustrates distribution by country. New Caledonia has the highest
household involvement with horses. Horses for draught and meat are important
in Tonga. In Samoa horses are largely smallholder based. In Papua New Guinea
and Vanuatu they are evenly divided between smallholdings and plantations.
Due to inbreeding and inadequate nutrition (mainly forage quantity), village
horses often lack sufficient size and strength to achieve their potential work output.
Poor husbandry also limits equine productivity: poorly fitting saddles are a major
constraint. Many regional plantations have maintained the quality of their horses
through the regular introduction of new stallions. In Vanuatu the quality of horses
for pack and sled work has been dramatically improved with a recently imported
Clydesdale–Quarterhorse cross stallion managed by the Catholic Mission,
Montmartre. Trained progeny are sold to trained smallholders. Regionally, there is
little evidence that institutional livestock extension services recognise the
importance of feeding, management and potential work output of horses, as well
as draught cattle.
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
Figure 3 Horse numbers by country
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
1.7
Vanuatu
Samoa
Tonga
Solomon Is
PNG
N. Caledonia
0
Fiji
12
Overall land use and grazing resources
Historically, the position of livestock, grazing animals and grazing resources has
tended to be excluded from many national and regional analyses of total land use
in the Pacific. This section presents an overview of the place of crops, grazing
livestock, and native and plantation forestry within total land resources, particularly
within the seven major livestock producing countries in the Southwest Pacific.
Major land use categories
Table 3 provides a detailed break-up of land uses in the major producing countries.
The total area of 53.3 million ha consists of:
(1) arable and pastoral land (columns 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5): 1876000 ha or 3.5% of
total land;
(2) unused, unusable, or fallow land: 9970000 ha or 18.7% of total land;
(3) native or plantation forests: 41495000 ha or 77.8% of total land. 1
1
From Table 3 and in the interests of balance in understanding regional issues of land use, it
is important to clarify frequently reported forest information.Whilst FAO (1997a) reports
approximately 80% of the region is forested, Tonga is almost completely deforested and Fiji,
New Caledonia and Samoa have been significantly deforested, mainly for cropping but also
for grazing.
In addition, such gross areas of forest give no indication of the range and areas of habitats
of varying ecological and biodiversity value. Areas of primary, relatively undisturbed,
rainforest only occur in Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands.
The major causes of forest disturbance are cyclones, shifting cultivation for subsistence
purposes, logging and commercial agriculture. Depending on the nature and frequency of
such events a forest may regenerate to its former complexity and quality or it may degenerate
over time. In the more humid areas of many Southwest Pacific countries significant forest
disturbance is often followed by high, light-requiring native shrub and creeper species and
introduced weeds which can smother rainforest seedlings necessary for regeneration. There
are approximately 185 000–190 000 ha of plantation forests in the Southwest Pacific.
Important issues for forests are utilisation practices which sustain yields over time; strategic
reafforestation including traditional and introduced agroforestry and silvopastoral systems;
active discouragement of any further clearing of quality forest for commercial agriculture;
and conservation of areas of significant biodiversity value.
13
Introduction
Table 3
Overall land use: current and projected areas
Grazed pastures (’ 000 ha)
Ungrazed lands (’ 000 ha)
Total
(’ 000 ha)
Open
Under
c'nuts
Under
trees
C'nuts
no
cattle
Arable
& tree
crops2
Unused
fallow3 &
unusable
Native &
plantation
forest
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Major livestock
countries
Fiji
270 1
(301).
27
(27)2
1
(11).
38
195
111
1 185
1 827
N.Caledonia
217
(215).
3
(3).
0
(2).
0
10
890
708
1 828
19
(431).
10
(25).
2
(10).
260
170
8 623.4
36 000
45 256
Samoa
4
(6).
13
(19).
0.2
(0.5).
34
75
23
134
283
Solomon Is.
6
(17).
11
(13).
0.3
(3).
49
36
194
2 560
2 856
Tonga
1.2
(1.7).
4.5
(6).
0.1
(0.3).
27
17
14
8
72
Vanuatu
50
(74).
45
(40).
10
(7.5).
41
58
115
900
1 219
Total
739
(1046).
114
(133).
14
(34).
448
561
9 970
41 495
53 341
Share of total
land area (%) 5
1.4
0.8
1.1
18.7
77.8
100
PNG
0.2
0.03
Sources As for Table 2 plus General: Macfarlane et al. (1996); New Caledonia: Marchal (1997)
Notes
1
2
3
4
5
Includes 95000 ha of r oadsides and domestic compounds and recently harvested sugarcane
fields supporting 141 500 non-commercial dairy and beef cattle and 46 500 draught cattle
on 39000 cr opping farms.
Bracketed figures refer to country components of projected national and regional open area
(1046000 ha), grazing under coconut (133000 ha) or grazing integrated with cr ops and
forest (34000 ha) in the seven major livestock pr oducing countries over a 15–20 year period.
These figures are discussed further in Chapter 4. Projected areas are less than actual potential
areas. Of the projected additional 227000 ha of open native pastur e brought into production,
179000 ha is found in Papua New Guinea which has about 500000 ha available. However ,
much of this is too remote to be considered to have realistic market potential in the projected
timeframe.
In the projections only 20000 ha of a potential 109000 ha of land under coconuts is used.
If the total potential area of 223000 ha under coconuts wer e grazed, 339000 ha would
remain for inter-cropping. Grazing under coconuts should focus on lands with lower
agronomic potential, e.g. high pH coastal coralline and shallow clay soil types unsuited to
crop production. Over longer timeframes, there are additional crop/forestry areas that are
likely to be integrated with pastures but areas are difficult to quantify.
Figures on unused (including native grasslands), unusable and unreported crop fallow areas
are obtained by difference from other FAO (1997a) figures.
FAO estimates of forest area vary from 36 million to 42 million hectares which leads to areas
of unused, unusable and unreported fallow land ranging from 4 million to 10 million
hectares.
Total figures are rounded to the nearest thousand. Total area (8) = 1+2+3+4+5+6+7.
14
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
Agricultural land use
While Table 3 provides the larger context of total land areas and land uses,
Figure 4 shows the place of grazing within current overall agricultural uses which
consist of:
(1) grazed pastures (open and shaded): 867000 ha or 46% of total agricultural
use;2
(2) coconut areas which are not grazed but which may be combined with other
crops (intercropping): 448000 ha or 24% of total agricultural use;
(3) arable or tree crops other than coconuts, 561000 ha or 30% of total agricultural
use.
Figure 4 Current agricultural land uses in the major livestock countries
Arable and tree
crops not with
coconuts
30%
Coconuts — unused
or inter-cropped
24%
Open pasture
39%
Pasture
under
trees
1%
Pasture under
coconuts
6%
Inter-cropping under coconuts
Intercropping involves the simultaneous production of two or more crops such as
cocoa, root crops, bananas, kava and vanilla on the same piece of land. These
traditional inter-cropping systems which involve annual and perennial food crops,
with or without trees, have existed for centuries. Inter-cropping involving coconuts
can potentially compete with pastures under coconuts, but regional data on areas
are not easily obtained. However, a significant proportion of the currently ungrazed
448000 ha of coconut lands in this r egion is not used for inter-cropping.
Grazing resources
Grazing resources or forages are comprised of permanent pastures and forage crops.
Permanent tropical and sub-tropical pastures of the Southwest Pacific are comprised
largely of grasses with varying quantities of native and/or introduced legumes from
which animals attempt to select and ingest their daily intake requirements. In New
Caledonia surplus permanent pasture is sometimes conserved.
Forage crops include annual or biennial pasture plants (e.g. forage sorghums,
dolichos lablab or cowpea) or the leaves/pseudostem of commercial crops such as
sugar cane or bananas. Forage crops can be either directly grazed, cut and carried
to the grazing animal, or conserved as hay (New Caledonia) or silage (Fiji and New
Caledonia) for subsequent feeding. Conserved pastures or forage crops are
sometimes termed fodders. Supplements are non-forage feeds and nutrients given
to livestock, such as mineral blocks, mineral injections, palm kernel and coconut
cake or meal, molasses, pea meal and bran.
2 Data on total fallow areas are not available, but a ratio of 1:3 of arable, non-permanent tree
crop land to fallow is frequently assumed in the region. This suggests a total fallow area of
about 1.5m ha currently. The inclusion of fallow lands, an integral part of agricultural
systems, reduces the proportion of total agricultural land use devoted to grazing to 26%.
15
Introduction
Inter-cropping yams and
sweet potato with coconuts
on Espiritu Santo, Vanuatu.
Weed-infested coconut lands
not used for inter-cropping
or grazing.
Different types of grazing
Grazing takes several forms in the Southwest Pacific. While most is carried out on
open pastures, cattle and other ruminants are also grazed under shade (under
coconuts or native forest trees). Table 3 shows that ruminants and non-ruminants
in the seven major producing countries graze 739 000 ha of open pastures and
forages (including an estimated 95 000 ha per year of sugar cane and other crop
stubble/tops, roadsides and domestic compounds in Fiji), 114 000 ha under
coconuts, and 14000 ha under native, mainly r egrowth forests as in Vanuatu, or
replanted forests. The minor livestock producing countries of Cook Islands, French
Polynesia, Marshall Islands, Kiribati, Niue, Tuvalu, and Wallis and Futuna
contribute an additional area of 20 000 ha open pastures (mainly French Polynesia),
24000 ha pastur es under coconuts (mainly French Polynesia) and 69 000 ha of
inter-cropped or unused coconuts. French Polynesia, Cooks and Niue have potential
to develop ruminant grazing. The other small states can improve non-ruminant
production with quality forages.
16
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
As a share of total grazing areas in the major producing countries, open grazed
pastures represent 85%, grazing under coconuts 13% and grazing under forest trees
1.6%. Figure 4 shows that as a share of agricultural areas, open grazing represents
39% though this ranges from 6% in Solomon Islands to 51% in Fiji (FAO 1997a).
Potential for expansion of grazing areas
The considerable area of coconut lands currently not used for grazing (448000 ha)
represents the most significant opportunity for expansion of grazing lands in the
Southwest Pacific. Given positive beef marketing and profitability conditions, it is
suggested that the area of grazing under coconuts could be increased (particularly
through expansion in Papua New Guinea) from 114000 ha to 223000 ha, without
compromising land for inter-cropping (see bracketed figures in Table 3).
Regional copra production and its relation to grazing
Rural households with access to coconuts consume between 4 and 30 coconuts
per day for domestic purposes and small livestock feeding. Provided prices are
attractive, the balance of harvested coconuts are cut and dried copra is marketed
(though not all fallen coconuts are harvested). According to FAO (1997a), regional
copra production in 1995 was approximately 240000 tonnes, down fr om 280000
tonnes in 1988. Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu are the major
producers (122000, 26000 and 30000 tonnes r espectively). In 1995 minor
countries listed in Table 2 produced 40000 tonnes of copra. T able 3 shows that
approximately 4% of Papua New Guinea’s coconut lands are grazed whereas 45%
of Fiji’s and Vanuatu’s coconut lands are associated with grazing.
Vanuatu’s active smallholder coconut replanting programme is reflected in
constant copra production figures. However, across the region the level of copra
cutting appears to be declining because of labour constraints and costs, high freight
costs and better alternative returns to labour. Regional smallholders are increasingly
seeking advice on different coconut planting arrangements to increase productivity
of understorey improved pastures and inter-cropping production. This is a priority
area for farming systems research.
Major locations of grazing livestock activities
Climatic factors
Most ruminants are grazed on open pastures and are well represented in
environments which receive less than 1800 mm rainfall per year with a pronounced
3–5 month dry season, and those which receive between 1800 mm and 3500 mm
rain with no or minimal dry seasons. Current significant grazing areas receiving
more than 3500 mm annual rainfall are confined to the Central Division of Fiji,
much of Samoa, Malaita in Solomon Islands, and the Sepik, Madang and eastern
Markham areas in Papua New Guinea. Most open grazing occurs at altitudes of up
to 500 metres and commercial operations are situated close to roads.
Grazing under coconuts occurs at altitudes of 300 metres or less. Coconuts
prefer a rainfall environment of 2500–3500 mm per annum and there are no
significant areas of coconuts receiving less than 1600 mm annual rainfall in the
region. Coconuts are generally found on coastal alluvial or coralline-derived soils
where steep upland interiors exist. On less elevated islands, coconuts are grown
on a range of soil types up to its altitude limit and in some cases may totally cover
islands, e.g. Tongatapu in Tonga and Russell Islands in Solomon Islands. The current
main grazing environments in the Southwest Pacific are shown in Table 3, and are
Introduction
Table 4
17
Major current pasture and forage environments
Livestock
type
Severe dry season, open, <1800
mm rain/year
Moderately even rainfall, >1800
mm rain/year
Shaded by coconuts or forest,
>1600 mm rain/year
Beef in all
areas
Fiji: ‘ Dry zone’ of Viti Levu
and Vanua Levu, cane and
crop residue areas
Fiji: Taveuni, S Vanua Levu,
‘ Wet zone’ , Central Division
Fiji: Taveuni and Savu Savu areas
New Caledonia: W– NW Noumea
New Caledonia: E– SW coast
Noumea, Loyalty Is.
New Caledonia: East coast
Noumea, Loyalty Islands
PNG: Markham Valley
and Central Province
PNG: Ramu Valley,
New Britain, Madang Province,
New Ireland, Highlands
PNG: New Ireland,
W New Britain,
Madang, Sepik
Samoa: West Savaii
Samoa: all areas except W Savaii
Samoa: All areas Savaii and
Upolu to 300 m altitude
Solomon Is: no grazed areas
<1800mm rainfall
Solomon Is: Guadalcanal Plains
Solomon Is: Santa Cruz, Malaita,
Isabel, Guadalcanal, Russell Is
Tonga: W Tongatapu
Tonga: ‘ Eua, Vava’ u and
Tongatapu
Tonga: ‘ Eua, Vava’ u and
Tongatapu
Vanuatu: W– NW Tanna,
W– NW Efate, N– NW Malekula,
Ambrym, W Espiritu Santo
Vanuatu: NE– W Tanna,
NE– W Efate, SE Malekula,
E– S Ambrym. Central and
E– S Santo, Pentecost, Malo
Vanuatu: NE– SW Tanna,
Erromango, NE– W Efate, Epi,
NE– SW Malekula,
N– SW Ambrym, Santo, Ambae,
Aore, Malo
Dairy
Too dry
Fiji: ‘ Wet zone’ Vitu Levu
New Calodonia: SW Noumea
Samoa: all but W Savaii
Tonga: Tongatapu, ‘ Eua
Vanuatu: Efate
Tonga: Tongatapu
Sheep
Fiji: ‘ Dry zone’
Fiji: parts ‘ Wet zone’ Vitu Levu
and Vanua Levu
Vanuatu: Efate and Santo
PNG: Highlands, Sepik
Fiji: Taveuni, Savu Savu area
Goats
As for sheep in Fiji,
New Caledonia and PNG
Most islands in Vanuatu,
all islands Tonga
Throughout Vanuatu, Fiji,
Tonga, Samoa
Horses
Fiji: ‘ Dry zone’
New Caledonia: mainly
W– NW Noumea
Fiji: Central District, Taveuni
As per previous column
PNG: Lower Markham-Ramu
Tonga: Tongatapu
Solomon Is: Russell Is and
Guadalcanal
PNG: Upper Markham Valley
and Central Province
Samoa: Upolu
Tonga: Tongatapu, Vava’ u
Vanuatu: Efate, Tanna, Malekula,
Santo
sub-divided on the basis of rainfall greater or less than 1600–1800 mm per year
and whether open or shaded.
Representative grazing landscapes
Within the major grazing locations described in Table 4 a range of pasture systems
exist. Table 8 in Appendix 2 refers to 8–14 forage types depending on country. These
are categorised according to level of shade, rainfall, degree of pasture improvement
and cover crop residues.
18
Native mission grass
pastures on Guadalcanal
Plains, Solomon Islands
(left).
Themeda Imperata,
Heteropogon, Dicanthium
native grasslands in the
Markham Valley, Papua
New Guinea.
Signal grass introduced
into New Caledonian
grazing systems (left).
Weedy native t-grass
pastures on phosphorusdeficient soils on Malaita,
Solomon Islands.
Signal–native legume
pastures on South Santo
Cattle Project, Vanuatu
(left).
Naturalised introduced
guinea grass in crop
fallow areas in Tonga.
Nadi blue–native legume
pastures, Sigatoka, Viti
Levu, Fiji (left).
Native t-grass growing on
stony, basaltic soils on
Savaii, Samoa.
Weed-free, correctly
stocked buffalo grass–
native legumes under
coconuts, Malekula,
Vanuatu.
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
2
Increasing livestock production
Proven on-farm technologies and practices
Summary
This chapter provides an overview of the production potential and constraints of
grazed livestock production at the farmer or community level. Its aim is to indicate
the types of proven, cost-effective technologies and approaches which represent
major opportunities for Southwest Pacific farmers in improving their production.
This information should assist decision makers in understanding the potential for
improvement and the bases for projections that are made in this publication.
In addition to improved feeding and nutrition, the enhanced and consistent use
of basic animal husbandry practices are essential for achieving potential levels of
livestock production in the Southwest Pacific. The chapter describes basic
husbandry practices such as watering, shelter, parasite management, dehorning and
castration, breeding and other factors.
Across the range of grazing ecosystems in the region, the quantity and nutritive
quality of daily forage consumption is the prime determinant in the ability of
environmentally adapted ruminant genotypes to grow, reproduce, lactate and
provide draught power. This is also true of the performance of foraging nonruminants. The chapter outlines the nutrient needs of ruminants and describes
practical agronomic approaches to maximising the quantity of feed consumed, its
nutrient content and its digestibility.
These include the use of high-yielding and high nutritive value grasses and
legumes, and the correction of soil fertility constraints where necessary and where
economic. Direct supplementation of animals with nutrients that are not optimally
provided by native or introduced forages, and the avoidance of anti-nutritive factors
in forages, are also discussed. The chapter emphasises the importance of costeffective establishment of well-adapted pasture species into grazing landscapes and
of applying ecologically sustainable stocking rates, weed control and catchment
management. Such practices will play an important role in realising the potential
of livestock production in the region.
Generally, there is potential to raise the reproductive performance (weaning
rates) of individual cattle in the region by at least 50% and post-weaning growth
rates by up to 50%. Similarly, growth rates of sheep and goats can be almost doubled.
A doubling of milk production on an individual animal basis is also achievable.
The application of regionally proven technologies, many of which are referred
to in this publication, has the capacity to markedly improve per-hectare productivity.
Examples of enhanced animal production include:
(1) 25–75% gains by incorporating a stable 10–30% legume component in grassonly pastures;
(2) three- to fourfold gains in < 2000 mm rainfall areas and doubled production
in > 2000 mm rainfall areas by replacing native grass pastures with the bestadapted, improved grass/legume mixtures;
19
20
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
Box 2 Important non-feeding animal husbandry practices
General
• Provide drinking water and/or succulent forage for all livestock.
• Provide adequate shade.
• Move tethered cattle and pigs every day and provide them with water.
• Remember well-fed livestock are more resistant to parasite stress than nutritionally deficient animals.
Cattle
• Change bulls every three to four years to avoid inbreeding.
• Avoid mating heifers under 270–300 kg live weight.
• Castrate young bulls not suitable for breeding if run in a mixed herd.
• Maintain one good bull to 20–30 cows and ensure tethered cows have access to a bull when on heat.
• Dehorn cattle as calves or weaners.
• Use anthelmintics only when there is, or is likely to be, an internal parasite problem, and follow proper
guidelines.
• Handle cattle quietly and avoid bruising in stockyards and cattle trucks.
• Avoid mustering or stockyard work in hot conditions.
• Use cull cows before young steers or heifers for customary consumption purposes.
• Keep cattle calm prior to and at the point of slaughter.
• Control marauding dogs in cattle breeding areas.
• Build effective, durable fences and stockyards.
Poultry
• Protect chickens from rat, cat, dog, pig and mongoose (in the case of Fiji) predation and sudden cold
rainy weather, up to six weeks of age.
Pigs
• Avoid confining village pigs in small, bare soil pens and feed in dry areas to reduce worm burdens.
Sheep
• Rotationally graze sheep, keeping average pasture height at 20 cm or greater, and maintain
recommended parasite control programmes.
(3) at least a doubling of production by managing weed-infested native or improved
pastures; sometimes involving the correction of critical soil nutrient deficiencies
and, at times, provision of mineral, energy and protein supplementation.
2.1
Using better animal husbandry practices
Many Southwest Pacific farmers can achieve rapid productivity improvements for
their grazing livestock by altering animal husbandry practices. Productivity is often
constrained by sub-standard practices such as inadequate water supply, lack of
castration and dehorning, uncontrolled breeding, inbreeding, and little attention
to localised disease and endo- and ecto-parasite control. In addition to feeding and
management factors, the use of inappropriate animal genotypes is a secondary
constraint to regional meat and milk production.
However, basic animal husbandry principles are not always understood by
farmers or even by extensionists. Extensionists will often provide information to
farmers and farmer groups on production enhancing technologies while ignoring
basic animal husbandry practices. In so doing, major opportunities for improving
production are missed. Box 2 provides an overview of basic animal husbandry
practices which are relevant to livestock producers in the Southwest Pacific.
21
Increasing livestock production
Farmers who do not have
river, reticulated or dam
water supplies can collect
water for livestock from
farm roofs.
2.2
Improving animal nutrition
Introduction
Within the diverse grazing systems of the Southwest Pacific, the ability of grazing
ruminants to grow, reproduce, lactate and provide draught power is largely a
function of the quantity and nutritive quality of daily forage consumption. This is
also true of the performance of foraging non-ruminants. For a target level of animal
nutrition and a target level of animal production from forages, daily ingested young
forage leaf and stem dry matter must have specified levels of protein (nitrogen),
metabolisable energy (ME), phosphorus, calcium, potassium, magnesium, sulphur,
sodium and trace elements (Box 3).
The quantity and quality of forage produced varies considerably across the
region. It is affected by locality-specific environmental factors such as soil type and
soil fertility, rainfall, shade, radiation and temperature, and plant-available soil
moisture across seasons. It is also affected by the inherent nutritive (and sometimes
anti-nutritive) characteristics of selected pasture species and depends significantly
on the quality of management of pastures, weeds and grazing animals.
Grazing livestock rely predominantly for their forage intake on native and some
introduced grasses along with herbaceous, shrub and tree legumes, other nonlegume trees, various weed species and crop residues. In the Southwest Pacific
22
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
Box 3 Common limiting nutrients in ruminants in the Southwest Pacific
The most common nutrient deficiency in many native and introduced grass dominant pastures is low
nitrogen (1%; 1.5% required). Many pasture species (e.g. signal, guinea and t-grass) are inherently low
in sodium (0.02%; 0.05–0.07% required).
In regularly burnt native and improved grasslands, in addition to nitrogen deficiency, sulphur deficiency
(< 0.1%; 0.15% required) is likely to limit animal production. Typical areas include Western Division of
Fiji, North and West Noumea in New Caledonia, Kongga and Aruligo grasslands of Guadalcanal, Solomon
Islands, and the Markham-Ramu valleys, Huon Peninsula and Central Province of Papua New Guinea.
Low phosphorus, which limits pasture growth and animal growth and reproduction, is likely to be
worst on acid, high phosphorus fixing soils. In particular, this occurs in the high rainfall areas of Samoa;
Central Division of Fiji; central Malaita in Solomon Islands; and in the Sepik area of Papua New Guinea
(0.08–0.15% phosphorus in young forage is frequently recorded; 0.18% required).
Milk production in the Central District of Fiji, Tonga and in Samoa is frequently constrained by low
levels of nitrogen, ME, phosphorus and sodium, and sometimes low sulphur and calcium in consumed
forage. Batiki pastures in high rainfall areas of Fiji and Samoa with only 6 megajoules of ME/kg dry feed,
are incapable of producing more than 5 litres of milk/cow/day (9–10 megajoules/kg dry matter
required for 10 litres/cow/day).
Low copper (2–5 ppm; 8–14 ppm required) also restricts growth and reproduction of cattle in some
coastal coralline and volcanic soil types in Vanuatu, and is also likely to constrain production in Samoa
and in parts of the Markham-Ramu valleys of Papua New Guinea.
maximum animal production from a particular environment or farming system is
largely based on a mix of the best-adapted legumes and one or more grasses. The
primary factors which maximise digestible nutrient intake, and hence animal
production or work performance, are the quantity of feed consumed, its nutrient
content and its digestibility. Practical agronomic responses to these three factors
include:
(1) the use of high-yielding and high nutritive value grasses and legumes to increase
productivity of nutritionally adequate forage;
(2) the correction of soil fertility constraints where necessary and where economic.
(3) supplementation of grazing animals directly with nutrients which are not
optimally provided by native or introduced forages.
Realistic production targets for the Southwest Pacific
Current and potential average commercial animal production indicators for the
Southwest Pacific are shown below.
Current
Potential
Cattle weaning rates (%)
40–55
70
Cattle post-weaning growth rates (kg /head/day) 0.25–0.35
0.4–0.5
Sheep and goat growth rates (g/head/day)
60–80
130–150
Milk production (litres/cow/day)
4–6
10
The animal growth rates and milk yields quoted are for the humid tropics. These
production figures are less than comparable figures for the temperate regions, due
to the lower nutritive value of tropical pastures and higher thermal stress which
can reduce feed intake.
Animals growing or milking at different rates have different requirements for
daily nutrient intake. This is important for managers seeking maximum production
levels. For example, a 400 kg steer growing at 0.5 kg live weight gain (LWG)/head/
Increasing livestock production
Box 4 Farmer responses to nutritional constraints
Nutritional
constraint
Farmer response
Low protein (nitrogen)
Increase legume content of pastures; feed urea plus molasses in dry season;
apply nitrogen fertiliser to dairy pastures; supplement with protein meals (dairy,
pigs, poultry).
Low dietary phosphorus Supplement with high phosphorus multi-mineral blocks; increase legume
contents using low phosphorus adapted species, and apply phosphorus fertiliser
if necessary and if cost-effective.
Low energy intake
Increase quantities of young pasture regrowth per animal; supplement with
copra meal or oil palm derived meals, molasses, cassava, maize or other locally
grown high-energy stockfeeds.
Low sodium
Provide mineral block or water supplementation; provide access to brackish
water; grow sodium-accumulating grasses like Koronivia, buffalo, setarias.
Low calcium
Fertilise pastures; provide direct supplements; increase legume in the diet;
reduce access to high oxalate grasses like setaria.
Low magnesium
Provide direct supplements; increase legume in diet.
Low sulphur
Increase legume content of pastures; fertilise if necessary; increase access to
high-sulphur grasses like buffalo, Batiki and t-grass.
Low copper
Supplement with mineral blocks or sub-cutaneous copper injections; graze
older animals on low-copper pastures.
Low cobalt
Provide dietary cobalt bullets, but note that a rapid response to vitamin B12
injections indicates a likely response to cobalt.
Low iodine
Use high iodine, multi-mineral blocks.
Low soil pH
If cost-effective, use lime or beach sand to raise pH to overcome nutritional
imbalance created by low pH.
Toxins
Vary forages; feed when toxin levels are low or when animals are less
susceptible; totally avoid certain forages such as drought-stressed, nitrogenfertilised forage sorghums. Remove toxic plants, e.g. high cyanide bush species
such as Pangium edule (or ‘big bol’) that is found in Vanuatu.
day needs a phosphorus content of ingested forage (usually young leaf and stem)
of 0.12%, assuming all other nutrients are optimally supplied. Similarly, a 400 kg
steer growing at 1 kg/head/day requires a phosphorus content of forage of 0.18%.
Lactating cows have higher requirements for protein, ME, phosphorus, calcium
and sodium intake than growing animals. Dairy cattle need better quality pastures
and more supplementary feeding than beef cattle in order to achieve their genetic
milk potential in Southwest Pacific environments.
Key areas of nutritional limitation
In some areas of the Southwest Pacific these critical levels of nutritive quality are
not met and production falls below potential. Box 3 outlines common nutrient
deficiencies for specific areas in the Southwest Pacific and recommends levels for
non-limited production; e.g. in beef cattle, 0.6 kg/head/day live weight gain.
Impact of increasing legume contents of animal diets
Farmers can significantly manipulate the quantity and quality of nutrients
consumed by using a range of pasture types and supplementation (see Box 4).
Increasing the legume content of pastures increases the availability of nitrogen,
23
24
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
Copper-deficient Illawarra
phosphorus, sulphur, calcium and magnesium to grazing animals. Whilst legumes
produce less dry matter than grasses, their digestibility and nutritive value is
generally higher than grasses.
Provided soil fertility is sufficient to sustain productive legume growth,
incorporating and maintaining legumes into protein-deficient grass-dominant
pastures is the single most important and cost-effective means of increasing animal
production from grazed pastures. For example, in Vanuatu, mechanical costs for
establishing legumes are typically around $80/ha. Following legume establishment
(about 6–9 months), this investment is normally recovered within the first six
months of full stocking. Various research efforts have demonstrated that raising
the legume content of grass pastures in the Southwest Pacific and other tropical
regions by 0–30% has dramatically increased animal production (Watson &
Whiteman 1981; Norton & Alam 1996, Partridge & Ranacou 1974).
It is worth noting, however, that the correction of soil fertility constraints may
or may not be economic, depending on input costs, production responses and
incremental product value in a particular situation.
Shorthorn cattle at
Montmartre, Efate prior to
six-monthly injections of
copper gluconate which
increased calving from 60%
to 80% as well as weaner
growth rates.
Using grasses for specific purposes
Farmers need to be aware of the specific nutritive qualities and environmental
adaptation of grasses and use them to their advantage. For example, some grasses
like Koronivia and buffalo grass accumulate high levels of sodium. Setting aside a
strategic area of such grasses can offset the nutritional deficiency of other lowsodium grasses and legumes on the farm.
Compared to the native t-grass, which is an unpalatable sulphur accumulator,
buffalo and Batiki are the most shade-tolerant, palatable, sulphur-accumulating
Increasing livestock production
grass species. Para grass and Splenda setaria are well adapted to seasonally wet and
waterlogged conditions, while signal is completely intolerant of waterlogging.
Creeping grasses such as Batiki, Koronivia and signal are more tolerant of heavy
grazing pressure than tall, tufted grasses like guinea, para and setaria. Sabi and Nadi
blue grass are well suited to seasonally dry areas with 1000–1800 mm rainfall.
Establishing legumes and improved grasses
In selecting one or more legumes to combine with a preferred grass, a variety of
environmental characteristics must be considered. These include soil pH, available
soil nutrient levels (particularly phosphorus), potential soil nutrient toxicities, soil
depth and seasonal variation in soil moisture, shade and radiation, temperature
range, drought, waterlogging and flooding, likely grazing and trampling pressure
and the grazing management system proposed.
Within a particular paddock the above soil conditions often vary and different
legumes will have specific niches. Thus, planting a mix of legumes will lead to better
utilisation of soil resources on a farm. However, there are examples in the region
where legume species have been completely mismatched. For example, without
liming, leucaena will not establish successfully in soils with pH under 5.5, such as
in the high rainfall acidic soil areas of Samoa and the Central Division of Fiji.
Further, calliandra has sometimes been incorrectly promoted in areas with extended
dry seasons, as in the Western Division of Fiji.
Legumes have different seasonal growth patterns and, as mixtures, maintain a
more even digestible nutrient supply to grazing animals than do pure grass pastures.
Some other important legumes and grasses in the Southwest Pacific are illustrated
below. Other varieties and new species of legumes are emerging with potential to
enhance production. (For more detailed information regarding pasture
establishment techniques and environmental adaptation of various grasses and
legumes, see suggested reading, pp.88–90.)
Augmenting forages with supplements
Excessive wet weather and continuous low radiation under cloudy conditions limits
animal growth rates in high rainfall areas of the Southwest Pacific. To maintain
reliability of farm output, which is essential for abattoir operators, this limitation
to growth can only be overcome by energy supplements such as copra or palm kernel
cake, molasses or brewer’s grains. Using steers grazing low-quality native pastures,
Galgal et al. (1994) achieved 0.93 kg/head/day when supplemented with 1 kg of
copra cake/head/day (an estimated 30% of dry matter intake) and 0.25–0.3 kg/head/
day without supplementation.
The economics of feeding energy and/or protein supplements is governed by
product prices, production increments obtained and on-farm supplement costs, the
latter largely reflecting the variability of transport and raw material costs in the
region (e.g. the price per tonne of copra meal, molasses in Samoa is US$50,
compared to $200 in Vanuatu). In Papua New Guinea there is major scope for
feedlot development close to sources of copra meal, molasses and oil palm cake.
More efficient and competitive freight systems could reduce the landed prices of
on-farm supplements. Also, the expanded use of coconut oil micro-expeller units
could increase the availability of wet copra meal for village pigs and poultry. Direct
mineral and trace element supplementation of deficient animals can also have
dramatic results at minimal cost.
25
26
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
Box 5 The benefits of improving pastures: some examples
Nawaicoba Quarantine Station, Fiji. Establishing Koronivia grass together with the legumes centro and
hetero into native mission grass country, has increased the quantity and quality of annual forage
production. This has led to a tripling of animal production from 0.5 x 400 kg steers gaining 0.25–0.3 kg/
head/day, to 1.2–1.5 x 400 kg steers gaining 0.4 kg/head/day.
Koronivia and legumes
invading mission grass at
Nawaicoba.
Melektree dairy, Efate, Vanuatu. Moving milking
cows from low legume signal grass to Splenda
setaria, with the legumes Tinaroo glycine and
greenleaf desmodium, increases milk production
from 10 to 13 litres/cow/day within a 24-hour
period. Splenda is about 70% digestible whereas
signal is about 55% digestible. Also, legumes
combine more easily with Splenda than with signal
grass and Splenda is naturally higher in sodium,
which is more important for milk production than
for beef production. Whilst both pasture systems
have similar total dry matter production potential,
the Splenda–legume system has a higher total level
of nutrients and a higher level of availability of
those nutrients following digestion.
Indo-Fijian dairy farmer
and his son in their
Splenda setaria and
legumes at Tailevu, Fiji.
27
Increasing livestock production
Box 5 The benefits of improving pastures: some examples (cont’d)
At Elbee Ranch on Efate, Vanuatu, 25 year-old signal grass pastures oversown with puero, centro,
greenleaf desmodium, pinto peanut and Archer axillaris (average 30% pasture) sustain 0.65 kg/head/
day growth in 450 kg Brahman x Simmental steers, stocked at 2.5–3 AU/ha. In comparison, native legume–
signal grass pastures sustained 0.53 kg/head/day at 2.5 AU/ha over a nine-year period (Macfarlane
unpublished data).
Signal–sown legume
(foreground)
outproducing signal only
pastures at Elbee Ranch.
Batiki/hetero pastures on Savaii, Samoa sustain 2 AU/ha gaining 0.5 kg/head/
day, compared to 0.3 kg/head/day without legumes (STPLSP 1998).
Cattle grazing Batiki–
hetero pastures in Samoa.
28
Planting buffalo grass and
the legume hetero into fresh
dung pats with cattle still
grazing.
Hand-seeding Glenn joint
vetch and centro in Samoa.
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
Increasing livestock production
29
Disc strip cultivation to
Zero-till seeder used to establish improved pastures
establish seeded legumes
with the band spraying of the systemic herbicide
into an introduced, improved
glyphosate to remove competition from existing
grass (above).
pasture on young seedlings.
30
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
Other important forage legumes and
grasses in the Southwest Pacific*
Above left: Pinto
peanut
Above centre: Seca
stylo seed production
Above: Glenn and
Lee joint vetch
at Legalega, near
Gliricidia for
Nadi, Fiji.
fodder or shading,
e.g. for vanilla
with a greenleaf
desmodium
ground cover.
Siratro
Dolichos lablab as a
fallow crop in
gardens.
Sheep grazing
puero on Taveuni,
Fiji.
The tree legume
Leucaena
produces quality
firewood and
forage in specific
areas but can
dominate
environments if
ungrazed.
Sabi
grass
Nadi blue grass
*See Appendix 3 for scientific names.
Increasing livestock production
Managing toxins and anti-nutritive compounds in pastures
Poisoning is most likely to occur during periods of overgrazing, where the
availability of quality forage to the grazing animal is inadequate. Animals are thus
compelled to consume toxic plants, both indigenous and introduced. Some
indigenous forest species such as Pangium edule have high cyanide contents of leaves
and fruits which are deadly if consumed. The consumption of common weeds such
as Lantana camara, Asclepias curassavica, Derris spp. or Indigofera spp. can also cause
death or ill-thrift in the region.
Young cattle in the Markham-Ramu valleys of Papua New Guinea, and sheep
throughout the region, should not be grazed exclusively on pure signal grass
pastures as photosensitisation and liver damage leads to reduced growth rates and
possibly death; saponin compounds are involved (S. Lowe, UNITECH, Lae, pers
comm.).
However, the feeding of legumes to improve animal nutrition is not without
potential problems. Gutteridge and Shelton (1994) discuss the potential negative
impacts of supra-optimal tannin levels from some tree legumes which can inhibit,
rather than promote, protein utilisation. Therefore, they generally recommend that
tree legumes should not exceed 30% of the diet. Also, most tree legumes need to
be fed with caution to mono-gastrics. Using greater than 30% of leucaena in the
diet can improve animal production, provided specific bacteria are present in the
rumen to detoxify the breakdown products of a specific amino acid, mimosine.
Improving the nutrition of non-ruminants
Simple, low-input feeding and management approaches could improve village pig
and poultry survival, growth and, to some extent, reproductive performance. Past
government support programmes have too often focused on imported genotypes,
intensive systems and imported stockfeeds. Village-based systems have been
neglected.
For village pigs and poultry, improved feeding would involve better water access,
improved protein intakes through high-quality forage legumes and fish waste,
complete use of waste fruits and unused energy stockfeeds like cassava tubers and
taro corms (either inedible to or not required by humans), and the feeding of
growing or breeding pigs in preference to feeding adult pigs for customary
consumption. Other simple management practices which would improve
productivity and household food security include reducing internal parasite loads
of village pigs by feeding them in dry places, reducing human and other predation
of poultry, and preventing the exposure of chicks to wet weather and chilling shock.
In a survey of 253 village pig herds in the Solomon Islands, de Frederick (1979)
found mean grower weights of 8.4 kg among 16-week old pigs. Feeding local pigs
with above average local stockfeeds comprising sweet potato, coconut, fish waste,
legumes and vegetable materials produced the same weight at eight weeks of age.
De Frederick showed that with improved diets, infection with kidney worm
(Stephanurus dentatus) had minimal negative impact.
2.3
Matching pastures to soil fertility constraints
In a mixed farming system (crops, pastures and livestock) the soil types with the
highest agronomic value are usually best reserved for subsistence and commercial
cropping. The greater the land use pressure, the less the justification for large
ruminant livestock on arable lands. However, increasing populations or market
31
32
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
Some commercial pig farmers
have halved feeding costs
whilst maintaining
production levels by
substituting imports with
local forage legumes and
balanced local stockfeed
rations.
signals distorted by input subsidies or price support can cause former pastoral lands
to be brought into unsustainable long-term crop production. In many cropping
systems, greater use could be made of the grazing capacity of livestock to recycle
nutrients and to control weeds for mutual benefit. Pastures require lower levels of
nutrient inputs to sustain productivity than do other cropping systems. General
guidelines on soil-pasture associations and recommended soil fertility levels for
non-limiting pasture growth are given in Evans et al. (1992) and in Macfarlane et
al. (1998).
Land use and whole farm development planning issues
High costs are involved in using fertilisers to correct nutritional or pH imbalances
in the Southwest Pacific. It is preferable to use pasture species which are adapted
to low or marginally fertile environments, rather than planting higher nutrient
demanding species which require high-input systems. Higher demanding legume
and grass species should be reserved for more fertile sites such as those found in
valley floors. An example of this is found in the dry zone of Fiji where some
progressive farmers have planted leucaena with signal grass, and/or have oversown
seca stylo into the infertile native grasslands in upland areas. Farmers are more
likely to expend their energy and resources on pasture improvement on those land
Increasing livestock production
types that will give the highest initial return. Similarly, grazing animals with the
highest physiological demand for nutrients should be grazed on the most productive
pasture areas with the best soil fertility. Such approaches seek to minimise risk and
to maximise the return on scarce resources invested.
Some acidic soils have high phosphorus fixation capacity. Under these
conditions, very little of the applied phosphorus becomes available for plant uptake.
In such situations the only viable option is to band apply phosphorus along legume
rows, as the broadcast application of whole paddocks will not produce any
significant increase in plant-available phosphorus. It should be noted that correction
of some soil nutrient deficiencies can also induce other problems. For example,
high phosphorus fertiliser and liming rates can reduce the availability of zinc.
Similarly, high sulphur intakes from heavily fertilised pastures, or from pastures
growing on soils derived from volcanic ash, can reduce the availability of copper
in the rumen.
Land fertility and development policy
The capability of land for sustainable production should also be reflected in
development policy. The development or rehabilitation of pastures on soils with
sub-optimal levels of phosphorus and potassium should be discouraged and made
ineligible for development bank or other finance, unless the economics of fertiliser
application are clearly positive and widespread adoption is known to occur.
2.4
Managing weeds
Any improved or native pasture with a 50% coverage of weeds will only achieve
about 50% of its carrying capacity and animal production potential. Weed problems
will rarely develop if a competitive, introduced pasture system, or a native pasture
system, is grazed correctly. It is essential to regularly monitor pasture condition as
this guides decisions on grazing management. A good grazing manager uses pasture
condition, and not animal condition, as the primary guide in adjusting stocking
rates or grazing pressure. A good grazing manager will also eradicate isolated weed
populations using manual, chemical, biological or integrated control methods.
Farmers should be constantly looking for slight changes in weed populations
that indicate excessive grazing pressure. Periods of overstocking will cause loss of
pasture vigour and ground cover, which usually induces major weed ingress.
However, poor establishment of an improved pasture can also lead to weed ingress.
This can result from inadequate seedbed preparation, the use of poor-quality seed
and/or poorly adapted seed species, and from sowing seed into areas of marginal
soil moisture.
Mullen et al. (1993), Evans et al. (1993) and Macfarlane et al. (1991, 1998)
provide details on weed identification and on integrated weed management and
rehabilitation programmes, including the safe and cost-effective use of low toxicity
herbicides (see suggested reading, pp.88–90).
Rehabilitation strategies
Some pasture rehabilitation strategies can be relatively simple and cost-effective.
For example, in 1989 the Tisman Plantation on Malekula, Vanuatu, seeded glycine
into strips of carpet grass infested with wild tobacco weed. By 1990, the glycine
had smothered the weed and had raised growth rates from 250 kg LWG/ha/yr to
500 kg LWG/ha/yr. The establishment cost of this pasture was $60/ha.
33
34
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
Cattle grazing lands of wild
Alternatively, seasonally aggressive climbing legumes like puero, calopo, glycine,
or Convolvulaceae weeds can be overcome by very high instantaneous stocking rates
which thoroughly defoliate and/or trample the dominant species. The case studies
which follow provide further examples of effective rehabilitation, and illustrate the
environmental and economic impact of improved land use.
tobacco weed–carpet grass
(background) and an area
oversown with glycine
(foreground).
2.5
Managing diseases and insect pests
In the 22 member Pacific Island Countries and Territories (PICTs) of the Secretariat
of the Pacific Community (SPC), the incidence of diseases of ruminant livestock
is insignificant by international standards. This has been covered in Section 1.4.
For a detailed coverage of diseases of other animals, the reader is referred to Saville
(1994).
2.6
Improving the quality of breeding livestock
Inbreeding and inconsistent government policies and programmes with respect to
bovine genetic improvement, bull rotation and timely culling are major constraints
in Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, and Tonga. However, the
private sector continues to support beef cattle genetic improvement in Vanuatu,
and in the Markham-Ramu valleys and the Central Province of Papua New Guinea.
Often, inbred cattle will attain only 60% of potential growth rates and mature
sizes. There are several instances where smallholders have used the same bull for
15 years. In some localities, up to 15% of smallholders do not have access to bulls
of any kind. Commercial farmers are aware of the need to buy or rotate herd bulls
every four years. Invariably, bulls cannot be bought as required and those farmers
who have been involved in bull exchange have run out of options, making
inbreeding inevitable.
35
Increasing livestock production
Case Study 1
Woman farm manager making profitable business from land
rehabilitation Caroline Ernst, Undine Bay Plantation, Efate, Vanuatu
Caroline Ernst manages a breeding/fattening herd of 500 cattle on about 270 ha of grazed native and
improved pastures at Undine Bay. The property has been used as a model farm to demonstrate the economics of rehabilitating coconut lands. This farm has an annual programme of rehabilitating these degraded
pastures under coconuts.
During the first year of this programme in 1989, lantana-infested areas producing neither harvestable
coconuts nor beef were burnt in the dry season, then disc-harrowed and seeded with signal or sabi grass
and legumes. Weed growth was fully controlled in the first year and this has ensured minimal regrowth
after the pasture was successfully established. The cost of establishing this pasture in 1989 was
VT21 000 / ha.
The first year of full grazing grossed VT1852 5/ ha from growing and fattening steers, with a gross margin
of about VT1050 0 / ha. Concurrently, copra income rose from zero to VT1500 0 / ha, with a gross margin
of around VT8000 /ha.
Caroline Ernst and
stockmen in nine-year-old
signal–legumes pastures
in former lantana
infestation, Undine Bay,
Efate.
Sometimes there are also cultural constraints to rotating or sharing of bulls.
Farmers or institutions who rent bulls or provide siring services have had some
success. However, even when bulls are available, the lack of affordable freight is a
major issue, particularly in Papua New Guinea but also in Fiji and the Solomon
Islands.
The non-availability of European-local crossbred breeding pigs and dual-purpose
poultry for developing commercial, village-based entrepreneurs is also a significant
issue in some countries.
2.7
Managing within ecologically
sustainable limits
Proven grazing system management and rehabilitation technologies are environmentally positive and offer the most cost-effective options for rehabilitating
weed-infested, unutilised or under-utilised land areas in the Southwest Pacific
36
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
Case Study 2
Entrepreneurial ni-Vanuatu farmer and business operator developing
his own low-cost rehabilitation techniques Toara Seule, Epule, Efate
Toara Seule manages 120 head of cattle on 60 ha of signal, elephant, buffalo and legume improved pastures.
In 1992 Toara rehabilitated 3 ha of a lantana-infested area under his coconuts by burning it after the first
rains of the wet season. Siratro seed was then planted in patches and signal grass seed sown into the ash
and raked in. Cuttings of elephant grass were hand planted. The elephant grass rapidly shaded other newly
emerging pasture species and any lantana regrowth. The shade-affected lantana was hand weeded after
about three months.
Toara Seule’s elephant –
signal –legume is
smothering lantana at
Epule, Efate.
(e.g. 37000 ha of guava and other weed-infested coconut lands in Samoa).
Regionally, there is scope to improve grazing system production by targeting the
rehabilitation of existing areas.
Pastures should not be developed on lands of ecological significance. In
situations where intensive cropping is eroding steeplands, the conversion of these
lands to improved pasture grazing and/or forestry often provides the best long-term
environmental and economical alternative.
Pasture land should not encroach within 50 metres of rivers or within 100 metres
of foreshores or mangrove lagoons. Grazing should not occur on slopes greater than
15–18 degrees, and slopes steeper than this should revert to bush fallow or be
reafforested. Fencing should follow contour lines or soil-type boundaries. Road
37
Increasing livestock production
construction in plantation grazing areas must account for the normal overland flow
of flood waters, and on sloping land roads should be sited along contours or ridge
lines. Road cuttings and eroded access tracks need to be rapidly revegetated with
pasture species to prevent erosion. Stream crossings should be designed to minimize
disturbance to river banks.
In existing grazing areas with less than 15% tree cover, reafforestation should
be considered along fence lines, in clumps and strips or on land facets which are of
lower agronomic value. Areas that are prone to landslips should be destocked and
reafforested with up to 150 adapted trees per hectare.
From a catchment management viewpoint, intensive livestock production in
an area supplying water for municipal or village consumption is unacceptable. On
the other hand, a 50 metre buffer zone between a grazed paddock and a water course
is usually sufficient to avoid animal faecal contamination of water.
Key environmental guidelines for grazing systems
The main risk to ecologically sustainable grazing system management is
overstocking. Many Southwest Pacific countries can identify some negative
environmental impact caused by overstocking, such as weed invasion, landslipping
or, in some cases, large-scale erosion. Incorrectly managed and promoted goats on
the atoll countries of Kiribati, Tokelau and Tuvalu have had significant negative
impact. However, there are also examples of rangeland degradation that has occurred
without the presence of grazing animals; e.g. landslipping in the ungrazed, native
grassland areas of Fiji.
Proven technologies exist to rehabilitate severely eroded grazing lands. The best
indicator of sustainable stocking rates, whether under continuous or rotational
grazing, is mean pasture height. Specific recommendations for major agro-ecological
environments in the Southwest Pacific are reported in Macfarlane et al. (1998).
Careless bulldozing of woody
weeds followed by
overgrazing leads to land
degradation.
38
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
2.8
Undergrazed Batiki grass
pastures reduce coconut
production and harvested
yields in Samoa.
Integrating pastures and livestock with
cropping
Farming system productivity and rural household income stability can be improved
by incorporating forages and grazing livestock into subsistence and commercial
cropping. Some examples include:
(1) Grazing unused, high quality pastures along roadsides and on the margins of
crop areas (e.g. Fiji).
(2) In Samoa, heavy grazing of proposed cropping areas by cattle to reduce native
grass and weed levels prior to spraying with paraquat or glyphosate. This, along
with improved application of herbicides, has the potential to reduce herbicide
usage to 25% of former levels.
(3) Incorporating self-regenerating legumes into naturalised grass fallows (e.g.
guinea grass in Tonga) to improve restoration of soil organic matter and soil
nitrogen levels.
(4) Planting legumes such as puero, dolichos lablab or cowpeas into post-cropping
fallows. This effectively smothers weeds, improves soil nitrogen levels after
about six months, provides forage for tethered or fenced ruminants, and mulch
for improving soil moisture and weed control in the next cropping cycle.
Introducing grazing usually increases copra yields by up to 50% due to
improved visibility of dry coconuts on the ground, and improved nutrient
cycling which benefits coconut production.
(5) The establishment of improved pastures in the final crop of a subsistence or
commercial gardening cycle has been practised by some farm families in
Vanuatu for over 40 years. This is illustrated in the following Vanuatu case study.
39
Increasing livestock production
Case Study 3
Crop-pasture sequences increase cattle production
Lorelvulko, Santo
Donatien and Ernestine Tsione,
This family establishes about one hectare per year of improved pasture by planting commercial crops into
t-grass areas which have been cut and burnt. These sites are planted with vegetable crops such as cabbage,
onions, corn and tomatoes with the improved pasture vegetatively planted into the final crop. Shortly after
final harvest, a fully developed, weed-free pasture is then ready for immediate grazing. Vegetable crops are
used for home consumption with the surplus being sold in Luganville markets. The family has also improved
about 40% of their 25 ha grazed buffalo grass pasture by planting the legume hetero into dung patches and
by discing some t-grass areas and seeding signal grass and legumes.
This improvement has at least doubled their beef enterprise income through an increase in the offtake
weight and a reduction in the age of marketed steers and surplus heifers. This has allowed them to achieve
a 40–60% gain in price paid per kilogram. Previously, their offtake did not meet Japanese export
specifications. With pasture improvement and careful handling to avoid any bruising, they now meet export
standards consistently.
Donatien Tsione plants
pastures into an area of
shallots at Lorelvulko, Santo.
3
Providing better support
to livestock farmers
Skills and training, access to resource inputs,
research, marketing, role of government
Summary
Each Southwest Pacific country has a different mix of factors which impact on its
capacity to improve levels of pasture-based animal production in subsistence and
commercial farming systems and to do this in ways that are ecologically,
economically and socially sustainable. This chapter explores such factors through
five broad areas: skills and training, access to resource inputs, research, marketing,
and the role of government.
A range of ways to improve extension delivery and farmer training are explored.
These stress the importance of adopting farming systems approaches, strengthening
and streamlining institutions, improving management systems performance,
retaining better on-farm support for demonstrations and information materials,
improving communications, and optimising human and physical resources. The
key role of progressive farmers and active farmer groups in innovation is highlighted.
The chapter also explores the need for increasing the availability of farmer
resource inputs such as planting materials and mechanised services, agricultural
credit, nutritional supplements, tropically adapted breeding animals and better
transport. The need for research and livestock subsector monitoring programmes
and a range of marketing options are examined.
In achieving increased animal production, government has a key role to play.
Production systems are significantly affected by factors such as exchange rates and
government policies reflected in deregulation or protection, interest rates, and tariffs
and duties on imported livestock products and production inputs. Improving the
capacity for efficient and internationally competitive enterprises is essential if rural
household welfare is to be maintained or enhanced in the Southwest Pacific.
3.1
Improving extension and training services
Using farming system approaches to rural development
Farming system development (FSD) is a process of thinking, understanding, action
and farmer support that integrates social, economic and cultural factors that operate
in a particular rural community. It is not commodity or activity specific but aims
to develop farm household systems and rural communities on an equitable,
sustainable and participatory basis.
FSD centres on farm households, aiming to empower them to solve their own
problems. This means focusing on the skills, information and technology needs
of all household members, and not just the (usually male) household head. It
40
Providing better support to livestock farmers
aims to develop an advisory support system that is based on farmer thinking and
values and that can operate from an interdisciplinary perspective (crops, livestock,
forestry etc.).
Within an FSD approach, problem definition, solution testing and ultimate
promotion is a collaborative effort, with farmers leading the process as potential
owners of the new or improved technologies. In this context, extension revolves
to a large degree around farmer groups with a commonality of purpose. These
groups create demand for problem solving from their own community resources
and from the institutions and private sector structures that support them. FSD
addresses not only issues of productivity but also equity and all aspects of
sustainability — economic, ecological, social and cultural (FAO 1993).
Whilst extension systems within ministries of agriculture accept, in theory, FSD
approaches, considerable practical progress is yet to be made in institutionalising
FSD as standard practice. For further reading see Norman et al. (1995).
Current non-FSD characteristics in extension,
training and research systems
Traditionally, government extension services have been the principal agricultural
information and technology providers to rural communities. Unfortunately, crops
and livestock extension services have been and continue to be segregated, with
insufficient formal and informal communication between them. Institutional
research, extension and training disciplines are also generally segregated, with
insufficient information flow between specialists. The prescriptive, ‘top down’
approach used by some extensionists in conveying new technologies to farmers is
ineffective.
Farming systems research involves farmers in defining problems and in
contributing to solutions and their ultimate promotion in collaboration with fieldactive researchers and extensionists. However, most research is currently undertaken
on research stations with which some farmers do not readily identify. Research that
does not recognise that farmers are integrated resource managers will have limited
benefit. Also, unless farmers influence the research agenda they are unlikely to
derive full benefit from research. Research and extension and training systems have
also undervalued the volume and importance of farmers’ indigenous knowledge.
Better recognition of farmer contributions to agricultural knowledge and practice
would encourage progressive farmers to be more active in extending proven
technologies to their rural communities. This would strengthen or create farmerextensionist alliances.
Potential for change
There is clear evidence from the Regional Pasture Improvement Training Project
(FAO 1996) that communication within and between institutional personnel and
farmer groups can be improved rapidly. Across six countries, carefully managed
meetings and field days involving farmers, farm managers, and research and
extension personnel, all contributing openly, has led to enduring improvement in
communication. This success needs to be extended.
Livestock farmers adopt new methods when they have a desire for change, when
there is a ready market or outlet for any additional product, and when they are
convinced of the minimum potential gains from on-farm demonstrations. In
particular, this applies to demonstrations promoted by adoptive and respected
farmers who are supported by proven extensionists and subject matter specialists.
41
42
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
Improving livestock institutional performance
Output performance management and service delivery
Operational efficiency in livestock extension delivery could be improved by regular
strategic planning sessions with all stakeholders, annual corporate (operational)
planning exercises, and performance-based management systems. Simple but
efficient survey, monitoring and evaluation systems need to become standard
components of such systems. Improved service delivery also depends on realistic
programmes which are developed in response to subsector needs. Developing
human resource capability requires clear job descriptions and adequate
opportunities for professional development.
Often, such factors have not been sufficiently addressed. Along with the lack
of competitive remuneration, these pose a significant national threat to the
sustainability of human resource strength in livestock extension and other service
delivery systems.
Resource allocation and efficiency of use
In most Southwest Pacific countries, government alIocations of physical and
financial resources to the institutions which serve the livestock subsectors do not
reflect their relative importance in generating economic activity. Agriculture sectors
contributing 40–50% of gross domestic product attract only 5% or less of recurrent
budgets. Lack of up-to-date information on the economic contribution of livestock,
crops, fisheries and forestry has sometimes been a contributing factor.
Apart from Papua New Guinea, the major livestock producing countries have
generally adequate staffing levels in livestock disciplines. There are approximately
300 livestock extension personnel in the major producing countries, including crop
extensionists with significant livestock advisory responsibilities. However, they lack
the physical resources and skills to adequately support livestock farmers. In some
countries this is acute, particularly where well-trained and committed personnel
are constrained in their work by a lack of operational vehicles or funds for travel.
Where the allocation of service vehicles is adequate, output could be significantly
increased by improved planning and coordination for vehicle movements and for
field trips — for example, to involve multiple tasks by a range of personnel
(extensionists, animal health officers, survey and monitoring specialists etc.).
The functional integration of crops and livestock extension would also increase
the effectiveness of human and physical resources. Communications could similarly
be improved and barriers reduced between extensionists in the government, nongovernment and private sectors.
Training extension personnel, farm community leaders
and farmer groups
Farmers and extensionists are insufficiently aware of the potential to enhance
production and income from adopting proven grazing system technologies. A large
percentage of the region’s livestock extension personnel and livestock farmers have
limited access to appropriate training. This represents a significant need.
In-country training is also a priority for subject matter specialists and livestock
extensionists engaged by government institutions and agencies or NGO groups,
as well as for leading farmers. Training modules containing a mix of current
information, proven technologies and problem-solving skills of appropriate detail
and balance are required for each of these groups. Such training can equip district
extensionists and key farmers with the necessary skills and confidence to deliver
training to individual farmers and farmer groups. The potential for technically
43
Providing better support to livestock farmers
Case Study 4
Recent graduate moves into senior management and increases output
Suttie, Livestock Advisory Officer, Avele, Upolu
Fogatia Tapelu-
Fogatia, 28 years old, completed a Bachelor of Applied Science (Rural Technology) at The University of
Queensland, Gatton College in 1996, with scholarship funding from AusAID. She heads the Women in
Livestock Development activities of the Livestock Division and is Acting Senior Livestock Officer (1997–
1998) in charge of day-to-day management and the division’s economic services. Fogatia has specific
responsibility for economic components of extension materials, farmer group training, and survey and
monitoring programmes. She meets regularly with women’s organisations to promote and provide training
on the role of livestock in rural communities. She is also involved with developing a pilot pasture seed
business enterprise with a village women’s group.
Fogatia Tapelu-Suttie
trains village women
on the harvesting and
economic aspects of
legume seed production
in Samoa.
informed agribusiness personnel to support extension delivery should not be
overlooked in training programmes.
It is unfortunate that some public service conditions of employment preclude
government officers from having private farming interests. This constitutes a major
loss of opportunity. The local extension officer demonstrating best farming system
practice on his or her own farm is a powerful motivation to other farmers.
Effectiveness of regional training
Attention to technical awareness and problem-solving, skills-based training was a
feature of recent livestock training projects financed by FAO (regional) and AusAID
(Samoa and Vanuatu, Chapter 5). Trainee motivation, experiental learning and
resource use efficiency have clearly benefited from training extensionists and
leading, community-active farmers together under these projects.
This type of approach has gained regional support. Ministers attending the June
1997 meeting of Southwest Pacific Ministers of Agriculture in Samoa drew attention
to the need for enhanced livestock and grazing system training and development
support in the region.
44
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
Case Study 5
Regional training and in-country support for new extension delivery focus
Cattle Extension Officer, Madang, Papua New Guinea
Tapul Woltubol,
As a 35-year-old officer Tapul received FAO-sponsored training in Vanuatu during 1994–1995 on optimum
grazing management and appropriate cost-effective technologies for pasture rehabilitation, regular weed
control and genetic improvement of cattle. Tapul returned to PNG with a revised extension programme
and a plan for more effective use of his limited resources. This involved several on-farm demonstrations,
widespread use of Vanuatu-derived videos and extension materials, and a limited number of field days.
Madang Provincial Government has a five-year development plan directed at rehabilitating run-down
cattle projects. Tapul is actively involved in encouraging smallholders to restock abandoned para grass
pastures, often under coconuts, on which stores from largeholdings can be grown and fattened for the
Madang abattoir. Fattening of store steers gives quicker returns and is therefore more easily financed by
the Rural Development Bank. It is also less demanding than breeding and fattening alone, and allows a
cattle farmer to develop the skills and confidence necessary to later diversify into a breeding and fattening
operation, if desired.
In response to farmer interest from a well-coordinated extension and training programme, Tapul and
District Livestock Officer, Pius Domie, regularly visit farmers and farmer groups in the Madang area, of
whom 25% are active in improving their grazing systems.
Tapul Woltubol with some
45 cattle farmers from the
Madang area during a
field day in November
1995.
Organisational networking
There are opportunities to improve training at various levels by making greater use
of existing production environments and training institutions in the region. For
example, Vanuatu can offer quality training to Pacific Island cattle farmers from a
well-established, accessible network of commercial cattle smallholdings and
plantations on Efate, Malekula and Espiritu Santo and the Vanuatu Agricultural
Research and Development Centre on Santo. In fact, Indonesians have shown
interest in such training for raising cattle under coconuts.
The network of dairy and sheep farmers that integrate with the Fijian Animal
Health and Production Division (AHP) could provide training in dairy management
for the humid tropics and in tropical sheep husbandry. Vudal University, a campus
45
Providing better support to livestock farmers
Case Study 6
Cattle farmer with a community extension commitment
Malaita, Solomon Islands
Stephen Mara, Central North
For about ten years, Stephen had grazed 30 head of cattle on his 26 ha farm dominated mainly by native
t-grass pastures on infertile, phosphorus-deficient soils. During 1994–1995 he participated in FAOsponsored training in Vanuatu and received three advisory visits to his farm by project personnel, including
provision of planting material for a nursery. He has now established a 10 ha pasture of low fertility adapted
Koronivia grass planted with legumes such as hetero, centro, Seca stylo, Arachis pintoi and A. repens.
Stephen has convinced about six former cattle farmers to rehabilitate their coconut plantations by
establishing shade-tolerant Batiki and hetero pastures. From his nursery, he has supplied at least 20 farmers
with seed of Glenn, Lee joint vetch and Seca stylo along with cuttings of pinto peanut. Since 1995, and in
conjunction with Livestock Officer Joseph Wahananiu and the National Agricultural Training Institute,
he has organised training and field day activities involving groups of 8–20 cattle farmers.
Stephen Mara from
North Malaita
demonstrates improved
pasture planting to
farmers at a field day he
organised in 1995.
of Papua New Guinea’s University of Technology (UNITECH), can provide
comprehensive training in farming systems approaches to livestock management.
Leading cattle farmers and farmer groups linking with the Livestock Division in
Samoa could deliver quality training in pasture improvement and grazing system
management appropriate to Polynesian and other small island countries. Much
needed regional para-veterinary training could be supported by the University of
the South Pacific (USP), Alafua and Suva campuses and other tertiary institutions,
in conjunction with SPC and the private sector.
Current collaboration between the USP’s School of Agriculture and the Livestock
Division in Samoa offers a good example of cross-institutional cooperation in
maximising the use of scarce training resources. Diploma and degree students derive
regular benefit from accessing technical, problem-solving, grazing system
demonstrations maintained by the Livestock Division.
46
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
Developing networks of on-farm demonstrations
Farmers and extensionists consistently rate convincing, on-farm demonstrations
as the most powerful medium for training and extension delivery. Farmers
appreciate learning-by-doing at field days and short training courses that are
integrated with demonstrations.
It is essential that training programmes are linked to a number of strategically
located on-farm demonstrations, in which productivity gains from the adoption of
regionally proven technologies are evident. Clearly identifiable inputs and outputs
as well as cost and benefit information must be supplied. Active promotion of the
benefits of adopting specific technologies is also vital to the success of any extension
and training intervention.
Case Study 7
Training of a husband and wife team improves farm business income and spawns a farmer
group Peter and Emmy Trevor, Faala, Savaii, Samoa
Following various FAO and AusAID supported training coupled with their own independent adaptation
of technology, the Trevors have more than doubled animal production from their 13 ha cattle farm (involving
20 breeders) over a three-year period.
Their native t-grass pasture comprising a 50–90% fern component was planted to Batiki grass and a
range of legumes. Systematic weed control at establishment converted the fern component of this pasture
to less than 10%. Training also convinced Peter and Emmy of the value of complete mineral supplementation
for all animals, and copra meal energy and protein supplementation for their lactating cows. It encouraged
them to invest in tropically adapted cattle genotypes as a cost-effective practice. The cost of grazing system
improvement over an 18-month period was ST$450/ha. This cost includes planting of Batiki grass, seeding
and planting legumes, manual control of ferns, triclopyr poisoning of guava, improved fencing and water
supply, and establishment fertiliser.
This more competitive grazing system raised carrying capacity from 1.6 AU/ha to 2.2 AU/ha and animal
growth rates from 0.25–0.3 kg/head/day to 0.55 kg/head/day. The average calving interval of their breeding
herd was also reduced from about 18 months to 12–14 months over a two-year period.
Their pastures are regularly used to demonstrate correct stocking rates, correct pasture heights and the
economic benefits of improved grazing system management, and have spurred visiting farmers into similar
action. The Trevors also constructed nurseries from which farmers were given planting material and from
which seed will ultimately be sold. The commercial legume seed production enterprise is managed by Emmy,
with on-farm advisory support from the Livestock Division as part of an AusAID-funded project.
Peter and Emmy Trevor
(left) with their sons and
livestock officers Silifaga
Fatu and Tony Aiolupo,
discuss the value of
multi-mineral supplement
blocks in their livestock
supplies store.
47
Providing better support to livestock farmers
Case Study 7 (cont’d)
The training received by Peter in Vanuatu demonstrated the advantages of effective farmer groups for selfhelp, community-based training and for lobbying at the political level. Peter and Father Sanele, a local
Catholic priest, initiated the formation of the Independent Farmers Group that comprises 16 local farmers.
This four-year-old organisation holds regular meetings and practical sessions on members’ farms. It is active
in producing extension materials and provides training to other farmers and potential farmer groups, in
conjunction with the Livestock Division. The Livestock Division is promoting it as a role model. The group
has a sound reputation in the community for performance and achievement, and is facing unprecedented
demand for new membership.
Farmers from the
Independent Farmers
Group with livestock
officers organise a field
day for new cattle farmers
at Lata, Savaii.
Some specific technologies requiring demonstration in each country are cited
in Chapter 2. Examples include the costs and benefits of oversowing legumes into
existing native and improved grasslands using mechanical and manual techniques,
or the potential of high-quality, low tannin legumes to supplement local stockfeeds
in improving the growth and performance of village pigs and poultry.
Improving information and technology materials
Livestock extension personnel have not been supported by adequate information,
personal training manuals and farmer extension materials. It is important to
reinforce formal and informal training with written and audio-visual information,
preferably in the local language. Technology adoption by farmers who participated
in the FAO and AusAID financed training projects was strongly linked to appropriate
information dissemination. Information distributed in leaflets, handbooks,
newspapers, posters, videos, radio and television programmes, and agricultural
shows is highly rated by farmers and extensionists, and second only to on-farm
demonstrations in terms of impact on technology adoption rates.
A mix of approaches is necessary for maximum impact. Some farmers can only
read in the local language whilst better educated farmers might prefer more complex
subjects in English. Some farmers do not read at all and thus audio-visual and
48
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
pictorial mediums are very important. Low-cost leaflets using appropriate language
with clear messages and graphic illustrations should be produced in sufficient
quantities for wide dissemination by extensionists, information services and
agribusinesses.
Videos are especially useful in introducing farmers and extensionists to practical
techniques and can rapidly and effectively convey the benefits of improved grazing
system management technologies. Examples include videos of on-farm slaughtering
and carcass cutting, safe and effective application of herbicides, pasture planting
and basic animal husbandry techniques. However, access to video viewing
throughout the region is highly variable. Many farmers also listen to radios but
the lack of convenient scheduling can limit audience size.
Facilitating farmer discussion, training and group action
Promoting a farmer group approach means that scarce resources are spread over
more farmers and that synergies from group interaction are achieved. Case studies
8 and 9 illustrate how timely institutional training support and the motivation of
a few key players can establish highly effective formal groups.
In Samoa, the AusAID-financed livestock training project aims to establish more
than 30 farmer discussion or action groups by the end of 1998. There is clear
evidence that the successful operation of longer standing groups who have provided
training to other farmers has facilitated the establishment of new farmer groups.
3.2
Increasing the availability of resource inputs
to farmers
Seed, vegetative planting materials and
mechanised services
Seed suppliers
Currently, farmers who are convinced of the value of pasture improvement and have
farms and resources are constrained by a lack of reliable pasture seed suppliers.
This is so in Fiji, Samoa, Solomon Islands and Tonga. There is a need to encourage
and assist private sector involvement in seed production and marketing and/or to
assist farmer groups and associations to organise their own direct, bulk imports
through reputable seed suppliers. For example, there is potential for Vanuatu, and
possibly for other countries, to become regular suppliers of seed of selected legume
species to the rest of the Southwest Pacific on a competitive basis.
Vegetative planting materials
There is frequently a significant lack of improved, vegetative planting material for
pasture improvement at a district level. This deficiency could be overcome by
erecting nurseries at extension offices, along roadsides, or with farmers willing to
distribute planting material. However, not all farmers are comfortable with providing
improved materials to other farmers.
Mechanised services
Fiji, New Caledonia and Papua New Guinea could derive major benefits from the
application of zero-tillage methods in pasture establishment. Compared with
cultivation techniques, such methods reduce soil erosion and suppress weed growth
and are easily demonstrated on-farm. In Solomon Islands and Tonga more efficient
49
Providing better support to livestock farmers
use could be made of locally available machinery to supply cost-effective, user-pays
planting services.
Extensionists, farmers and contractors need training on the efficient operations
of mechanised services. Inefficient procedures in providing mechanised services
for pasture improvement often discourage farmers. In these circumstances, they
are better off using manual planting techniques.
Improving credit to creditworthy farmers
Land tenure issues and lending policies
Lending rules in development and other banks usually exclude livestock owners
who farm customary lands or restricted leases, which are not universally
mortgageable. Such rules may not be in the community or national interest. There
have also been several cases where bank-financed livestock projects have failed.
Contributing factors have included weak project design, nil or low farmer equity,
little livestock management experience, poor financial controls, inadequate
attention to socio-cultural considerations, excessive scale, insufficient extension
system support and poorly developed markets.
Livestock development in the region will be constrained if these negative
experiences continue to influence banks against lending to smallholders with less
than ideal land tenure. This occurs in spite of an adequate history of loan repayment
and financial and operations management and presentation of quality investment
proposals.
Nellie Kaltong borrowed
VT150 000 (US$1300) from
the Vanuatu Development
Bank in 1989 to buy four
pregnant Charolais-cross
Improving the performance of agricultural loans
Some national development banks are reducing their exposure to the agriculture
sector in a bid to raise profitability. In some countries, development banks offer no
cows. She repaid the loan in
18 months with the sale of
four weaners for veal.
50
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
concessional interest rates compared with private banks. In some cases they charge
a premium.
By comparison, the Rural Development Bank (RDB) of Papua New Guinea has
taken an innovative approach in an effort to improve the performance of agricultural
loans. Through its subsidiary company, Smallholder Rural Projects Management
Ltd (SRPM), a network of technical staff provide services to client and non-client
farmers for a modest fee. These services include regular advice, management
support, assistance and controls in marketing, and financial management,
particularly for coffee, cocoa and cattle farmers. In the last few years SRPM has
dramatically reduced the number of cattle development loans in arrears. Eligibility
for these loans now involves a requirement for pasture improvement.
The Morobe provincial government contracts SRPM to provide specific
extension and management services to the community. The company now services
largeholder clients seeking specialist advice as well as international companies
bidding for local consulting contracts that require national partners. However, given
national government budgetary constraints and its traditional public funding base,
SRPM is increasingly required to source operating funds from external business.
Until regular, contractual private and public sector income is assured, SRPM’s future
remains uncertain.
Need for financial and farming systems training
Regionally, many field officers and loan assessment officers in development banks
need to be more field active and to have a detailed technical and management
understanding of the farming systems they seek to support. Banks have an interest
in maintaining this kind of in-house expertise. Reliance on livestock and agriculture
extensionists for scrutiny of production assumptions and development plans
reduces the banks’ control over service quality. The SRPM experience provides a
role model which might be relevant to other development banks.
In addition, extension training programmes need more farm development
planning (with more attention to the accuracy of assumptions, inputs and outputs)
and cash flow projections. Community leading farmers and farmer group leaders
also require training and extension support in this area.
Using nutritional supplements to augment forages
Need to improve use, supply and management of
industrial by-products
The by-products of flour and grain milling (bran, pollard) and pulse or grain legume
processing (pea meal in Fiji) are efficiently used throughout the region. However,
efficiency of use in by-products of the coconut, sugar and oil palm industries could
be improved. In Papua New Guinea, the by-products of coconuts (copra meal),
sugar (molasses) and oil palm (palm and palm kernel cake) are largely exported
when there is potential to utilise these products more fully to augment the output
from grazing.
Depending on availability and price, profitable opportunities exist in other major
producing countries to supplement grazing animals with the above stockfeeds.
Fijian dairy farmers have inadequate access to local molasses produced in Lautoka,
simply because an efficient bulk handling system is not in place. Fiji farmers prefer
copra meal, but the country’s copra production has declined rapidly over recent
years due to high labour costs and low returns. The potential of village-level microexpeller units producing oil and copra meal for local livestock requires investigation,
51
Providing better support to livestock farmers
and demonstration if viable. Cheap solar-based systems of drying brewer’s grains
would reduce fermentation and stockfeed spoilage and make available large
quantities of stockfeed for local, commercial ration production.
Making better use of village-based stockfeeds
and mineral supplements
Samoan dairy farmers are using fresh brewer’s grains, chopped cassava tubers and
tops, large corms of taamu (Alocasia macrorrhiza), household wastes, vegetable
scraps, forage legumes and copra meal for silage. By feeding 7–8 kg per day some
farmers have reported increases in milk production of up to 6 litres/cow/day. Given
high fresh milk prices (up to $1.20/litre), farmers are happy to make such labour
inputs. Under reduced prices equivalent to that of imported UHT milk, it is unclear
whether the same labour input into silage would be made. The use of mineral and
trace element dietary supplements, especially phosphorus, sodium, calcium, copper,
iodine and sulphur, is reiterated as essential and cost-effective in environments
where forages are incapable of meeting animal requirements.
Ensuring reliable access to tropically adapted
breeding animals
Regional overview of improved cattle genetic resources
Fiji. Beef cattle genetic improvement is focused on the government-owned Yaqara
Pastoral Company involving Limousin semen and CIRAD (Noumea) cooperation.
However, as yet, few bulls from this programme have filtered out to the private
sector. The dairy industry in Fiji is better served with Rewa Dairy and the AHP
operating artificial insemination (AI) programmes, but support with semen costs
to increase remote area farmer participation could be justified.
Dairy cows in Fiji
supplemented with molasses.
52
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
Solomon Islands. The government has commenced an upgrading programme with
limited bull imports and an AI programme, but a dramatic expansion is required
to meet farmers’ needs adequately.
Samoa. Samoa imported 3000 tropically adapted heifers and bulls (mainly
Droughtmaster) between 1993 and 1995. It has just concluded an AI and embryo
transfer programme involving the breeding of tropically unproven Piedmontese
purebreds which require supplementary feeding to grow adequately. Support is
needed to maintain the quality of existing, proven Brahman and Droughtmaster
herds and to introduce other tropically adapted crossbred genotypes.
Tonga. Apart from sporadic AI and the activities of church farms and MAF in
importing dairy breeding animals from New Zealand and Fiji, no cattle genetic
improvement is taking place in Tonga.
New Caledonia and Vanuatu. Beef production in these countries is not limited by
the lack of adapted genotypes due to longstanding private sector programmes.
Lawrence Wells in 1993
carrying Japanese export
steers to Santo abattoir.
Regional development assistance needs
Across all countries except Vanuatu and New Caledonia, tailored programmes to
support developing cattle industries are required. Immediate freight assistance is
needed to rapidly circulate new bulls, backed up with a 3–5 year AI programme in
carefully selected commercial, well-managed locations, with resulting progeny to
be widely circulated.
The long-term solution is an adequately supported in-country network of wellmanaged private farms and some government stations engaging in self-financed,
annual, synchronised AI programmes, with sale of breeding animals to interested
farmers. In some countries there is a need for government to undertake or facilitate
AI to improve the supply of adequate quality genotypes for small- to medium-sized
Providing better support to livestock farmers
commercial pig producers without the resources to import directly. The availability
of dual purpose meat/egg producing poultry needs to be improved in some localities.
Improving land and sea transport
For decades the Southwest Pacific has used inefficient shipping equipment
discarded by larger economies. However, there is growing interest in faster and more
fuel-efficient aluminium barges in the region. Competition from more efficient sea
transport should benefit the consumer, including farmers, in lower input prices.
Throughout the region community transport resources are under-utilised.
Greater use could be made of small outboard-motor-powered river barges in
inaccessible areas, as well as crates, small containers and small trailers to transport
breeding animals on conventional shipping. Greater use of 6- or 12-metre livestock
containers would facilitate trade of breeding animals between adjacent countries
on a regular basis (e.g. Vanuatu to Solomon Islands). Where communities lack
improved and user-pays livestock transport services, under-utilised tractors and
4WD vehicles could often be available on an individually negotiated basis. It is more
efficient to transport 4–8 cattle per truck to a centralised slaughter facility than to
have individual farmers transport single animals.
3.3
Undertaking priority applied research
In crops and livestock research, much of which is still focused on research stations,
there are too many examples of repeating, rather than building on, previous
worthwhile output. It is essential that annual research programmes are focused more
with participating farmers and subjected to wide-ranging scrutiny and national
prioritisation before the committal of limited public resources.
For all countries a greater range of tree legumes should be assessed and
demonstrated, as well as proven shrub and herbaceous legumes. Tree legume
systems, whilst better adapted to certain environments than many other legumes,
require an above-average level of management to ensure sustained productivity.
Management systems which minimise the soil acidification potential of high legume
pastures require investigation.
Other areas requiring applied research and demonstration input, particularly
in Fiji and Papua New Guinea, include a more thorough mapping, recording and
data storage of soil fertility constraints. Research is needed on the cost-effectiveness
and the potential of technologies discussed in Chapter 2 for achieving target levels
of animal growth and reproductive performance in major agro-ecological zones.
3.4
Improving marketing options
Regional livestock product marketing overview
Beef production and self-sufficiency levels
As seen in Table 7 (Chapter 4, p.68), the seven major livestock countries produced
13557 tonnes of beef during 1994–1995, r epresenting 48.7% regional selfsufficiency. Production for the informal (customary and unregulated village
butchery) market is estimated to average 35%, ranging from approximately 80%
for Tonga to an estimated 18% for New Caledonia. National self-sufficiency in fresh
beef ranges from 100% for Vanuatu to 13.5% for Tonga.
53
54
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
Case Study 8
Farmer group takes control of marketing
Vanua Levu Livestock Association, Savu Savu, Fiji
In 1995 Sevuloni Debalevu and the author organised two farmer group meetings to inspect, discuss and
support Molly and Graham Haynes and other farmers in the Savu Savu area in their pasture and cattle
herd improvement programmes. At that time, farmers were reluctant to invest until returns improved.
However, given support from the AHP and the author, this informal farmers’ group decided to take control
of the marketing of their meat. Various experienced business people in the 16-member Vanua Levu Livestock
Association, especially Molly Haynes, have been involved in overseeing the operations of a group butchery
in Savu Savu since 1996 which utilises a government-inspected local slaughterhouse.
Butchery profits are used to pay member farmers higher prices for their beef carcasses. Farm gate returns
have risen from F$1.10 to $1.50 and payments are made reliably 30 days after delivery. Butchery throughput
has risen from 36 to over 100 for the first year of operation, although cattle will have to be sourced from
the neighbouring island of Taveuni to maintain supply levels. Because of improved market signals, farmer
group members are now more interested in increasing their productive capacity through pasture
improvement. The existence of this group facilitates more effective support from the AHP and other
professionals, and the interchange of ideas and technologies between members.
Animal Production Officer
Sevuloni Debalevu,
Molly Haynes and other
members of the Vanua
Levu Livestock Association
discuss the merits of
Koronivia grass with
centro, hetero and
stylos.
Farmer prices for beef
Farmer prices in October/November 1995 for product delivered to abattoirs and
butcheries for 400 kg live weight steers in US$/kg were: Port Moresby $1.90, Lae
$1.67, Port Vila $1.20, Suva $0.90–1.00, Samoa $2.80 and Tonga $3.00. Remote
area farmers had lower net farm gate prices than those closer to markets. For
example, Savu Savu farmers shipping cattle to Suva were netting $0.75/kg of carcass.
Dairy production and prices
In 1994–1995 Fiji’s formal dairy production was 1570 tonnes of milk fat equivalents
(MFE) whilst New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Tonga and Vanuatu produced
respectively 132, 11, 12 and 16 tonnes of MFEs. Fiji dairy farmers receive 24 cents/
litre (US$), Tonga farmers receive 60 cents/litre and the sole producer in Vanuatu
markets pasteurised and homogenised milk for 90 cents/litre.
Providing better support to livestock farmers
Sheep meat production
In 1994–1995 Fiji, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea and Vanuatu produced
respectively 24, 27, 16 and 5 tonnes of boneless sheep meat. At that time Fiji farm
gate prices for sheep were US$2.25–$2.63/kg or two or three times the price of beef,
whilst the two producers in Vanuatu received US$2.70/kg carcass.
Changing attitudes and strategies
Village-produced pigs and poultry are consumed almost exclusively for customary
purposes (marriages, funerals, church functions, important visits) and important
family occasions, with little commercial transaction. Cattle provided for customary
purposes may be donated, exchanged or sold for cash. The partial commercialisation
of the customary markets, particularly in Samoa, is relatively recent.
The rapid development of commercial attitudes to cattle farming in Samoa in
the last few years has been encouraged by the collapse in 1993 of taro as a major
traditional income stream. The financial commitment of about 17% of cattle farmers
to purchasing high-quality, imported, tropically adapted breeding stock from
Australia has been another important impetus. These farmers are also influencing
other cattle farmers with local stock towards a more commercial approach.
However, Samoan cattle farmers will need to prepare for alternative marketing
approaches to remain viable in the future as domestic supply expands, the currently
lucrative Fa’alavelave or customary market becomes saturated and strong
competition from New Zealand imports continues. However, the solution is not
through regulation and tariffs on imports. Detailed market analysis points to the
need for:
• quality assured, centralised and possibly mobile slaughter facilities and retailing,
to encourage the higher income and more demanding clientele to pay more for
local, quality, chilled beef in preference to frozen, quality imports;
• retailers to charge more for high quality cuts and less for low quality cuts, in
order to penetrate the cheaper mutton, lamb flaps and turkeys’ tails market (5500
tonnes/year);
• a two- or threefold increase in average farm productivity involving younger,
higher quality carcass, which meets increasing consumer standards of eating
quality and which, through lower total costs of production, is able to compete
in a deregulated, unprotected market (STPLSP 1998).
Rapid increase in breeding cow numbers to drive industry expansion is likely
to reduce the supply of heifers and cull cows onto the commercial market. This
happened in Vanuatu in 1988–1990 and almost jeopardised abattoir ability to meet
manufacturing grade (CL90) contracts. However, cattle farmers, particularly in
Vanuatu and Samoa, are becoming more discerning in their marketing strategies.
Aged cull cows are increasingly being offered for the customary trade instead of
breeding age heifers. Aged or underweight animals usually fetch higher prices in
the customary market than in the retail market, and cattle farmers are exploiting
this opportunity to improve incomes.
Livestock product imports
Table 5 shows that the region’s annual import value (CIF) of major livestock
products in 1994–1995 were beef (US$30.4m), sheep meat ($38.47m), pig meat
($4.52m), poultry ($23.34m), canned meat ($17.24), milk ($8.07m) and dairy
products ($36.08m), totalling US$158.12m.
The annual per capita value of imported livestock products, derived from
dividing total import expenditure per country by current population, is as follows:
55
56
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
Table 5
Country
Beef
meat
Fiji (1994)
1197 1
4694 2
(2.2)
523
New Caledonia
(1995)
PNG (1994)
Sheep
meat
(3.08)
11 106
1
(22.4)
Solomon Islands
(1994)
Tonga (1994)
Vanuatu (1994)
Samoa (1994)
Total qty
Total value
270 1
(1.2)
192 1
Quantity (tonnes) and value (in brackets, US$m) of imported
livestock products
Pig
meat
Poultry Canned
meat products
Milk
299 1
Dairy
Imports
per capita
(US$/head)
5940
27.20
784 000
204.00
181 000
17.78
4 302 000
6.90
378 000
87.24
98 000
14.30
169 000
76.42
171 000
75
446
150
(6.4)
(0.3)
(1.0)
(0.3)
(0.32)
(10.7)
196
196
5994
1623
4300
1400
(1.76)
(0.85)
(12.5)
(7.45)
(3.5)
(7.8)
43 000
l375
2340
3236
(25.1)
(2.89)
(2.92)
(6.2)
9.3
3
77
(0.02)
–
(0.02)
1.2
1131
3376 3
(0.28)
(3.07)
–
(1.15)
nil
5.0
301
430
–
(0.02)
(0.44)
(0.75)
3
150 3
(0.01)
583 3
(2.03)
120 3
(0.35)
3300
4780
(2.2)
(14.8)
nil
300
–
(0.6)
625 1
(0.82)
300 1
(0.23)
786
Population
(1.2)
190
(0.63)
864
3000
42
4000
310
820
1343
(1.26)
(2.1)
(0.04)
(5.0)
(0.9)
(1.0)
(0.35)
14 152
54 280
1993
14 418
6172
9644
14 739
(30.4)
(38.47)
(4.52)
(23.34)
(17.24)
(8.07)
(36.08)
Note Sources and detailed notes are found in Appendix 1. Total quantities rounded to nearest
tonne.
Fiji (US$27.20), New Caledonia ($204), Papua New Guinea ($17.78), Solomon
Islands ($6.90), Tonga ($87.24), Vanuatu ($14.30) and Samoa ($76.42).
Livestock product exports
Vanuatu is the only significant livestock product exporter in the Southwest Pacific.
From 1994–1996, beef exports ranged from 1450 to 1600 tonnes annually with
the following destinations: Fiji, Kiribati, New Caledonia, Wallis and Futuna and
personal exports (2.5%), Japan (57.9%), Papua New Guinea (22.8%) and Solomon
Islands (16.8%). In 1996, Vanuatu also exported 298 tonnes of cattle hides, 59
tonnes meat and bone meal, 576 tonnes canned meat, 22.6 tonnes of camembert
cheese (mainly to New Caledonia) and 34 tonnes of ice cream. In 1994, Fiji reexported 47.8 tonnes of meat in the form of canned corned beef and this is likely
to expand.
Consumption patterns and associated issues
The per capita consumption of livestock products varies widely. For example, the
annual per capita consumption of local and imported beef (including beef canned
in country) is as follows: Fiji (6.1 kg), New Caledonia (18.2 kg), Papua New Guinea
(3.14 kg), Samoa (8.6 kg), Solomon Islands (1.6 kg) Tonga (3.5 kg), and Vanuatu
(13.6 kg). These figures were calculated from data in tables 5 and 7.
Mutton and lamb flaps are the predominant sheep meat import, and the most
significant imported livestock commodity with 54280 tonnes consumed annually .
From Table 5 the annual per capita consumption of imported sheep meat is as
follows: Fiji (5.99 kg), New Caledonia (1.08 kg), Papua New Guinea (10.0 kg),
Samoa (17.5 kg), Solomon Islands (0.02 kg), Tonga (34.44 kg) and Vanuatu (0.03kg).
Providing better support to livestock farmers
Private and public sector nutritionists in Fiji and Polynesian countries raise
serious concerns about the high level of saturated fat consumption associated with
cheap, imported lamb and mutton flaps, and turkeys’ tails. There are also clear
cultural differences in the preference for fatty foods. Highlanders of Papua New
Guinea are much more comfortable eating high-fat mutton flaps than lowlanders.
In Samoa and Tonga, whilst there is a taste preference for mutton and lamb flaps
and turkeys’ tails over low fat beef, there is evidence that more nutritionally aware
consumers are reducing their fat intakes, partly through an increased consumption
of cheaper beef cuts such as blade steak or diced beef.
Improving farmer incomes
In deregulated markets, farmers can improve their incomes by sustaining higher
levels of production per animal, increasing sustainable pasture carrying capacities,
and securing better prices for their products through premiums for quality.
Increasing farm output
Increasing animal productivity and the carrying capacity of pastures will have a
greater potential impact on incomes than price movements. Most farms can increase
their animal growth per hectare by up to 50% by increasing legume contents of
existing pastures. Nevertheless, there are price thresholds below which farmers
show little interest in increasing production. Some Savu Savu cattle farmers in Fiji
who now control their own butchery have increased farm gate returns from $0.75
to $1.20/kg carcass and are now much more committed to improving their pastures.
The potential to increase production given positive market signals has been covered
in Chapter 2.
Improving farm gate prices
Livestock industry regulation can have both positive and negative community
impacts. Deregulation in Fiji in 1995 had the net effect of rapidly forcing down
prices for Viti Levu farmers delivering prime steers to Suva, from US$1.35 to $0.90–
1.00/kg carcass. Prices have stayed at this level since.
There are also examples where well-informed and organised farmers have taken
control of their product. Cooperatives such as the above-mentioned Savu Savu
group, with well-developed business plans and articles of association as well as good
management and financial controls, serve as a model to other dissatisfied beef
farmers in the Sigatoka Valley and elsewhere in Fiji. Some recorded butcher margins
of up to 132% per carcass in Fiji are higher than elsewhere in the region. Butchers
with more competitive margins and higher throughputs are also more likely to
reward farmers with better access and possibly better farm gate prices.
Production specialisation
Another initiative to improve returns has been to specialise in store production,
by on-selling at profitable prices to growing and fattening specialists with improved
pastures close to abattoirs and markets. This has been undertaken by farmers in
the ‘dry zone’ of Viti Levu in Fiji, some Markham-Ramu area farmers in Papua New
Guinea, and some more remote small-island smallholders and plantations in
Vanuatu (Santo, Aore, Malo, Malekula, Pentecost, Epi). However, if smallholder
store producers perceive they are being treated unfairly they will revert to attempting
to grow and finish themselves.
57
58
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
Minimising processing costs
Increased farmer returns and/or reduced prices paid by consumers can flow from
processing beef more cheaply through regional minimum-standard facilities close
to sources of supply, rather than through distant central facilities. In November
1995, for example, a regional minimum-standard slaughterhouse near Savu Savu,
Vanua Levu, Fiji processed quarters for $0.09/kg. By comparison, processing costs
of quarters at the central abattoir in Suva, a day’s barge trip away, were double this
figure.
In November 1995, standard charges for processing a 230 kg beef carcass to
the quarter stage were: Papua New Guinea Livestock Development Corporation
($0.15/kg), Fiji Meat Industry Board ($0.18/kg) and Vila and Santo municipal
abattoirs ($0.29/kg). The significantly higher costs in Vanuatu reflect the higher
investments in upgrading abattoirs from domestic to international export standards.
Domestic slaughterhouse/abattoir investment should only be to a level necessary
to guarantee product quality and hygiene.
Accessing more consumers through decentralised meat processing
and retailing
The offering of meat as bone-in cuts reduces butchers’ costs and if this is passed
on to the consumer, turnover is likely to increase.
A good example is a butchery from Madang, Papua New Guinea. High-quality
cuts are sold at a premium price to mining caterers and the remainder offered to
the general public as cheaper 500g or 1kg bone-in blocks of meat. A reduction in
average bone-in price from K$4–5/kg to approximately K2.80/kg has dramatically
increased sales.
Vila abattoir processes
beef for export.
Achieving premium prices through consistent high quality
Commercial farmers in the Southwest Pacific can derive income premiums of 10–
15% by consistently delivering high-quality product to market specifications (age,
59
Providing better support to livestock farmers
weight) destined for supermarkets, quality butchers, hotels and restaurants.
Premium-grade beef carcasses are derived from animals that are:
• grown to near their genetic potential on improved pastures with supplements
if necessary;
• handled and slaughtered in an unstressed state;
• processed and transported efficiently and hygienically to ensure no loss of value
of saleable meat cuts.
Farmers who raise their cattle on native pastures will often not meet weightfor-age specifications. Similarly, farmers who do not handle their animals carefully
prior to slaughter can lose US$80–100 per animal from bruising. Butchers who have
the highest processing standards, including chilling of carcasses for 7–10 days and
quality assurance, will command higher prices.
Programmes to increase consumer demand
Better product choice and affordability
High retail beef prices continue to discourage Pacific Islanders who do not have
religious restrictions from eating more livestock products. Country-specific market
research is required to identify trigger prices which encourage consumers to switch
from mutton flaps or turkeys tails’ to beef.
The regional evidence would suggest that consumers will shift preferences in
response to relative price movements in competing products. In Samoa in mid-1997
imported New Zealand blade steak offered at ST$3/lb, instead of local blade steak
at around ST$4/lb, attracted some consumers away from mutton flaps and turkeys’
tails which retailed at ST$1.90/lb. In Fiji in 1994 when tariffs on imported mutton
and chicken were removed, leading to lower prices relative to beef, this caused local
beef consumption to fall by 31%.
Awareness of value of local versus imported product
Consumer awareness strategies which increase demand for local meats will do so
by illustrating the nutritional and value-for-money advantages of local, low-fat beef
and poultry compared with high-fat mutton and lamb flaps and turkeys’ tails.
Associated consumer training in alternative preparations of local livestock products
Emo and Pau Liliko,
dairy and beef farmers and
storekeepers from Gatavai,
Savaii, Samoa sell boiled
fresh milk from their six
Fresian cows cheaper than
imported UHT milk.
60
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
can enhance demand. Similarly, demonstrating the nutritional and value-for-money
advantages of locally produced milk are likely to promote local dairy industries.
Such shifts would have major nutritional benefits, especially for children. Many
village women see the potential of improving household income and nutrition with
small-scale dairying, selling fresh milk for ST$1.50 per 750ml bottle compared with
ST$2.40/litre for imported UHT milk.
Generating and marketing exportable surpluses
Vanuatu is the only significant exporter of fresh meat in the region. Fiji exports a
small quantity of canned meat and hides. Countries wishing to encourage livestock
product exports before they have reached self-sufficiency in that product need to
fully assess the costs, additional conditions imposed by importing countries, and
the risks of committing themselves to export. Vanuatu committed itself to upgrading
its export abattoirs to USDA standards in 1988 and still has not attained USDA
abattoir accreditation. The costs of achieving international processing and country
status standards are easily under-estimated.
Having recently gained OIE recognition of its animal disease status, Vanuatu
has new Asian, non-USDA standard, marketing opportunities. In 1996–1997 with
preferential Melanesian Spearhead Group access, Vanuatu was unable to meet
demand from Papua New Guinea. Farmers who had lacked confidence over the
previous five years, due to low prices, increased pasture improvement and expanded
production capacity. But such expansion takes at least three years to reflect in
increased abattoir throughput, and if competitors are able to deliver at reduced
prices or if exchange rates move adversely, a once secure market can suddenly
become vulnerable.
Vanuatu could obtain organic certification for beef (by property or island)
relatively easily. This would open up premium price markets in countries whose
protocols allow beef trade. Chapter 4 shows how Vanuatu has the potential to
increase its boneless beef production from 2800 to 5400 tonnes annually over
approximately ten years, given positive market signals. Currently, exports are 1600
tonnes per annum.
Any new export industry has difficulty in projecting future product supply and
this is an area of possible future development assistance support, if exporters are
to secure and maintain new markets. It is essential that projected quantities of a
specified quality are delivered. Importers need to have confidence in PICT export
estimates.
In 1996 the cost of processing Vanuatu beef and vacuum packaging it for export
was approximately A$0.80–0.85/kg carcass. By comparison, the competitive price
for Australian or New Zealand abattoirs was in the range of AUD$0.4–0.45/kg, and
this differential continues to be reflected in comparatively lower farm gate prices
for Vanuatu farmers. Vanuatu abattoirs face higher management, energy, input and
shipping costs than Australia or New Zealand. However, unit costs are expected to
lower as throughput increases and tallow-firing lowers electricity costs.
Live cattle exporting has historically been a volatile activity. This is reflected in
the collapse of an 800000 head of cattle per year expor t trade from Australia to
Indonesia and to the Philippines, due to the recent currency devaluation in Asia.
However, the trade will re-establish at an appropriate level and live cattle export
opportunities ex Papua New Guinea and Vanuatu could exist in the future for
suitable Bos taurus x Bos indicus genotypes. This may offer farmers superior returns
to current abattoir prices.
61
Providing better support to livestock farmers
3.5
Broad role of governments
Economic and trade policies and strategies
affecting agriculture
Import substitution and viable exports
Improving the socio-economic welfare of Southwest Pacific households will require
policies that promote import substitution of agricultural products and viable
exports. Too often planners focus on non-competitive exports and forego less risky
opportunities for import substitution. However, in an increasingly liberalised and
deregulated global market, agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishery industries
in this region will need to be internationally competitive.
Household welfare and efficient domestic production
Socio-economic welfare of households is not enhanced by import protection.
Protectionism often leads to inefficient domestic production with products selling
above world parity prices. High import duties on direct and indirect agricultural
inputs create cost excesses which farmers cannot pass on.
The less efficient or sub-optimally resourced farmers will often demand
protection against imported livestock products. There is always the prospect that
the more vocal livestock producers, some with above-average costs, might unduly
influence a government on protection issues. The best way that farmers can reduce
their total costs of production and remain internationally competitive is to improve
their operating efficiency and increase their unit area productivity. Given assistance
to improve grazing system management in the Southwest Pacific, it is considered
that livestock products derived largely from current grazing lands can compete with
comparable imported products in a deregulated market.
Tariffs and protection
In reducing tariffs on imported consumer products and agricultural inputs,
governments face the fiscal dilemma of sourcing essential revenue from elsewhere.
The World Bank cautions against a general reduction in tariffs until there are other
tax-efficient revenue raising measures in place (Fraser 1997). Tariff reductions on
livestock product imports need to be implemented at a rate which minimises
Unsustainable cropping in
Fiji. This land is better suited
to pastures or forestry, or a
combination of both.
62
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
negative socio-economic impact and allows time for rural households to adjust
production and marketing efficiencies or to make enterprise shifts.
Countries in the region have in the past benefited from tariff preferences
provided under SPARTECA, the Lomé Convention and the Generalised System of
Preferences. The effects of post-Lomé Convention and post-SPARTECA preferences
will include increased prices on some imported food; a gradual reduction in Fijian
sugar prices (commensurate with declining subsidies for European Union sugar
beet) which will lead to the immediate non-viability of cane grown on about
40000 ha of mar ginal uplands; and decreased margins of preference for copra, palm
oil, cocoa, coffee and other tropical tree products.
Institutional strength and corporate management
The need for improved institutional strengthening in terms of resource availability,
human resource capacity and capability, and focused corporate management to
improve service delivery to livestock subsectors is discussed in Section 3.1. This
needs to be embodied in broad government policy as part of public sector reform
and improved governance.
Assisting rural community and national
economic development
Southwest Pacific agricultural policies and strategies will need to focus on
alternatives for which the region has a comparative advantage, such as easily grown
and organically certifiable products that attract price premiums. However, valueadding to export raw materials should only be undertaken if it is profitable rather
than merely adding costs. A good example of this is the low-cost, coconut oil microexpeller units operating at village level in Fiji and Samoa, producing readily saleable
oil and stockfeed for household pigs.
Apart from improving efficiency of existing grazing livestock enterprises, new
subsector opportunities include: expansion of tropically adapted sheep in suitable
areas; increased silvo-pastoralism; development of competitive stockfeed industries
utilising predominantly local ingredients; strategically located slaughterhouses/
abattoirs; local processing of hides; and dairy development in suitable production
environments focused on the liquid milk market.
Adherence to agreed product quality and quarantine standards will require
attitude shifts by some farmers and agro-processors. Exporters require access to
improved market information and many private-sector exporters need training in
improved marketing techniques. Effective trade promotion is increasingly required.
Future livestock product markets require reliable information and assurances on
the capacity of emerging export industries to deliver agreed quantities of an agreed
product quality. This issue is particularly relevant to the Vanuatu beef industry.
Privatisation policies and enabling strategies that divest institutions of underperforming service functions which are better managed by the private sector are
key issues in improving public sector management. This would allow public sector
institutions to focus on core service delivery.
A key benchmark or indicator of successful livestock service delivery will be
the adoption of sustainable production and marketing technologies by a critical
mass of livestock farmers.
4
Potential for enhanced production
Achieving positive socio-economic, trade and
environmental outcomes
Summary
Previous chapters described the importance of grazing livestock systems in the
Southwest Pacific, the potential for improved farm level production, and the
strategies required to achieve this potential. This chapter projects in quantifiable
terms the scope for increasing livestock production in the major producing
countries over a 15 to 20 year period (with self-sufficiency defined as substituting
for 1994–1995 import levels). These projections include:
(1) beef production in all importing countries which equals or exceeds 1994–1995
import levels;
(2) a doubling of beef exports for Vanuatu with a possibility of exportable surpluses
from New Caledonia;
(3) modest growth of mutton production in Fiji (10% self-sufficiency);
(4) milk self-sufficiency growth in Fiji (to 65%), Samoa (to 40%), Tonga (to 20%),
and Vanuatu (to 65%);
(5) region-wide import substitution savings and additional export earnings valued
between $42m and $48.4m annually.
Nominated product self-sufficiency targets and timeframes are detailed in tables
6 and 7. These outcomes are dependent upon effective support for grazing system
development and management; improved marketing opportunities; responsive
government policies; and adoption of proven technologies. They also assume a
positive market for livestock relative to alternative farm enterprises, and that future
livestock development is implemented in ways which are environmentally positive
and are not restrictive of other forms of land use.
A detailed analysis of the region’s grazing resources suggests that achieving
projected levels of livestock product will require pasture and animal production
intensification on about 45–50% of the total area available (1194000 ha, see
Table 8, Appendix 2). Various other combinations of intensification from existing
and additional lands could also achieve the stated production targets.
In addition to national benefits from import substitution and expanded exports
of livestock products, socio-economic benefits at the community level would
include: 50–300% increases in unit area beef, milk, mutton and goat meat
production, and at least 25% increase in village pig and poultry production leading
to improved levels of nutrition and disposable household income. Women, who
are normally responsible for pasture seed production, will also derive personal
income from the sale of seed. Average household income from beef cattle is expected
to rise from US$473 to $1356 per annum.
63
64
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
4.1
Grazing resources required
for production targets
The region’s current grazing resource is estimated at 867000ha. It is assumed that
pasture and livestock production is intensified on 45–50% of a total projected area
of 1194000 ha, which includes 327000 ha of new lands (see T able 8). The required
grazing resources are summarised as follows.
Box 6 Existing grazing resources and increases required to achieve targets
Land areas (ha)
Grazing resources
Current
New
Total
% change
Open, ungrazed native pastures
739 000
287 000
1 026 000
+38
Under coconuts
114 000
20 000
134 000
+18
14 000
20 000
34 000
+243
867 000
327 000
1 194 000
In combination with forestry and crops
Total
New land areas are calculated to include an additional 227000 ha of native pastur e
(mainly in Papua New Guinea), 25 000 ha of egrowth
r
bush and vine-dominated
lands (mainly in Vanuatu), 35000 ha of cr oplands converted to improved pastures
(Fiji), 20000 ha under coconuts (mainly Papua New Guinea and Samoa), and
20000 ha of pastur es integrated with crop and forestry lands (mainly Fiji and Papua
New Guinea). (See Table 8.) Pasture and livestock productivity increases would
be sustainable and unrestrictive of other forms of land use.
Specific details on current and projected regional areas of pasture types (open,
under coconuts, and integrated with crops and forestry) are shown in tables 8 and
9 (Appendix 2). Table 8 takes between 8–14 pasture and forage types in each of
the major livestock countries and projects the areas, carrying capacities and
productivity increments of each required to achieve livestock production targets.
In these projections, farmer preferences for improvement of various pasture
systems have been considered. There is no suggestion that these figures are absolute.
Clearly, various combinations of extensive and intensive production options could
produce the same national production outcomes.
4.2
Regional and national production gains
Summary
Key potential gains in commercial ruminant livestock production over an
approximate 15 to 20 year period, using 1994–1995 imports for substitution
benchmarks, are as follows:
(1) beef production in all importing countries reaching self-sufficiency;
(2) a doubling of beef exports for Vanuatu with possible export surpluses from
New Caledonia;
(3) modest growth of mutton production in Fiji (10% self-sufficiency);
(4) milk and milk product self-sufficiency growth in Fiji (39.5% to 65%) and
Vanuatu (8% to 20%) and milk self-sufficiency growth in Samoa (0% to 50% )
and in Tonga (30% to 65%).
Potential for enhanced production
(5) region-wide savings on import substitution and additional export earnings
valued between $42m and $48.4m annually.
Detailed analyses
Beef
It is estimated that the current annual production of beef in the region traded
formally and informally is 13557 tonnes. This could gr ow to about 31000 tonnes
per annum within a 15 to 20 year period (Table 5). Regional self-sufficiency in beef
production at 1994–1995 levels of imports is valued at $30.4m per annum. Projected
export increments from Vanuatu are valued at $4m annually. Potential new beef
exports from New Caledonia are valued at $6.4m annually, based on $2.80/kg on a
full set carcass basis.
Sheep
Fiji has the capability to sustain a 20% rate of growth over 15 to 20 years in its
sheep industry, achieving a level of 10% self-sufficiency at 1994–1995 import levels
(450 tonnes boneless mutton), saving $1.1m annually.
Dairy
It is suggested that regional import savings of $6.7m annually in dairy products
are possible. Fiji can increase dairy production from 1570 to 2400 tonnes of MFEs
from existing areas, achieving 65% self-sufficiency at 1994 import levels. Such
increases would contribute additional foreign exchange savings of up to $2.85m
annually. Potential increases in milk production in New Caledonia have the capacity
to save $1.6m annually in imports. Tonga has the capacity to double milk production
in 5 to 10 years and to increase self-sufficiency in liquid milk from 30% to 65%,
saving $0.4m in imports.
The Samoan smallholder dairy industry could achieve a 50% replacement of
1994 milk imports of 800000 litr es (UHT) valued at $0.4m annually, provided this
included a nucleus commercial dairy enterprise to guarantee supply to a processing
unit. Vanuatu’s dairy industry has the potential to expand from 16 to 40 tonnes of
MFEs, increasing total self-sufficiency from 8% to 20%, with savings of $0.8m per
annum on milk and cheese imports. The development of dairy industries in Papua
New Guinea and Solomon Islands is assumed to save, respectively, $0.4m and $0.3m
annually in milk imports.
Overall regional benefit
Total foreign exchange savings from import substitution (beef $30.4m, sheep $1.1m
and dairy $6.7m), and additional earnings from growth in beef exports ($4m to
$10.4m per annum) amount to an estimated foreign exchange benefit for the region
of $42.2m to $48.6m per annum.
Country-specific growth rates and timeframes
Table 6 details the potential increases in grazing carrying capacity and animal
production for the region, derived from the levels of pasture improvement described
in Table 8 (Appendix 2). Productivity increases of 214% for Fiji to 427% for Papua
New Guinea are projected.
On the basis of 1994–1995 levels of beef imports, Table 6 (column 7) forecasts
the timeframes (in years) required to reach beef self-sufficiency in the following
countries: Fiji (15), New Caledonia (5), Papua New Guinea (25), Samoa (14),
65
20 500
16 500
10 000
140 700
Samoa
Solomon
Islands
Tonga
Vanuatu
218 400
14 800
36 300
x 1.51
x 1.48
x 2.2
x 2.4
x 3.02
x 1.63
x 1.43
3
AU CC
increase
3
2.6
5.4
5.2
6.1
2.9
2.4
4
Increase in
CC/yr (%)
x 1.8
x 2.2
x 2.6
x 3.1
x 4.27
x 2.35
x 2.14
5
Total
production
increase
4
5.4
6.7
7.8
7.5
5.5
4.5%+
0.7%
6
Production
increase/yr
(%)
Exporting
14
11
14
22– 25
5
Potential
exporter
15
7
Years to
beef selfsufficiency
1
2
3
4
5
One average bovine = 0.85 animal unit in year 15; 1 animal unit = 400–450kg steer gaining 0.4–0.5 kg/head/day.
One average sheep or goat = 0.1 bovine animal unit, 7 dry sheep equivalents (DSEs) = 1 bovine animal unit
One average horse = 0.9 bovine animal unit
One average deer = 0.2 animal unit
Fiji productivity increase of 5.2% is partitioned 3% beef, 0.5% milk, 1% sheep/ goat meat and 0.7% for cattle and
horse draught performance.
6 PNG self-sufficiency timeframes vary reflecting changing levels of imports in response to a devaluing kina;
e.g. 11 106 tonnes (1994) and approx. 10 000 (1996).
CC = carrying capacity
327 500
100 000
Papua New
Guinea6
43 700
179 000
116 000
New
Caledonia
369 000
2
1
259 000
CC in
15– 20 yrs
AUs
Current CC
AUs
215 510
(253 541)
12 374
(14 558)
36 115
(42 488)
40 900
(48 118)
324 215
(381 429)
161 880
(190 447)
280 500
(330 000)
8
Final cattle
AUs (no.)1
Projected changes in grazing carrying capacity and productivity after 15–20 years development
Fiji5
COUNTRY
Table 6
100
(1000)
1400
(14 000)
100
(1000)
100
(1000)
1800
(18 000)
1700
(17 000)
39 600
(396 000)
9
Final goat &
sheep AUs
(no.)2
2790
(3100)
1025
(1140)
88
(95)
2700
(3000)
1484
(1650)
10 620
(11 800)
36 000
(40 000)
10
Final horse
AUs (no.)3
4800
(24 000)
11
Final nonferal deer
AUs (no.)4
66
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
Potential for enhanced production
Solomon Islands (11) and Tonga (14). In this study no attempt is made to project
growth in domestic livestock product demand because of uncertainties regarding
population growth, disposable income growth and elasticities of demand.
The annual growth rates in pasture carrying capacity required to achieve these
self-sufficiency levels vary from 2.4% to 6.1%, with associated animal productivity
growth rates of between 5.2% and 7.8% per annum (Table 6, columns 4 and 6). If
Vanuatu averaged 4% annual growth in productivity, it would achieve a stable-state
cattle industry in 15 years, although it has previously demonstrated its capacity to
grow at 6% per annum from 1980 to 1994. The productivity growth indices (tables
6 and 8) are based on:
(1) the carrying capacity (AUs) multiplied by the potential growth rate for a
particular pasture system, and these values summed across all pasture systems;
(2) the sum for pasture systems in 15–20 years divided by the sum for current
pasture systems, to yield a productivity index.
Currently, the region produces an estimated 13557 tonnes of boneless beef
annually and, together with annual imports of 14152 tonnes of fr esh beef, is
estimated to be 48.9% self-sufficient (Table 7). Domestic ruminant production levels
are based on projected total carrying capacity, assumed types of grazing animals
and productivity increases being sustained. Estimated stable-state boneless beef
values, except for Papua New Guinea,1 are projected as follows: Fiji (5500), New
Caledonia (5900), Samoa (1524), Solomon Islands (764), Tonga (381) and Vanuatu
(6600).
Informal livestock product consumption
Informal livestock product consumption has a value which is often overlooked. In
the case of beef, about 48% is traded in the informal market. Assuming a conversion
factor of 1.53 for boneless beef to its carcass value, and current domestic carcass
values, the 1995 annual value of the region’s informal and formal market is
calculated to be: Fiji (US$5.5m), New Caledonia ($11.93m), Papua New Guinea
($5.5m), Samoa ($2.2m), Solomon Islands ($1m), Tonga ($0.65m) and Vanuatu
($5.7m). This amounts to $32.5m or $473 per cattle-owning household.
In a deregulated market, farm gate values for boneless beef in 15–20 years is
assumed to be US$3/kg. Given a stable number of cattle-owning households in the
region, the total annual income derived from beef (for commercial sale, customary
exchange and domestic consumption) would increase to about $77.4m, or $1356
per household per year (derived from tables 1 and 7).
4.3
Community socio-economic benefits
Regionally enhanced and sustainable grazing resource development and
management and product marketing would benefit the following:
• the 15% of about 500000 rural households who own livestock, including
ruminants, and a similar number of non-ruminant-owning households;
• the estimated 43000 rural households in the small island states of Cook Islands,
Federated States of Micronesia, French Polynesia, Marshall Islands, Niue,
Tokelau, Tuvalu and Wallis and Futuna, who own predominantly pigs and
poultry;
1
Following the 1995 devaluation of the Papua New Guinea kina, beef imports fell to
approximately 10 000 tonnes per annum and in these circumstances, a period of
approximately 22–23 years would be required to achieve beef self-sufficiency.
67
2 800
900 (est.)
13 557
Informal
Totals (formal + informal)
120 (est.)
30
100 (est.)
250
Formal
Vanuatu, 1994 (x 1.8)
Informal
Formal
Tonga, 1994 (x 2.21)
Informal
Formal
Solomon Islands, 1994 (x 2.65)
400
182
Samoa, 1994 (x 3.1)
Formal
31 044
1 200
5 400
200
181
220
544
500
1 024
1771
Informal
53 134
600
500
500 (est.)
1 800
5 400
2 700.
2 275
2 076.
3
2 800
4
Potential
after
15 yrs
PNG, 1994 (x 4.27)
Formal
Informal
New Caledonia, 1995 (x 2.09)
Formal
Informal
1 524
Current
domestic
production
8.9%
100%
13.5%
48%
23%
15%
81%
56%
500 est.
Current selfsufficiency
(formal)
Beef (boneless)
2 241
16
12
nil
nil
11
132
500
1 570
Current
domestic
production
3 240
40
24
15
20
30
211
2 400
Potential
after
15 yrs
–
8%
1.5%
0%
0%
0.3%
5%
39.5%
Current
selfsufficiency
Dairy products (tonnes MFE1)
Commodity (tonnes)
59.5
5
nil
nil
nil
16
27
11.5
Current
domestic
production
417
7
?
?
nil
25
50
3355
Potential
after
15 yrs
–
33%
0%
0%
0%
0.04%
12%
0.3%
Current
selfsufficiency
Sheep (boneless)
Current domestic ruminant animal production and self-sufficiency levels, and production potential after 15–20 years
Fiji, 1994 (x 2.14)2
Formal
Informal
Country
Table 7
68
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
Potential for enhanced production
Table 7 (cont’d)
Sources See Appendix 1.
Notes
1 MFE = milk fat equivalents; est. = estimated.
2 Achievable ruminant production growth rates assuming appropriate programme implementation, positive marketing and animal health environments. In the case of Fiji, 40% of
productivity increases are ascribed to improved draught performance leaving scope for 60%
improvement in animal production which is apportioned as 80% for beef, 12% for sheep
and goat and 8% for dairy.
3 Currently estimated 35 000 cattle slaughtered annually yielding 60kg meat/animal.
4 This assumes the provision of private sector, registered slaughterhouses/abattoirs in currently unserviced remote areas of Central, Western and Northern Divisions leading to a
reduced level of informal killing for domestic or Maqiti consumption. It is also assumed that
dry-zone farmers specialise in store production, and then trade profitably with farmers
who grow and fatten animals in the higher rainfall areas.
5 If the 20% growth rate was sustained over 15 years, there would be 216 000 sheep grazing
35 000ha of improved and native pastures producing 450 tonnes of boneless lamb and mutton
per year.
• approximately 300 regional extensionists with specific interest and expertise
in livestock;
• agricultural extensionists;
• urban and peri-urban households, with greater access to affordable local
livestock products which are nutritionally superior to imported products.
Benefits for technology-adopting households
Specific benefits for technology-adopting households would include the following:
• 50–300% increases in unit area beef, milk, mutton and goat meat production;
• at least 25% increase in village pig and poultry production;
• up to 100% improvement in poultry survival rates;
• improved per capita animal protein consumption in rural households;
• savings in household expenditure on canned meats and low nutritional value
meats;
• additional disposable income adding to family options for investment and
lifestyle improvement: improved education opportunities, on-farm enterprise
expansion or diversification, better housing, better transport and off-farm
investments;
• improved income for women managing more productive dairy, small ruminant,
pig and poultry and pasture seed production enterprises.
Inadequate protein intake can be a major nutritional problem in areas such as
the Highlands of Papua New Guinea, parts of North Malaita in Solomon Islands,
and other densely populated areas of Vanuatu and peri-urban Fiji, Tonga and Samoa.
The safe intake of good quality, highly digestible protein, set by the FAO/WHO/
UNU Expert Consultation on Energy and Protein Requirements, is 0.75g/kg body
weight per day for male and female adults (WHO 1985). FAO nutritional guidelines
for active male adults (63kg) recommend an optimal intake of complete (animal)
protein of about 55g per day for diets high in fibre (FAO 1997b).
In the author’s experience, rural women in Samoa and Vanuatu seek training to
improve the productivity of village pigs and poultry, using free-range systems
augmented with local stockfeeds.
Additional income from legume pasture seed production in Fiji, Samoa and
Vanuatu is earned and retained by women. In Vanuatu, the promotion of glycine
and siratro seed production on Tanna and West Coast Santo injected an additional
69
70
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
Women derive income from
producing dolichos lablab
and other seeds for cash.
$30000 into cash-poor r ural communities, from local and export seed sales. A
survey of at least 50 households engaged in this activity showed that women directed
this income to improved education and in meeting the basic needs of children.
4.4
Trade benefits
Potential regional trade benefits derived from continuing support for regional
livestock subsector development would include the following:
• markets for Vanuatu beef and dairy animals (bulls and heifers) shipped regularly
in livestock containers to assist development in Solomon Islands;
• enhanced capacity for Vanuatu to export boneless and carcass beef processed
beef to other Southwest Pacific markets;
• markets for surplus Samoan beef and dairy heifers and bulls in Tonga using
standard 6 or 12 metre containers on regular shipping services;
• enhanced capacity of Vanuatu to export to Papua New Guinea using Melanesian
Spearhead Group tariff concessions;
• expanded legume and possibly grass seed export opportunities for Vanuatu, and
possibly for Fiji;
• demand from Papua New Guinea and Vanuatu and other tropical countries for
the tropically adapted, self-shedding mutton sheep from Fiji;
• enhanced quantity and quality of copra meal and palm kernel cake exports;
• enhanced exports of coconut fibre for activated carbon, as compressed briquettes
for the nursery trade;
• live cattle exports to the Philippines and Indonesia from Vanuatu and possibly
Papua New Guinea, once domestic self-sufficiency and surpluses to export
contracts are attained;
• live deer and venison exports from New Caledonia.
71
Potential for enhanced production
4.5
Environmental benefits
Recently imported
Droughtmaster cattle
As noted in Chapter 2, FAO, UNDP and AusAID funded projects over the last decade
have clearly demonstrated that pasture improvement is the most cost-effective and
environmentally sensitive approach to rehabilitating large areas of gross weed
infestations. Improved pasture technology can provide new or better legume covers
for crops or forestry, and in the case of livestock production can be either permanent
or of a short-term nature. If the latter, it is followed by a commercial or subsistence
cropping phase. Cost-effective control of woody weed invasions frequently requires
a once-only use of low toxicity herbicides. This is preferable to repeated manual
slashing of regrowth, the ultimate abandonment of such sites, or the clearing of
new forest areas in many sites across the region.
Greater integration of grazing animals with cropping systems can reduce
workloads in preparing fallow lands or leys for cropping, as well as reducing target
weed biomass, thus diminishing the need for spray application of herbicides. The
careful management of high instantaneous stocking rates can totally control some
creeper weed problems, again reducing or removing the need for herbicide use in
weed management. These technologies have been developed, promoted and applied
by farmers working with the more recent aid-funded livestock projects. Although
these projects have made some progress in improving the efficiency and safe use
of herbicides, more needs to be achieved in this area.
Pasture redevelopment will only be sustainable and hence environmentally
positive if confined to those areas where soil fertility, especially available
phosphorus, is sufficient to sustain an adequate legume component, or those areas
where it is cost-effective to correct soil nutrient deficiencies by fertilising or
supplementing animals directly. If new areas are needed for pastures, only bushlands
(foreground) in Samoa.
72
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
Legume alley cropping
of low ecological merit should be used, for instance, on lands that are dominated
by Hibiscus tileaceus, Merremia or Leucaena.
Positive environmental impact would also accrue from the adoption of
recognised land resource management strategies specified in Chapter 2. For
example, the use of recommended pasture improvement technologies to overcome
partial or complete weed infestations; correct stocking rates, with pasture
rehabilitation where required, to overcome erosion induced by overgrazing;
integration of forage legumes into steepland cropping sites to reduce soil erosion;
and the safe and targeted use of more effective herbicides instead of the inefficient
and often inappropriate use of a range of herbicides.
The rehabilitation of steep, economically marginal and eroding crop lands
through sustainably improved pastures (whether open or shaded under forestry)
would also have positive environmental impact. Fiji, for example, has at least
40000 ha of upland cane far ms which are severely eroding.
reduces erosion in steepland
gardens in Vanuatu from
24 to 0.2 tonnes of soil
per hectare per year.
5
Increasing the effectiveness of
development assistance
Lessons learned from past livestock projects
Summary
Over the previous three decades a broad spectrum of national livestock subsector
interventions have taken place with varying degrees of success. Projects have been
successful where they have:
(1) been responsive to consistent government livestock subsector strategies;
(2) addressed real rural community needs with focused extension and training
programmes, and built upon existing livestock enterprises within farming
systems;
(3) been designed with adequate resources and implementation times, and executed
by project personnel with the right technical, managerial and socio-cultural
skills and experience.
Successful livestock projects have taken a holistic approach to development,
including broad feeding and management practices, rather than focusing on a single
area such as genetic improvement. They have involved close cooperation and liaison
between all stakeholders in the delivery and adoption process. Success also requires
balanced time allocation between programme implementation and administration
and monitoring, reporting and evaluation.
Successful extension support and training projects actively involve community
leading farmers and farmer groups, and provide all community members (men,
women and youth) with equitable access to proven, cost-effective and affordable
technologies.
It is considered that Vanuatu’s pre-eminent position as the leading beef producer
in the region is a result of policies that have addressed production and marketing
constraints together, building on a broadly based plantation-smallholder network.
This strategy is relevant for future support. It is therefore logical that regional
training, extension support, removal of marketing constraints and essential
resources for development are addressed concurrently.
5.1
General background
Over the last thirty years, there has been broad-ranging donor and national
government assistance to grazing livestock systems across Southwest Pacific
countries. Forms of development assistance have included:
• expensive, donor-funded smallholder and largeholder cattle development
programmes, and government investment in abattoirs, livestock transport and
marketing services;
• a large government sponsored grazing and forestry activity;
73
74
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
• pilot sheep, goat, dairy, poultry and deer development projects;
• semi-commercial and commercial pig and poultry smallholder projects;
• fertiliser and barbed wire subsidy schemes for smallholder cattle project
establishment, and diesel fuel excise exemptions for pasture development;
• small national apiculture projects;
• pasture and small-ruminant parasite research;
• staffing assistance schemes deploying expatriate veterinarians, advisers,
managers, economists and animal productionists in various institutions;
• overseas training opportunities in veterinary science, pasture and livestock
production; meat inspection and artificial insemination;
• national brucellosis and tuberculosis eradication programmes, and other more
general animal health as well as quarantine activities;
• integrated smallholder livestock development and marketing;
• since 1988: integrated training and extension support for grazed pasture systems,
primarily in Vanuatu and Samoa.
• limited training, mainly from NGOs, to improve the nutrition, management and
use of horses and cattle as draught animals, and to improve village pig and
poultry feeding and management systems.
The high-profile disappointments caused by some large-scale cattle development
projects, with inappropriate design or other problems, have tended to mask other
significant regional successes. These include farming systems oriented support and
training projects such as those described in this chapter, and specific problemsolving projects such as disease eradication or assistance to apiculture development.
Such successes have not been adequately promoted in the region. A good
example is the first large project for grazing under forestry in the Southwest Pacific,
supported by the Solomon Islands, Australian and New Zealand governments in
1977. Undoubtedly, there were problems of a planning, management and logistical
nature. The cattle component of this silvopastoral activity was a commercial failure
(Shelton et al. 1987). However, the integrated grazing under trees approach to forest
management produced results which were superior to those of standard silvicultural
practice. In 1995, this Cattle Under Trees project produced merchantable timber
yields on a 1500 ha plantation which were 25% in excess of design expectations
(W. Wooff, General Manager, Kolombangara Forest Products Ltd, pers. comm.) —
a long way from the widespread perception of being a failure. This project is now
part of a Solomon Islands Government–Commonwealth Development Corporation
joint venture (KFPL) that is harvesting and reafforesting up to 3000 ha per year of
plantations.
Since independence in 1980, Vanuatu has had consistent government policy
towards developing the livestock subsector. National development plans have
sought to reduce reliance on copra as an export commodity and to support
smallholders as well as plantations. This has been reflected in integrated
development assistance projects which, working within the local Livestock
Department, have succeeded in:
• developing an understanding of the potential and the inputs, practical skills
and management requirements of production enhancing technologies amongst
extensionists and farmers;
• demonstrating to smallholders how to independently organise private-sector
transport of cattle to abattoirs or store-finishing markets;
• eradicating brucellosis and tuberculosis, and developing an internationally
recognised meat inspection and certification system to facilitate exports.
Increasing the effectiveness of development assistance
Given the varying success of past livestock projects and activities, it is important
to clarify the reasons for performance variation. This should ensure better outcomes
and economic returns on public funds invested in livestock in the future.
5.2
Project design, management and
implementation lessons
Project design
(1) Projects need to maintain a balance between strengthening institutional capacity
and capability and assisting rural communities.
Large projects should support livestock policy and strategy development and
performance-based management systems if project outputs are to be maximised.
It is important to maintain a critical level of periodic advisory services to
national counterparts, following the completion of projects.
Projects should take a FSD approach and include the involvement of rural
communities (both men and women) in problem definition, project design and
implementation. It is rare that timeframes of less than five years are adequate
for effective implementation and for maximising returns on development
assistance invested.
(2) Project design should emphasise a broad holistic approach rather than narrowly
specific goals.
Experience in recent years shows that investment in livestock feeding and
management generates far better returns than investment focused on one
specific area such as improved genetics. Production and marketing issues
should also be addressed concurrently. Similarly, development assistance
programmes which focus on subsistence and semi-commercial smallholders
but ignore the needs of larger farmers, limit potential community and national
impact and potential economic returns.
Successful national aid coordination involves objective priority setting,
integration of projects and initiatives of varying scale, and broad-ranging
support by government departments, NGOs, the private sector and donor
organisations.
Project management and delivery
(1) Project management needs to foster regular, effective communication and a sense
of ownership of project outcomes amongst all stakeholders, particularly beneficiary
rural communities.
The success of a project depends on regular and meaningful communication
between government departments, donors, national aid coordinators, project
management and counterpart staff, collaborating extension and training
personnel and, most importantly, rural communities. Project managers and
national counterparts should be accessible to stakeholders and should
constantly monitor community perceptions, objectives and constraints. Formal
PRA events should not be the only form of interaction with farmer clients.
Technical and managerial capability and socio-cultural sensitivity of project
managers and counterparts are essential. Sufficient time must also be given to
public relations, since misconceptions about project activities can develop
rapidly.
75
76
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
(2) The continuing input of all project personnel is vital to successful delivery.
Frequent staff changes within donor organisations and within collaborating
government institutions often reduce the effectiveness of programme support,
as does political interference in the appointment and retention of counterpart
staff. Reputable NGOs and national consultants need to be involved, and project
managers should aim to spend at least 30% of their time in the field.
(3) Keep the right balance between implementation, monitoring and reporting.
National governments and development assistance agencies need reliable and
timely indicators of project performance. This is achieved through carefully
designed survey and ongoing monitoring programmes and efficient reporting.
Project managers need to ensure that the minimum set of performance
indicators are monitored and reported, and that meeting the requirements for
accountability does not restrict the time available for effective management and
programme implementation. To spend any more than 20% of project
management time on monitoring and reporting can jeopardise project
effectiveness.
With creative thinking and diplomatic negotiations between government
departments, local authorities and project management, under-utilised
resources can often be mobilised to achieve project outputs at minimal cost.
For instance, idle river barges can be made available for community benefit
following minimal repairs and relocation, or unused forestry transport
equipment hired for livestock transport.
Extension and training
(1) Effective extension depends on practical demonstrations for farmer groups including
leading farmers, backed up by a range of suitable written, pictorial and audio-visual
materials.
Recent extension experience indicates that farmers consistently rank the
importance of extension and training approaches as follows:
(a) regular visits and re-visits on field days; organised or informal farmer group
visits to convincing, cost-effective on-farm demonstrations where additional
inputs and production increments are well documented and understood;
(b) reliable access to concise, well-illustrated problem-solving leaflets in local
languages, and short, field-based, training courses;
(c) access to videos and radio programmes.
Leading farmers should be actively involved in local or regional training
programmes. If time demands are significant, it may be appropriate to pay them
for their time.
(2) Design of training courses needs to be flexible and to take social and cultural factors
into consideration.
Three to five days is the preferred duration of short training courses for farmers
or extensionists. Concentration drops off with longer timeframes, and they have
other commitments. Optimal length for overseas courses varies: six weeks
maximum for extensionists, two weeks for farmers. Farmers may not have
travelled overseas before and may become homesick, as well as having pressing
commitments at home.
Southwest Pacific based training resources should be given first priority, since
they tend to be more relevant, cost-effective and affirmative for the region. Some
overseas technology can be directly applied, while some requires modification.
77
Increasing the effectiveness of development assistance
Indigenous knowledge has consistently been under-utilised and underrecognised by national and expatriate specialists and trainers.
Vanuatu Livestock Officer
Stanley Lomack and Efate
farmer Toara Seule (centre
Farmer adoption of improved technologies
(1) Effective livestock development assistance focuses on building partnerships with
farmers.
Development assistance activity of the 1960s–1980s period tended to develop
a hand-out mentality and to reduce capacity for independent thought and
action. Once the assistance stopped, on-farm adoption often slowed or stopped.
There are examples throughout the Southwest Pacific of some of the most
resourceful, independent livestock farmers being in the most remote, underserviced places, e.g. cattle farmers in Santa Cruz, Solomon Islands. Regionally,
major livestock farming system training and extension support is required to
develop independent farmer and farmer group action. The best livestock
producers in the Southwest Pacific are internationally competitive managers.
5.3
Impact of recent livestock system projects
Vanuatu Pasture Improvement Project (VPIP)
In Vanuatu, with limited assistance, formal abattoir throughput in the beef industry
grew at 3% per annum between 1980 and 1985. Between 1985 and 1994, it averaged
6.5% growth, with the 1990–1994 period averaging 9.5% growth — reflecting the
culmination of integrated support activities. Adoption of VPIP-generated feeding
technology by 30% of smallholders and by 50–60% of commercially active
plantations, integrated with improved smallholder husbandry and cattle marketing
support by the European Union, has raised abattoir throughput from 2259 tonnes
to 4139 tonnes between 1986 and 1994. Concurrently, with abattoir upgrading and
adequate meat inspection and veterinary certification programmes in place, farmers
were confident to invest.
and right) explain pasture
improvement strategies to
regional workshop
participants.
78
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
During this period beef has increased from 15% to 22% of total export value,
substantially reducing reliance on copra — a primary national development goal.
Mean carcass weight of steers has also risen from 228 to 263 kg, and the mean age
of steers at turnoff has fallen from 4–5 years on native pastures to 3–3.5 years on
new improved pastures. The potential has clearly been demonstrated to turn off a
300 kg carcass steer at two years of age. More importantly, the mean smallholder
carcass weight has risen from 140 to 200 kg during this period.
Smallholder case studies confirm three- and fourfold increases in beef enterprise
income through partial or complete pasture improvement, and better grazing
management and animal husbandry leading to higher animal production levels. In
some cases, these measures have led to premiums for higher quality carcasses, with
weight-for-age, fat cover and meat colour meeting export specifications. The VPIP
also established Vanuatu’s capability as a reliable and competitive supplier of siratro
and glycine seed.
As a result of the AusAID-supported VPIP and the FAO Regional Pasture
Improvement and Training Project (TCP/RAS/4451), Vanuatu became firmly
established as the regional leader in terms of low-cost beef production from
improved pastures. This regional impact was not anticipated at project design. In
the 1991 VPIP review, an economic internal rate of return (EIRR) of 25% was derived
which proved to be conservative, as production increments in response to
technology adoption exceeded targets.
AusAID livestock personnel training and FAO-supported
pasture and cattle projects in Samoa
Provided more flexible approaches to marketing and quality assured processing are
undertaken, increases in smallholder beef production in Samoa of a similar quantum
to that achieved in Vanuatu are likely. This follows combined AusAID (Training
Personnel in Livestock Sector Project, STPLSP) and FAO implemented Pasture and
Cattle Development Projects (SAM/86/003 and SAM/95/001 funded by UNDP)
involving improved extension support and training for the livestock subsector from
1991 to 1999. Some Samoan cattle farmers have significantly increased their
production following support.
As described in Case Study 8, Savaii farmers Peter and Emmy Trevor have
increased animal production per hectare by 2.5–3 times through pasture
improvement following FAO-sponsored regional training in Vanuatu, backed up
by local AusAID and FAO projects. From a substantial period of decline up to 1992–
1993, the Samoan cattle industry is becoming quantifiably more commercial, with
active retention of breeding animals by farmers for future expansion. A 6% rate of
industry growth is projected over the next ten years (STPLSP 1998).
Gross margins from cattle in Samoa are currently the highest in the region. The
STPLSP project is aiming to achieve private sector legume seed self-sufficiency in
Samoa and associated agribusiness opportunities. Samoa is rapidly emerging as the
logical training centre for Polynesia.
FAO Regional Pasture Improvement Training Project
(TCP/RAS/4451)
Trainees reported that the Vanuatu training was a powerful motivational experience,
which stemmed from exposure to successful smallholders convinced of the value
of livestock in their farming systems and the potential of appropriate pasture
Increasing the effectiveness of development assistance
improvement to improve incomes. This project provided secondary assistance to
participating countries in:
(1) demonstrating the potential for improved communications, technology
exchange and respect between research workers, extension workers and farmers
through carefully managed, participatory field days;
(2) demonstrating the benefits of better planning and time and resource
management to livestock extensionists;
(3) providing clear technical problem definition and greater focus for applied
research programmes in grazing systems involving pasture rehabilitation,
responses of established pastures to applied nutrients, new species evaluations
including tree legumes, and a broader range of cost-effective herbicide controls
of major woody, non-indigenous weeds.
Thirty-four of the 35 project farmer trainees have applied pasture improvement
technology to 395 ha in 12 months, and over the next 15 years they could
collectively achieve approximately 8000 ha of pasture improvement. Over these
improved areas increases in growth per hectare of 30–300% and weaning rates from
45–50% to 75–80% are expected.
Project activities have assisted Fiji and Vanuatu in applying objective benefit/
risk procedures to the importation of proven pasture species.
Range of positive results
Political leaders, departmental heads, senior staff and some national development
planners are now more aware of the socio-economic, environmental and human
nutritional benefits of making a greater resource commitment to their respective
livestock subsectors.
More effective herbicide use
The above projects have comprehensively trained farmers in the safe, targeted and
effective use of herbicides as part of a total weed management strategy. There have
been spin-offs from such training in improved efficiency of herbicide use and
operational standards in the non-livestock subsectors. These projects have
demonstrated situations where weed-smothering, non-climbing legumes can
obviate the need for herbicides altogether (including the highly toxic paraquat on
grasses in commercial plantation crops). The VPIP and TCP/RAS/4451 projects have
led to clearer national government perceptions of the role of agroforestry in
improving livestock production and the potential for using sustainable grazing and
silvopastoral systems to rehabilitate eroded and degraded steep croplands.
Enhanced skills of women farmers
The AusAID-supported VPIP and STPLSP projects as well as recent FAO projects
have been effective in promoting the skills and achievements of women as well as
men livestock farmers. Successful farming families which raise livestock integrated
with farming systems in the Southwest Pacific typically involve men and women
sharing the total livestock management workload.
Women take prime responsibility for small livestock and have a varying
involvement with large ruminants. In Fiji and Samoa women have a significant
profile with the dairy industry. In Vanuatu, on 73% of cattle smallholdings, women
are actively involved in pasture establishment, weeding and fencing with their men
(Eberhard & Robinson 1993). In these projects women as well as men have had
79
80
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
Extension Officer Samson Tim
trains Grace Gurulau from
Guadalcanal in surplus rain
tree control.
first-hand access to technology and information. In some cases involving reticent
women, this has necessitated single gender field days and training events.
Greater effectiveness of regional training
Regionally based training is proving to be more relevant and motivational than
courses in Australia or elsewhere, where the training environment is structurally,
climatically and socio-economically foreign.
The track record of these grazing livestock projects has shown a quantifiable
improvement in confidence, technical and problem-solving skills as well as
communication and organisational skills in the majority of trained personnel.
However, these projects have only had an impact on a small percentage of regional
livestock subsector personnel. Many regional extensionists still require a spectrum
of proven livestock messages to extend. Further regional training and extension
support is likely to be successful.
Strong interest in further training and livestock system support
Interest in further training is high. Annual meetings of Southwest Pacific ministers
of agriculture and other forums request problem-solving training and support for
extension systems. Many Pacific Island governments are requesting integrated
production and marketing support to develop a critical mass of adoptive farmers
sustaining higher levels of animal production and profitability. It is argued by various
government livestock development managers and directors that once a critical mass
is achieved, further development can rely on national government resources.
6
Support programs and initiatives
Opportunities for national government and
international development assistance agencies
Summary
This chapter describes a broad framework for a multi-component regional grazing
livestock improvement project. Such a project would focus on priority training for
extension personnel, farmer and institutional management, and on the delivery of
clear messages and adoptable technologies to farmers through the extension and
training systems. It would also facilitate the provision of critically limiting
development and marketing services to livestock farmers.
The chapter also outlines a series of 17 prioritised, non-forage-based initiatives
that are considered essential for realising the potential for sustainable livestock
subsector development in the Southwest Pacific. Some of these have been, or are
in the process of being, project designed.
6.1
Key objectives of future livestock
systems support
At the regional level
• Enhanced animal production expertise to design, manage and monitor regional
livestock development activities
• Improved transfer of proven technology between countries
• More regional training opportunities and a greater range of extension and
training materials
• Greater community awareness of the positive socio-economic, environmental
and nutritional impact of improved grazing system technology
At the national level
Extension, training, awareness and adoption
• Widespread farmer awareness of the potential for animal production and the
technologies available to achieve this
• Farmer competence in applying appropriate technologies
• The extension process to remain demand based, unobtrusive and culturally
appropriate
• Adequate technical, planning, problem-solving, management and training skills
among livestock extension personnel, as well as effective and sustainable
extension and training delivery systems
• Available and affordable pasture development services
• National on-farm demonstration networks managed by key farmers working
in farmer groups
81
82
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
Farmer and industry support
• Practical livestock baseline data and monitoring systems
• Capacity for farmers to be able to acquire quality breeding stock
• Adequate numbers of remote area meat butcheries; product choice and
affordability; and consumer awareness of the nutritional value of various
livestock products
• Efficient processing, quality control and marketing of livestock products
• Maintenance of non-limiting animal health status and disease surveillance,
monitoring and response systems
• Actual livestock production from forages approaching potential levels
• Progress towards national self-sufficiency in livestock products
6.2
Opportunities for livestock subsector support
Important new development assistance initiatives have been identified for
improving the productivity, profitability and sustainability of forage-based livestock
production in the region.
Forage-based grazing systems production
and marketing support
An integrated regional programme of development assistance is required if the levels
of livestock product self-sufficiency identified in Chapter 4 are to be achieved. This
regional programme, with specific country support components, should be designed
to sustainably improve the subsistence, semi-commercial and commercial animal
production from forage-based systems in Fiji, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea,
Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga and Vanuatu. Forage-based livestock production
in the smaller island states would also benefit. It is suggested that this programme
should focus on the four major components indicated below.
Component 1
Regional and country-specific training programmes for key, community-active
farmers (around 250 trainees) and livestock extension personnel (around 300
trainees).
Component 2
Development of community-based, on-farm, problem-solving demonstrations
(around 400 would be required across the major producing countries).
Component 3
Adequate numbers of farmer field days and organised farmer group activities,
supported by the preparation and dissemination of information materials to reach
the majority of farmers whose ruminant and non-ruminant livestock consume
forages.
Component 4
Farmer access to important development services such as mechanised pasture
establishment, cattle genetic improvement and remote area meat marketing, where
these are limiting factors. Public awareness programmes to influence the consumption of local rather than imported livestock products would be included.
83
Support programs and initiatives
The relative importance of each of these components varies from country to
country. A relatively developed country such as New Caledonia requires some
modest support for Components 1 to 3. Samoa and Vanuatu have narrower and
more specific needs: refresher training for livestock extension personnel in Vanuatu;
raising pigs and poultry on locally available stockfeeds in both countries; and cattle
genetic improvement in Samoa. Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Tonga
require fully developed activities within each of the four components.
It is estimated that a five-year regional project of this nature would cost in the
order of US$4–5 million.
Other opportunities for development assistance
The regional analysis of issues and constraints described in previous chapters also
suggests the need for a number of non-forage related initiatives, if livestock
subsector development is to achieve its potential.
These can be broadly grouped as follows: livestock policy and strategy
development, institutional and private sector human resource capability, survey
and monitoring systems, agricultural extension systems, community awareness and
livestock product marketing. The suggested regional programme would involve
inputs into all of these areas, but complementary project assistance would be needed
to address separately these important non-forage constraints in the livestock
subsectors. They are presented in order of importance, as follows.1
(1) Incorporation of livestock into all future farming systems projects
Most projects with a farming systems orientation in the region have excluded
livestock, which is inconsistent given its importance at the household level.
(2) Country-specific training in policy and strategy development, and performancebased management training for livestock subsector institutions.
Many countries require assistance in developing subsector policies, strategies
and corporate management plans of appropriate detail and timeframe. This
needs to be linked to senior management training that focuses on leadership,
programme planning, time and resource management, staff organisation and
motivation.
(3) Improved livestock subsector information systems
Many countries require training and support in developing practical but
statistically valid survey, monitoring, data processing and evaluation systems
that provide reliable performance indicators for the livestock subsector. Output
from quality surveys is essential for decision making on extension and rural
development strategies and for sectoral equity in allocating scarce national
recurrent budget resources for livestock.
Smallholders with one to five
cattle usually use tethering.
There are often inadequate
standards of hygiene in
district level meat processing
and retailing.
(4) Greater private sector involvement in meat processing
The lack of minimum standard slaughterhouses and retail outlets at the district
level is restricting farmer incomes by failing to fully exploit opportunities for
selling affordable meat to local consumers. Training in meat processing and
in the construction and operations of such facilities is also required.
(5) Regional community awareness programmes which encourage the use of locally
produced livestock products rather than imports
While the promotion of livestock products occurs in some countries, a regular
and professionally presented series of community awareness programmes on
Urban women at a training
session on improving family
nutrition through better
gardening and use of
1
Asterisked initiatives are already receiving some assistance.
livestock products.
84
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
livestock products is required as part of awareness programmes on human
nutrition.
(6) Sustainable livestock genetic improvement programmes which involve the private
sector
While inadequate feeding and management of livestock is the primary
constraint to productivity, inbreeding and the use of inferior, poorly adapted
bulls are major constraints in some countries.
(7) Animal disease surveillance and reporting systems involving veterinarians, paraveterinarians, livestock officers, general extension officers and rural communities,
and appropriate systems of response to confirmed outbreaks*
FAO and SPC are supporting the development of a regional animal health
information system. However, its usefulness will only be maximised if
sustainable national animal disease surveillance and response systems are in
place.
(8) Eradication of specific production-limiting animal diseases which present a public
health risk
The localised risk of humans acquiring brucellosis or tuberculosis from infected
meat or leptospirosis from cattle and pigs needs to be reduced or removed.
Tuberculosis in cattle lungs
(9) Para-veterinary training across most countries, supplemented by training modules
for meat inspection and quality control, public health, and animal quarantine
The Southwest Pacific has a low success rate in training veterinarians and in
retaining them once they are trained. The STPLSP project has developed a
successful para-veterinary training programme offered by a former Samoan
veterinarian. In some countries there are inadequate meat inspection and
animal quarantine skills, and in some cases the ultimate enforcement of meat
processing and retailing standards rests with public health officers rather than
meat inspection officers. This can lead to confusion and, effectively, no
enforcement of regulations.
(10) Assistance for national development banks to improve their capacity to lend to
creditworthy farmers and to provide farm-level technical, management and
marketing support
Improved bank services will assist the physical and financial performance of
farmer clients and reduce lending risk. The Papua New Guinea Rural
Development Bank established an extension and advisory support subsidiary
(SRPM Ltd.) to improve the quality and performance of its lending services.
This model is relevant to other Southwest Pacific countries.
PNG cattle farmer uses copra
meal and molasses to
increase cattle growth.
(11) Assistance to increase the use of locally grown or industrial by-product feeds for
intensive livestock production
In some countries where by-products are competitively priced, supplementary
feeding to augment pastures could produce major gains in ruminant
production. Many local stockfeed manufacturers or farmers who mix their own
rations, particularly for pigs and poultry, would benefit from specialist
nutritional advice in making better use of locally available stockfeeds. In the
case of Papua New Guinea and Fiji, the use of legumes in grain production
systems along with improved crop nutrition and reduced tillage, would increase
production.
(12) Applied research and demonstration involving alternative densities and
arrangements of coconuts in inter-cropped farming systems and nutritional
limitations to livestock production
85
Support programs and initiatives
Coconuts will continue to be an integral part of many Southwest Pacific
farming systems. However, farmers are interested in higher levels of transmitted
light and more inter-cropping options. The potential for improved pastures,
soil fertility amelioration and mineral and energy and protein supplementation
to achieve animal production targets in representative agro-ecological zones
requires applied research input.
(13) Assistance for rural women’s groups and women entrepreneurs in developing pasture
seed production businesses*
The Southwest Pacific could easily become self-sufficient in legume seed
production. Women have consistently shown interest and diligence in seed
production as it does not demand excessive time and provides supplementary
income.
CIRAD Saraoutou Station on
Santo, Vanuatu, is a potential
centre for future coconutbased farming system studies.
(14) Practical training in the nutrition and management of cattle and horses for draught
and transport
The Vanuatu Farm Support Association and the Montmartre Plantation
Training Centre in Vanuatu are well placed to provide regional training in
nutrition and management of horses for draught purposes. Fiji-based
demonstrations of improved nutrition of draught oxen in increasing work
output would also be beneficial to the sugar industry.
(15) Farm business management training for larger private farmers (indigenes or
citizens); training on responsibilities of board members in private agribusiness and
government-controlled commodity marketing boards
Business management training needs for medium-to-large scale commercially
motivated farmers tend to be overlooked by agencies concerned with small
businesses. Personnel appointed to boards of agricultural companies and
government agencies often lack prior business experience and understanding
of the responsibilities of being a board member.
Horses and cattle used for
draught.
(16) Targeted assistance for emerging dairy industries*
The success of small-scale dairying in the Southwest Pacific will depend on
far greater emphasis on feeding and husbandry. However, expectations of
production need to be realistic, given that high temperature and relative
humidity reduce forage intake. FAO is currently providing some assistance
for smallholder dairy development in Tonga and Samoa.
(17) Support for investigation within and outside the Southwest Pacific region of the
trade possibilities for live animals and livestock products
Trade opportunities are often not fully exploited because product marketing
from the Southwest Pacific is not undertaken with the quality and supply
assurance and standard of professionalism that Asian and other importers
require. Specific, timely support for securing premium niche markets will be
required over the next decade, e.g. for certified organically produced beef ex
Vanuatu).
Smallholder dairy assistance
in Samoa.
7
The current challenge
Throughout this book information has been presented to indicate the potential for
sustainable productivity improvement, environmental enhancement and socioeconomic gain through addressing forage and non-forage limitations to profitable
and sustainable livestock production. Many ruminant managing households have
already invested heavily in stock and infrastructure. For comparatively minimal
additional investment of time, labour and capital, major gains in total grazing system
productivity from improved feeding and management can be achieved.
Failure to capitalise on previous investments by Southwest Pacific governments
would constitute a major loss of opportunity for improvements in national and
regional self-sufficiency in livestock products. The potential for annual foreign
exchange savings and export earnings of between US$42 and $48 million is
substantial, representing 27–30% of the value of 1994–1995 regional livestock
product imports. There is also significant potential to benefit rural households from
additional beef, pork, poultry and milk production and consumption, in terms of
disposable cash savings, better human welfare through improved protein, mineral
and essential fatty acid consumption, and increased income and financial
independence for women.
Central to success is a functioning network of affordable development services,
efficient marketing and better resourced extension delivery systems oriented toward
effectively supporting rural communities and their livestock farming systems.
On the basis of previous project achievements, there are good reasons to be
optimistic that dramatic improvements in grazing system performance can be
achieved. Affordable technologies are available that usually offer at least 50% gains
in productivity — a critical minimum threshold in farmer decision making for
technological change. Many of the farmers who have had access to training and
extension system support have continued with improvements in the feeding and
management of their livestock. Examples exist across most countries of farmers
doubling and tripling livestock production per hectare, from adopting on-farm
proven technologies.
Feedback over the last ten years has been that rural communities will adopt
convincingly demonstrated technologies that fall within their domain of resources.
This has been particularly evident in Vanuatu and Samoa where training and
extension efforts have been reinforced by support for the provision of affordable
development services and more accessible and efficient marketing. The evidence
suggests that between 30% and 60% of farmers will make significant technological
changes within five to ten years. Over a 20 year period of sustained support for
livestock farmers, it is suggested that about 50% of existing farmers and new
industry entrants would adopt promoted technologies.
In 1993 AusAID funded a regional workshop in Vanuatu on the potential for
sustainable livestock production in smallholder and plantation farming systems.
This and the continuing output of described FAO and AusAID projects has
heightened awareness of the potential for improvement.
86
The current challenge
Regional ministers of agriculture, development assistance agencies and
government decision makers have consistently identified the need to create a critical
mass of farmers who are achieving and sustaining their livestock system potential.
So too have senior animal productionists, agribusiness representatives and, most
importantly, leading farmers. Once a critical mass exists, there will be no
requirement for external assistance.
The challenge is to create the environment for such a critical mass to develop.
87
References and suggested
further reading
Banguinan, P.W., Mesibere, I. & Galgal, K.K. 1996. Beef cattle industry in Papua New Guinea:
Issues and constraints. In S.D. Lee & D.C. Macfarlane, eds. The status of forage based
ruminant production in the South Pacific. Proceedings of a workshop held on the islands
of Upolu and Savaii, Western Samoa, 8–11 December, 1995. Apia, FAO Sub-Regional
Office for the Pacific.
Corniaux, C. & Sarrailh, J.M. 1997. Fodder shrubs and trees in New Caledonia. Proceedings
of the Regional Workshop on Forage Development and Minewaste Rehabilitation, New
Caledonia, 7–11 April 1997, CIRAD-NAPPEC-SPC, pp.25–29.
de Frederick, D.F. 1979. Pig production and diseases in the British Solomon Islands
Protectorate. M.V.Sc. thesis, The University of Queensland.
Eberhard, R. & Robinson, K. 1993. Project impact surveys: methodology and results. In
T.R. Evans, D.C. Macfarlane & B.F. Mullen, eds. Sustainable beef production from
smallholder and plantation farming systems in the South Pacific. Proceedings of a
workshop, Port Vila and Luganville, Vanuatu, 2–22 August 1993. Canberra, AIDAB.
*Evans, T.R. & Macfarlane, D.C. 1990. Pasture species identification and adaptation.
Vanuatu Pasture Improvement Project. Technical Bulletin no.1. Brisbane, CSIRO
Division of Tropical Crops and Pastures and GRM International Pty. Ltd.
*Evans, T.R., Macfarlane, D.C. & Mullen, B.F. 1992. Sustainable commercial beef production
in Vanuatu. Vanuatu Pasture Improvement Project. Technical Bulletin no. 4. Port Vila,
Vanuatu, Department of Agriculture, Livestock and Horticulture.
Eberhard, R. & Robinson, K. 1993. Project impact surveys: methodology and results. In
T.R. Evans, D.C. Macfarlane & B.F. Mullen, eds. Sustainable beef production from
smallholder and plantation farming systems in the South Pacific. Proceedings of a
workshop, Port Vila and Luganville, Vanuatu, 2–22 August 1993. Canberra, AIDAB.
Evans, T.R., Macfarlane, D.C. & Mullen, B.F. eds, 1993. Sustainable beef production from
smallholder and plantation farming systems in the South Pacific. Proceedings of a
workshop, Port Vila and Luganville, Vanuatu, 2–22 August 1993. Canberra, AIDAB.
FAO, 1988. FAO production yearbook, 1988. FAO Statistical Series. Rome, FAO.
*FAO, 1993. Guidelines for land-use planning. FAO Development Series 1. Rome, FAO.
96 pp.
FAO, 1996. Regional Pasture Improvement Training Project. Terminal statement. Rome,
FAO.
FAO, 1997a. Agriculture database. Rome, FAO.
FAO, 1997b. Human nutrition in the developing world. FAO Food and Nutrition Series no.
29. Rome, FAO.
Fraser, N. 1997. Trade liberalisation issues for South Pacific countries. Paper presented to
South-West Pacific Regional Ministers of Agriculture Meeting, 24–26 June, 1997. Apia,
Samoa, FAO Sub-Regional Office.
Galgal, K.W., McMeniman, N.P. & Norton. B.W. 1994. Effect of copra expeller pellet
supplementation on the flow of nutrients from the rumen of sheep fed low quality
pangola grass (Digitaria decumbens). Small Ruminant Research, 15:31–87.
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References and suggested further reading
Gama, J., Galgal, K.K. & Thorold, D. 1991. Beef sector review. Konedobu, Papua New
Guinea, Food Management Branch, Department of Agriculture and Livestock.
*Gutteridge, R.C. & Shelton, H.M. 1994. Forage tree legumes in tropical agriculture.
Wallingford, United Kingdom, CAB International.
Macfarlane, D.C. 1993a. Vanuatu Pasture Improvement Project: Structure, programmes and
achievements. In T.R. Evans, D.C. Macfarlane & B.F. Mullen, eds. Sustainable beef
production from smallholder and plantation farming systems in the South Pacific.
Proceedings of a workshop, Port Vila and Luganville, Vanuatu, 2–22 August 1993.
Canberra, AIDAB.
Macfarlane, D.C. 1993b. Sustainable animal production from various tropical pasture
systems. In T.R. Evans, D.C. Macfarlane & B.F. Mullen, eds. Sustainable beef production
from smallholder and plantation farming systems in the South Pacific. Proceedings of
a workshop, Port Vila and Luganville, Vanuatu, 2–22 August 1993. Canberra, AIDAB.
Macfarlane, D.C., Evans, T.R., Mullen, B.F., McDonald, C.K. & Eberhard, R. 1994. Technical
report of Vanuatu Pasture Improvement Project (June 1988 to November 1993).
Canberra, AIDAB and Port Vila, Department of Livestock.
Macfarlane, D.C. 1996. Regional project design document: Sustainable Commercial Animal
Production from Pastures in South Pacific Farming Systems (SCAPP)/Government Cooperative Programme. Rome, FAO.
Macfarlane, D.C. 1997. The need for regional training in improved management of grazed
pasture and inter-cropping systems under coconuts in the South Pacific. Paper presented
to Southwest Pacific Regional Ministers of Agriculture Meeting, 24–26 June, 1997. Apia,
Samoa, FAO Sub-Regional Office.
*Macfarlane, D.C., Chand, S., Rogers, C & Singh, A. 1988. Trees and animals. In Agroforestry
kit for the Southwest Pacific. Proceedings of a workshop, 11–22 August 1997. Suva,
Fiji. European Union-Pacific Regional Agricultural Programme. In press.
*Macfarlane, D.C., Mullen, B.F., Kamphorst, J., Banga, T., William, M. & Evans, T.R. 1991.
Managing pastures and cattle in Vanuatu. Technical Bulletin no. 3. Port Vila, Vanuatu,
Department of Agriculture, Livestock and Horticulture.
Macfarlane, D.C. & Shelton, H.M. 1986. Pastures in Vanuatu. ACIAR Technical Report no.2.
MAFF, Fiji. 1994. Animal Health and Production Division annual report. Suva, Ministry of
Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries.
MAF, Solomon Islands. 1994. Livestock Division report. Honiara, Ministry of Agriculture
and Fisheries.
MAF, Tonga. 1994 Livestock Division annual report. Nuku’alofa, Tonga, Ministry of
Agriculture and Forests.
MAFFM, Samoa. 1989, 1997. Livestock Division STPLSP reports. Apia, Samoa, Ministry
of Agriculture, Forestry, Fisheries and Meteorology.
Marchal, V., Desvals, L., Tuyienon, R. & Mercier, P. 1993. Current status of pasture/animal
production in New Caledonia. In T.R. Evans, D.C. Macfarlane & B.F. Mullen, eds.
Sustainable beef production from smallholder and plantation farming systems in the
South Pacific. Proceedings of a workshop, Port Vila and Luganville, Vanuatu, 2–22
August 1993. Canberra, AIDAB.
Marchal, V. 1997. Systèms d’alimentation des bovins en conditions tropicales seches sur la
côte ouest de la Province Nord (Nouvelle-Calédonie). Proceedings of a regional
workshop on forage development and minewaste rehabilitation, New Caledonia, 7–11
April 1997. CIRAD-NAPPEC-SPC, pp.30–34.
Mullen, B.F., Macfarlane, D.C. & Evans, T.R. 1993. Weed identification and management
in Vanuatu pastures. Vanuatu Pasture Improvement Project. Technical Bulletin no. 2,
2nd edn. Port Vila, Vanuatu, Department of Livestock.
Norman, D., Umar, M., Tofinga, M & Bammann, H. 1995. An introduction to a farming systems
approach to development (FSD) for the South Pacific. FAO Farm Systems Management
Series, Special issue. Apia, Samoa, University of the South Pacific, Institute for Research,
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Norton, B.W. & Alam, M.R. 1996. Nutritive value and animal production form fodder trees.
In J.M. Roshetko & R.C. Gutteridge, eds. Nitrogen fixing trees for fodder production: A
field manual. Morrilton, Arkansas, USA, Forest, Farm, and Community Tree Network
(FACT Net), c/o Winrock International.
Opio, F. 1993. Experiences in coconut based farming/cropping systems in the South Pacific.
In N.K. Nair et al., eds. Advances in coconut research and development. Proceedings
of an international symposium, Kasaragod 26–29 November 1991. Indian Society of
Plantation Crops, pp.369–381.
Partridge, I.M., Middleton, C. & Shaw, K. 1996. Stylos for better beef. Queensland,
Department of Primary Industries.
Partridge, I.M. & Ranacou, E. 1974. The effect of supplemental Leucaena leucocephala browse
on steers grazing Dicanthium caricosum in Fiji. Tropical Grasslands 8(4): 107–112.
*Reynolds, S.G. 1995. Pasture–cattle–coconut systems. Bangkok, Thailand, FAO Regional
Office for Asia and the Pacific.
*Roshetko, J.M. & Gutteridge, RC. 1996. Nitrogen fixing trees for fodder production: A field
manual. Morrilton, Arkansas, USA, Forest, Farm, and Community Tree Network (FACT
Net), c/o Winrock International.
Saville, P.H. 1994. Report on the animal health status of the Pacific Island Countries.
Noumea, New Caledonia, South Pacific Commission.
Shelton, H.M.. Schottler, J. & Chaplin, G. 1987. Cattle under Trees, Solomon Islands.
Brisbane, Department of Agriculture/The University of Queensland.
Skea, F., Macfarlane, D.C. & Pointing, S. 1993. Beef industry background, structure and
economic performance in Vanuatu. In T.R. Evans, D.C. Macfarlane & B.F. Mullen, eds.
Sustainable beef production from smallholder and plantation farming systems in the
South Pacific. Proceedings of a workshop, Port Vila and Luganville, Vanuatu, 2–22
August 1993. Canberra, AIDAB.
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National Planning and Statistics Office.
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the South Pacific. Proceedings of a workshop, Port Vila and Luganville, Vanuatu, 2–22
August 1993. Canberra, AIDAB.
Watson, S.D. & Whiteman, P.C. 1981. Grazing studies on the Guadalcanal Plains, Solomon
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* Publications suggested for further reading.
Appendix 1 Additional notes and
sources; key assumptions
Table 1
Notes
1 Cattle smallholdings can involve aggregations of households particularly in
Vanuatu.
2 Largeholdings or plantations or estates have > 400 cattle in Papua New Guinea
and >100 head elsewhere.
3 Following partial dispersal of Nawaicoba cull ewe flock to smallholders, 20%
annual increase is expected.
4 For New Caledonia, the rural population of 69 000 comprises 11 000
households (FAO 1997a) based on a regional rural household size of 6.3.
5 2125 farms from Marchal et al. (1993); 1500 cattle farms have < 50 head, 20
farms >500 head.
6 120 of the former 200 registered pre-independence plantations in Vanuatu raise
between 100 and 11 000 head, averaging approximately 660 per plantation,
and approximately 30 local smallholders would raise in excess of 100 head
(Skea et al. 1993).
Sources
General: FAO 1997a. Fiji: MAFF (1994). Tonga: MAF (1994). Samoa: MAFFM
(1989, 1997). Vanuatu: Statistics Office (1994) and most recent country census and
smallholder survey figures and annual reports. Papua New Guinea: Banguinan
et al. (1996). Solomon Islands: Wate (1996); MAF (1994, 1995) internal reports.
Table 2
Sources
General: FAO 1988, FAO 1997a; personal communication with senior livestock officers;
recent Livestock Division periodic / 1994–1995 annual reports; 1994–95 Statistics
Office reports. New Caledonia: Marchal et al.(1993). Papua New Guinea: Banguinan et
al. (1996); Gama et al. (1991). Solomon Islands: Wate (1996). Samoa: Macfarlane
(1996); WSTPLSP Review (1995). Vanuatu: Evans et al. (1992); Macfarlane (1996).
Notes
1 In Fiji cattle numbers have been adjusted downwards from 354 000 to 280 000
due to perceived inflated statistics based on disease surveillance cross-checking.
Recent (1988) SPC disease survey data suggest an approximately 50% reduction
in Solomon Islands cattle numbers.
2 12 000 deer are enclosed and farmed commercially while an estimated 110 000
are feral, forming basis of commercial hunting industry (Corniaux & Sarrailh
1997).
3 M.Purea, FAO SAPA Office, pers. comm.
4 P. Saville, SPC, Suva, pers. comm.
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Table 7
Sources
Fiji: MAFF (1994) AHP report; Papua New Guinea: J. Mandich, Livestock
Development Corporation; FAO (1997a). Solomon Islands: MAF Livestock Division
report (1994). Tonga: MAF Livestock Division report (1994). Vanuatu: Livestock
Department annual report (1994); Statistics Office report (1994); Samoa: Livestock
Division reports (1997); WSTPLSP Review (1995).
Projections and key assumptions
Projections are totally dependent upon the accuracy of key assumptions. The most
important assumptions in this discussion revolve around:
(1) expectations of farmer response to improved extension delivery, training and
on-farm demonstration of alternative technologies and practices;
(2) expectations of government support for farmers;
(3) expectations of livestock product market prices and production costs relative
to other enterprises and market opportunities.
Specific assumptions
Farmer response and production expansion
(1) Projections of areas and associated livestock receiving improved system
management are based on outcomes from previous projects including 34 of
35 FAO farmer trainees undertaking 400 ha pasture improvement in one year
(see chapter 5); 32 of these trainees (smallholders) committed to 3000 ha
pasture improvement over ten years; estimates of 35% ni-Vanuatu and 60%
plantations adoptive after five years, and expectations in Samoa following the
STPLSP project.
(2) The rates of pasture establishment over the respective timeframes for each
country to reach beef self-sufficiency at nominated 1994–1995 levels of imports
(10 to 20 years, see Section 4.2 and Table 6) are achievable, given the application
of available mechanical and manual pasture planting technologies and reliable
supplies of locally produced and imported seed.
(3) Animal unit stocking rates used in calculations in Table 8 are proven for
respective open and shaded grazing systems.
(4) It is assumed that farmers who do adopt new technologies will apply the full
spectrum of recommended, cost-effective forage and grazing animal
management technologies across the grazing resources specified.
Government support
It is assumed that:
(1) governments implement integrated production and marketing assistance
programmes;
(2) governments implement improved extension delivery and farmer training
programmes which are responsive to farmers needs;
(3) government policies are conducive to institutional support and the maintenance
of positive domestic marketing environments.
Appendices
Livestock production costs and market prices
It is assumed that:
(1) gross margins for best practice grazing livestock systems do not significantly
deteriorate relative to cropping or other enterprise alternatives;
(2) development credit is available for creditworthy, adoptive or potentially
adoptive farmers;
(3) the present non-limiting animal health status of forage-based livestock
continues.
Other aspects
It is assumed that:
(1) attaining 1994–1995 beef import levels of self-sufficiency will not create landuse conflict with competing enterprises;
(2) livestock development does not take place in ecologically sensitive areas;
(3) livestock system management in existing and new areas conforms to
environmentally acceptable codes of practice;
(4) expansion beyond nominated levels of livestock production is guided by the
needs of subsistence and commercial cropping systems for lands of high
production capability, to meet the needs of expanding populations.
93
22) pastures with crops / forestry
23) forage crops
TOTAL
Current / new areas improved
NEW CALEDONIA
15) native < 1800 mm
16) native < 1800 mm + legumes
17) native > 1800 mm
18) native > 1800 mm + legumes
19) improved grass
20) improved grass + legume
21) native> 1800 mm
12) pastures with crops / forestry
13) crop residues / roadsides
14) upland crops to pastures
TOTAL
Current / new areas improved
FIJI
1) native mission grass <1800 mm
2) native mission + legumes
3) native > 1800 mm
4) naturalised Nadi blue
5) naturalised Nadi + legumes
6) naturalised Batiki
7) naturalised Batiki + legumes
8) improved grass
9) improved grass + legumes
10) native > 1800 mm
11) improved grass + legume
other
coconuts
open
other
under
coconuts
open
System
type
10
3
0
32
10
3
0
2
220
125.5 / 0
160
144 / 35
298
0
9
24
0
12
0
5
1
26
1
1
95
0.4
0.6
1.5
1.5
1.2
1.5
1.2
1
2.5
0.5
0.63
1.3
1.0
1.25
1.5
2.0
1.6
1.9
0.7
1.2
1.0
1.2
1.5
2
1
124
Current
carrying
capacity
(AU/ha in
’ 000)
Current
area
(’ 000 ha)
38.4
15
3.6
0
5
136.5
4.5
0
64
6
0
11.7
24
0
18
0
8
0
18.2
1.2
1
114
0
259.1
63
3
Current
total
carrying
capacity
(AUs)
75
50
1
22
0
82
3
2
5
220
62.5
37.5
4.5
12
12
3
3
0
41.7
18
9
11
70
35
319.2
4
Projected
area in
15yrs
(’ 000 ha)
12.5
205.6
CCx1.83
3.6
2
30
30
1.5
3
0
123
31.3
23.6
5.9
12.0
15.0
4.5
6.0
0
79.2
12.6
10.8
11.0
105.0
52.5
369.4
CC x 1.43
5
Projected
carrying
capacity
(’ 000s AU)
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.35
0.35
0
0.4
0.55
0.3
0
0.3
0.35
0
0.25
0
0.4
0.45
0.25
0.35
0.4
0.3
0
6
Current
cattle
growth
(kg/hd/dy)
5
0
0
34
0.25
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.3
0.45
0.45
0.3
0.5
0 .3 5
0.4
0.4
0.6
0
0.5
2
49.6
1.1
0
19.2
2.1
1.6
0
15.4
8.3
0
78
4
8
1
3
0
8
0
5
0
3
1.1
0.9
5.6
107.1
Prod. x 2.09
9
15
0 .5
1.2
0
73.8
3
4
4
53
26
168
Prod. x 2.14
40
9
11
2
9
Projected
production
index
Col. 5 x
Col. 7
19
0
4
8
Current
production
index
Col.3 x
Col. 6
0.3
0.45
0.3
0.35
0 .5
0.25
0.45
0
7
Projected
cattle
growth2
(kg/hd/dy)
(With improved livestock development services and support; positive market signals; non-limiting animal health status; and 50% adoptive farmers)
Existing and projected grazing resources after 15–20 years development
Current and future pasture types
Table 8
Appendix 2 Existing and projected grazing resources and productivity
94
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
other
under
coconuts
open
open
System
type
50) pastures in crops / livestock
TOTAL
Current / new areas improved
SOLOMON ISLANDS
43) native < 1800 mm
44) native < 1800 mm + legumes
45) native > 1800 mm
46) improved grass
47) improved grass / legumes
48) native > 1800 mm
49) improved grass / legumes
42) pastures in crops / forestry
TOTAL
Current / new areas improved
other
under
coconuts
open
other
SAMOA
34) native > 1800 mm
open
35) Batiki only1
36) improved grass
37) improved grass + Batiki + legume
38) native >1800 mm
39) Batiki
under
40) other improved grass
coconuts
41) improved grass + Batiki + legume
Current / new areas improved
33) pastures with crops / forestry
TOTAL
24) native < 1800 mm (s/lholder)
25) native < 1800 mm - plantation
26) native < 1800 mm + legumes
27) native > 1800 mm
28) native > 1800 mm + legumes
29) improved grass
30) improved grass + legume
31) native > 1800 mm
32) improved grass + legume
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Current and future pasture types
Table 8 (cont’d)
1
0
3
1
1
8
3
0.3
17.3
6/7
1
1.5
1.5
0.5
1
10
1
0.5
0.2
17.2
11.5 / 7
169 / 0
75
72
2
5
2
30
5
9
1
2
203
Current
area
(’ 000 ha)
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.5
1.8
0.7
1.1
1
1
1.1
2
2.2
0.8
1.1
1.2
1.8
1
20.5
0.3
0.3
0.5
1.4
1.7
1.3
1.8
0.7
1.5
0.7
Current
carrying
capacity
(AU/ha in
’ 000)
0.4
0.8
3.6
1.5
1.8
5.6
3.3
0.3
18.5
1
1.7
3
1.1
0.8
11
1.2
0.9
0.2
20.9
22.5
21.6
1
7
3.4
39
8
6.3
1.5
1.4
111.7
Current
total
carrying
capacity
(AUs)
5
2
4
0
6
8
5
3
33
0.5
1
0.5
2.5
0.5
3
0.5
15
0.5
24
174
80
51
20
10
0
95.8
15
10
10
332.5
CC x 2.98
Projected
area in
15 yrs
(’ 000 ha)
2
1.2
6
0
12
5.6
6.5
3
36.3
CC x 2.2
0.8
1.8
1.8
5.5
0.4
5.1
0.9
27
0.6
43.9
CC x 2.4
52.3
24
25.5
28
17
0
153.2
10.5
15
7
Projected
carrying
capacity
(’ 000s AU)
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.28
0.35
0.35
0.3
0.3
0.35
0.45
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.50
0.4
0.25
0.3
0.45
0.3
0.5
0.35
0.45
0.3
0.35
0.4
Current
cattle
growth
(kg/hd/dy)
0.3
0.4
0.35
0.3
0 .5
0.35
0 .4
0.5
0.35
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.55
0.4
0.3
0.35
0.5
0.35
0.55
0.4
0.55
0.3
0.4
0.4
Projected
cattle
growth
(kg/hd/dy)
1.6
1.2
0.11
5 .5
0.12
0
1.08
0.6
0 .0
0.2
3.0
0.4
0.45
0.1
6.81
1.9
2.6
1.05
14.8
Prod. x 2.85
0.6
0.6
2.1
0
6
0.12
1.8
0.14
14.9
0.24
21.27
Prod. x 3.1
0.25
0.6
0.72
2.5
185.5
Prod. x 4.27
49.4
0.6
0.51
1.05
0.5
3.2
6
2.8
15.7
8.4
12.8
9.8
9.4
0
84.3
Projected
production
index
Col. 5 x
Col. 7
1.9
1.8
0 .6
5.6
6.5
0.5
2.1
1.7
1 .9
3.6
Current
production
index
Col. 3 x
Col. 6
Appendices
95
Regional improvement
Total current / new areas improved
GRAND TOTALS
Current / new areas improved
over 15 yrs
TOTAL
VANUATU
59) native <1800 mm
60) native <1800 mm + legumes
61) native >1800 mm open
62) native >1800 mm mainly open +
62) legumes
63) open impr. grass incl. buffalo 63) low legume
64) improved grass / legume
65) native >1800 mm
66) buffalo / impr. grass / legume
67) pasture crops / forestry
67) / regrowth forest
TOTAL
Current / new areas improved
over 15 yrs
51) native <1800 mm
52) native >1800 mm
53) improved grass
54) improved grass / legume
55) native pasture
56) naturalised guinea grass
57) Improved grass / legume
58) pure legume crops / forestry
TONGA
Current and future pasture types
Table 8 (cont’d)
under
coconuts
other
open
other
under
coconuts
open
System
type
1.8
2
0.7
1.1
1.2
10
25
27
18
10
485 / 76
867
25 / 25
105
1.2
1.5
1.6
0.9
1.2
1.5
1.8
2
1.4
1.8
1.9
1
Current
carrying
capacity
(AU/ha in
’ 000)
3
1
10
1
5.8
3.5 / 2.2
0.2
0.5
0.3
0.2
1
3
0.5
0.1
Current
area
(’ 000 ha)
737
140.7
50
18.9
19.8
12
18
3.6
1.5
16
0.9
10.04
0.24
0.75
0.54
0.4
1.4
5.4
0.95
0.1
Current
total
carrying
capacity
(AUs)
1194
124
62.5
22
18
7.5
0
2
2
5
5
8
CC x 1.48
0.2
0
0
1.5
0
1
5
0.3
Projected
area in
15 yrs
(’ 000 ha)
CC x 1.8
1320
CC x 1.51
218.35
156.25
15.4
19.8
9
0
2.4
3
8
4.5
14.84
0.24
0
0
3
0
1.8
10
0.3
Projected
carrying
capacity
(’ 000s AU)
0.5
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.35
0.45
0.35
0.30
0.35
0.45
0.3
0.36
0.4
0.4
Current
cattle
growth
(kg/hd/dy)
0.55
0.35
0.4
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.55
0.35
0.5
0.35
0.35
0.4
0.55
0.4
0.36
0.55
0.4
Projected
cattle
growth
(kg/hd/dy)
253
60.33
25
6.62
7.92
5.4
7.20
1.44
0.75
5.60
0.41
3.63
0.08
0.23
0.19
0.18
0.49
1.94
0.48
0.04
Current
production
index
Col. 3 x
Col. 6
Prod. x 2.48
614
Prod. x 1.8
111.4
85.9
5.39
7.92
4 .5
0
0.98
1.65
2 .8
2.25
8
Prod. x 2.2
0.08
0
0
1.65
0
0.65
5.5
0.12
Projected
production
index
Col. 5 x
Col. 7
96
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
Appendices
Table 8
(cont’d)
Summary of additional areas
Total additional area (ha)
native grasslands
327 000
227 000
under coconuts
20 000
croplands to pastures
35 000
bush regrowth
25 000
pastures in crops/forestry
20 000
Notes
1 Carrying capacity reduced due to current gross weed infestations of most pastures (e.g. 50%).
2 Improvements in growth within a particular class without pasture improvement reflect
better husbandry and supplementary feeding.
Table 9
Current and projected broad regional grazing resource groups
over a 15–20 year period
Grazing resource
Current
(ha)
After
15– 20 yrs
(ha)
Change
(ha)
native grassland
467.7
433.7
native grassland with legumes
15.5
157
introduced grasses
116
15.5
introduced grasses + legumes
43
309.7
crop residues / roadsides
95
70
forage crops
2
5
croplands converted to improved pastures
0
35
739
1026
native grassland
76
66.5
native grassland + legumes
0.5
2.5
introduced grass
12
5
introduced grass + legumes
25
60
Total
114
134
13.6
34.3
Total (rounded nearest thousand)
14
34
+20
Grand total
867
1194
+327
Open
Total
+287
Under coconuts
+20
Crops and forestry
pure legumes integrated with crops and legumes
and/or grasses integrated with forestry
97
Appendix 3 Scientific and common names
of important Southwest Pacific
pasture species*
Grasses
Axonopus compressus
Bothriochloa spp.
Brachiaria decumbens
Brachiaria humidicola
Brachiaria mutica
Brachiaria miliiformis
Dicanthium caricosum
Dicanthium sericeum
Digitaria decumbens
Digitaria milanjiana
Heteropogon contortus
Imperata cylindrica
Ischaemum aristatum
Ischaemum indicum
Pennisetum polystachyon
Pennisetum purpureum
Paspalum conjugatum
Urochloa mosambicensis cv. Nixon
Setaria sphacelata
Sorghum spp.
Themeda triandra
Carpet grass
Creeping blue grass
Signal grass
Koronivia grass
Para grass
Cori grass
Nadi blue grass
Queensland blue grass
Pangola grass
Digitaria
Spear grass
Kunai or blady grass
Batiki
Batiki
Mission
Elephant
t-grass
Sabi grass
Setaria
Sorghum
Kangaroo grass
Legumes
Aeschynomene americana cvv. Glenn, Lee
Albizia chinensis
Arachis pintoi cv. Amarillo
Arachis repens
Arachis glabrata
Calopogonium mucunoides
Calliandra calothyrsus
Centrosema pubescens
Desmanthus virgatus
Desmodium heterophyllum
Desmodium intortum cv. Greenleaf
Gliricidia sepium
98
Glenn or Lee joint vetch
Albizia
Pinto peanut
Repens
Glabrata
Calopo
Calliandra
Centro
Desmanthus
Hetero
Greenleaf
Gliricidia
Appendices
Legumes (cont’d)
Lablab purpureus
Leucaena leucocephala
L. diversifolia, L. pallida
Pueraria phaseoloides
Stylosanthes hamata cvv. Verano, Amiga
S. scabra cv. Seca
S. scabra cv. Siran
Vigna hoseii
Vigna unguiculata
*Some are not referred to in text
Dolichos lablab
Leucaena
Leucaena
Puero
Amiga or Verano stylo
Seca stylo
Siran stylo
Hoseii
Cowpea
99
Traditionally, livestock has been one of the
most neglected areas in natural resources
policy in the Southwest Pacific. Yet livestock
are an integral part of most rural households,
providing important benefits such as food,
income, weed control, transport and draught
power.
The publication synthesises the substantial
experience of the author and a Southwest
Pacific network of livestock productionists,
including smallholders, plantation farmers,
extensionists and national decision makers,
and provides a broad framework for bringing
about sustainable change. Case studies illustrate the significance of training and support
initiatives for individual households and
communities.
SAPA Publication 1998/1
Grazing Livestock
in the Southwest Pacific
The benefits of improved production
FAO Sub-Regional Office for the Pacific
This book breaks new ground in clearly
establishing the importance of livestock, not
only to individual households but to the
Southwest Pacific region generally. With a clear
focus on improving the feeding, management
and marketing of grazing livestock, it demonstrates the substantial potential for growth
which is both environmentally positive and
sympathetic to alternative land uses. Carefully
documented projections highlight the capacity
for enhanced livestock exports and import
substitution to improve the overall economic
performance of Pacific countries.
Grazing Livestock in the Southwest Pacific
Grazing Livestock
in the Southwest Pacific
This book will be of value to national
governments, international agencies and nongovernmental organisations in formulating
policies and planning development assistance.
It will also be a rich resource for farmers,
extensionists, managers and agricultural
training institutions.
ISBN 92-5-104178-4
FAO Sub-Regional Office
for the Pacific
9 7 8 9 2 5 1 0 4 1 7 8 9
W9676E/1/11.98/1000
FAO Sub-Regional Office for the Pacific