LECTURE 5: The Elizabethan Age (1558-1603)
When Mary I died in 1558, the country was relieved and welcomed her sister
Elizabeth to the throne. Elizabeth’s aim was to achieve a long-lasting religious
settlement which would put an end to the nation’s religious uncertainty and change;
Anglo-Catholic under Henry VIII, Protestant under Edward VI and Roman Catholic
under Mary I, the people of England needed stability. During her 45-year reign,
Elizabeth would give them just that; her impact upon the nation’s political, religious
and cultural identity was such that she gave her name to this Settlement (the
Elizabethan Settlement) and to an entire age (the Elizabethan Age), which has
become synonymous with an English golden age. She was a true English rose, the
embodiment of Englishness. A moderate Protestant, she had learned much from her
sister’s mistakes: for one thing, she would never take a husband and she declared
herself ‘married to England’.
I - A divided religious picture
A - Recusancy and the continuity of English Catholicism
To begin with, Parliament and Elizabeth’s advisers were particularly concerned with
the problem posed by the not negligible numbers of Catholics who remained in
England. Although the queen herself declared she had no wish to ‘make windows
into men’s souls’ and claimed she would be satisfied with outward conformity, her
largeness was not shared by her advisors who saw English Catholics as possible
dissenters and people whose allegiance was shared between the monarch and the
pope. The situation was aggravated by the fact that in 1570, the pope published a
Bull (a papal declaration) which excommunicated Elizabeth I. This Bull declared
the queen illegitimate: because Rome never recognised Henry’s VIII divorce from
Catherine of Aragon, it never recognised his marriage to Anne Boleyn either. To
the pope, Mary was Henry’s only legitimate child and Elizabeth was simply a
bastard. Therefore, her authority on the throne of England was usurped, since she
was not a true heiress of the Tudor line. In his declaration, Pope Pius V not only
excluded Elizabeth from the Church and condemned her soul to hell (which she
probably did not mind too much since she was not a Catholic) but he declared her
rule null and void, he deposed her and encouraged her subjects to challenge her
authority, rebel and overthrow her. The religious threat of excommunication was an
insult, but the papal deposition was a direct political attack against the queen and a
call to insurgency: in this context, English Catholics were caught in a very delicate
situation and became more alienated than ever. Parliament felt the crown was
threatened by their very presence in England.
1
Before 1570, Catholicism in the country had been a matter of private faith. In
counties which were remote from London and from the centralised power of the
courts, families and even sometimes priests continued to observe the rituals and
practices which had been traditional for centuries. They observed the Catholic
calendar with its rhythm of fasts and feasts, honoured Saints’ days, prayed or
attended Mass in Latin, believed in transubstantiation, went to confession more
importantly did not attend the Sunday service of the Anglican Church (or if they did,
they did not take communion there as a sign of their reserve). In areas such as
Lancashire and Yorkshire (the North tended to be more Catholic than the South of
the country), all this was possible because the Justices of the Peace themselves were
sympathisers of the old faith and therefore did not really apply the law against
Catholicism: they did not prosecute their fellow believers very actively. This is
called the phase of survivalism, when Catholicism merely survived privately and
not assertively.
Around 1570, a second phase called revival began: instead of simply observing
their faith in the quiet of their own private practice, Catholics became organised in
recusant networks (a recusant was a person who refused to go to the services of the
established Church). Recusant families chose to inter-marry, to trade among
themselves, and a real Catholic community started to emerge. Young men were sent
to the Continent to train as Catholic priests in seminaries, and after completing their
training, they would come back to England under cover and begin a missionary
movement, giving Mass, hearing confessions, marrying people and even trying to
convert the population back to the old faith. These priests risked their lives in their
mission: if they were caught, they would be found guilty of high treason and
sentenced to death. Their executions would be horrible: first, they would be hanged
by the neck, but they would be let down before they were fully strangled; while they
were still alive, they would be disembowelled, then their bodies would be cut into
quarters. The quarters were usually put on spikes and displayed at the city gates, as
an example and a deterrent. As a result of Pius V’s Bull and of the revival of a new,
more active type of recusancy, Catholicism became stigmatised as an abomination:
no Catholic could be trusted in England, they were perceived as the enemy within.
B - The radicalisation of Protestant sects
If government and Parliament in particular were concerned about ‘papists’, Queen
Elizabeth herself became increasingly worried about the new agitators at the
opposite end of the religious spectrum: the zealous Protestants. While the North of
the country had a tendency for Catholicism, the South of England was open to the
influence of the Continent, particularly in counties where ports allowed exchanges
and trade on a daily basis. Between the beginning of the Continental Reform with
Martin Luther’s 95 theses (1517) and the days of Elizabeth, Protestantism had
2
changed and had become increasingly Puritan. The teachings of Luther had been
updated by those of other great divines, and most importantly by Frenchman Jean
Calvin; amongst other things, Calvinist doctrine was much more intransigent than
Lutheran doctrine on the subject of the episcopacy. Puritans wanted to take their
doctrine of the ‘priesthood of all believers’ to its logical end: if priests were to be
considered no different than the rest of the people, and if everybody had the right to
know the scriptures, communicate with God and preach, then there was no need for
a Church hierarchy. Calvinists therefore called for a further movement of reform in
the Church and advocated the abolition of the episcopacy (the hierarchy of priests,
bishops, archbishops, etc); there would be no priestly authority at all, the Church
would be a family of equal rights.
How did this affect England? Many English Protestants really became convinced
that the Puritan view was what God wanted: a full, complete reform of the Church
in which no abuse of power, no corruption would be possible. Importantly, there
were many such Puritans amongst the ranks of Elizabeth’s officials: in her English
Church, the queen had appointed many Calvinist bishops (Calvinism was so popular
that there were very few Lutherans left to choose from at that time) and in her
Parliament, Puritans formed a very strong pressure group. Indeed, extreme forms of
Calvinism were most popular amongst the gentry of the South and therefore found
itself represented in large numbers in the House of Commons by gentlemen who
were Members of parliament (MPs). The queen saw this Puritan challenge as a real
threat: they were in government (whereas most Catholics were not and had little
influence) and could pose a problem to the state.
- Threat to the English Church: Although they worked from within the Church of
England, Puritans proposed to reform it entirely, to get rid of the hierarchy of
bishops (episcopacy) and function according to a Presbyterian system. The Church
would be run at local level by local lay men (presbyters) who would be elected for
their wisdom and knowledge of Scriptures. Then, at provincial level, there would
be a ‘synod’, or provincial assembly; at the national level, there would also be a
national ‘synod’. The system was meant to be democratic: each local ‘presbytery’
sent up its elected delegated to the provincial synods, and each provincial synod sent
up its own delegates to the national synod. Therefore, the system was a reversal of
the traditional episcopal hierarchy: the power came from below, not from above!
- Threat to the English state: Obviously, such principles represented a potential
threat tot he very concept of monarchy. In a monarchy the state was ruled firmly
from above, the masses were kept under control and were often under- represented.
If the ideological principles of Presbyterianism were applied to the state, then power
should come from the people; if bishops were abolished, so should kings and
queens. Elizabeth was a sharp politician and she realised that the Puritan threat was
3
perhaps a more pressing one than the Catholic threat; although Catholics were a
national figure of hate, Puritans were the ones in a position to challenge the very
infrastructure of the realm.
Therefore, while her government and Parliament were involved in controlling the
Catholics and passing severe legislation to fine, imprison and even condemn to
death any recusant who was suspected of treason, Elizabeth also made sure that they
passed legislation and tried political and diplomatic ways to curb the power and
influence of the rising Puritan group. Like Catholics, Puritans were refusing to
attend established services and having their own services and sermons performed as
they pleased. Like Catholics therefore, they had to become the object of penal
repression.
II - Enforcing the Elizabethan Settlement
In early modern Europe, religion was not a matter of personal choice; every single
subject in a country was required to adhere to the established Church, the Church
recognised by his or her state. A country’s religion was an international political
statement to the rest of Europe but internally, it also acted as a very important
national cement, uniting the people in shared culture and beliefs. Those who did not
take part in the established religion were outsiders, dissenters, and easily perceived
as possible threats or rebels. If they challenged the Church, they could one day
challenge the authority of the crown as well. It was therefore of paramount
importance for Elizabeth to find a religious formula which would be acceptable both
to those with traditional Catholic leanings and to those with Protestant views. She
was searching for a middle way which could satisfy nearly everyone and create real
uniformity of religious practice in England.
A - The new legislation for the ‘middle way’
As soon as she sat on the throne, Elizabeth set out to re-define England’s position in
terms of national religion. Working with the Star Chamber, the Privy Council and
Parliament, she brought forth a series of Acts which asserted her country’s
independence from the Church of Rome, reinforced the monarch (not the pope) as
the leader of the English Church but also bolstered the uniformity of beliefs and
practice so that everybody should conform to a pre-set form of religion. Thus, in
1559, Parliament passed several crucial pieces of legislation, and the act of
Supremacy and Act of Uniformity are still today the basis of the Anglican Church:
- The Act of Supremacy: Elizabeth’s Act of Supremacy made her the Supreme
Governor of the Church in England, the authority of the pope was abolished and the
monarch took his place as ruler of the Church. But unlike her father Henry VIII, the
4
queen was careful not to use the word ‘Supreme Head of the Church’. At the time,
the difference was crucial since for many devout Christians there could be only one
‘Head’ of the Church, Jesus Christ. By using the word ‘Head’, Henry had
proclaimed himself equal to Christ, which by the time of Elizabeth would have
undoubtedly alienated many Protestants who knew the Scriptures well and would
have considered this title offensive. By choosing the title ‘Governor’, she showed
her humility and her humanity: she was not claiming any divine status but was
simply an administrator of the Church in her country. This was proof of her astute
political mind and she would continue throughout her reign to be tactical and
careful: her attempt to install a ‘middle’ way required much diplomacy and tact.
quote
- The Book of Common Prayer: Like her brother Edward VI before her, Elizabeth
realised the need for a Book of Common Prayer which would help the clergy to
know exactly what to teach their congregations and would also help these
congregations to know what to believe and how to practice. Her Prayer Book
however, unlike Edward’s, tried to compromise between old Catholic beliefs and
traditions and new Protestant doctrine. It was meant to accommodate some Catholic
beliefs and it was a bitter disappointment for the more extreme Puritans. It was
proof of the queen’s search for a middle way. In order to placate both sides, the
meaning of the Eucharist was left to the individual conscience: the Book did not
explain whether, upon to saying of the words of the Last Supper by the priest, the
Bread and wine actually transformed miraculously into the body and blood of Christ
or whether it was simply a commemorative act of remembrance, a symbolic ritual.
quote On such sensitive issues, Elizabeth left much freedom to individual
interpretation; she had no wish to ‘open windows into men’s souls’. What they
privately believed as a matter of personal spirituality should be allowed. On the
other hand, she did insist upon clear and unconditional conformity: since the Book
was so accommodating, you were supposed to adhere to it and those who did not
were considered as threats and potential traitors.
- The Act of Uniformity: This was meant to enforce conformity and uniformity on
a national level. Every parish in the country was supposed to conform to the Prayer
Book and use it; every subject was supposed conform outwardly and attend church
every Sunday and was required to recognise Elizabeth as the Supreme Governor of
the Church of England. Those who did not therefore showed that they were not true
subjects to the queen, their allegiance was divided between her and the foreign
power of the pope: they were traitors and could be punished by heavy fines and
imprisonment. quote
5
B - Toleration and repression: the balance of the Settlement
- 1563: The 39 Articles: Like under Edward VI, Elizabeth’s Act of Uniformity
made the Book of Common Prayer compulsory in all Church of England services. It
also contained the 42 Articles of Religion which, in 1563, were reduced to 39.
These 39 Articles still survive in today’s Anglican Church and define its nature: all
clergy must agree with them, and it is because of the queen’s desire for a middle
way that they contained such a mix of Catholic and Protestant ideas. On the
Protestant side, the Pope's authority was of course denied. The Pope's authority was
of course denied, services were in English (not Latin) and priests could marry. But
elements of Catholic ritual such as altar rails and clerical vestments were kept,
which caused great discontent amongst the Puritans, many of whom believed these
things created a divide between clergy and lay people and wanted them abolished.
Attendance at church on Sundays was made compulsory and a fine of one shilling
per week (nearly half the weekly wage of a labourer) was levied on those who were
absent if they had not been authorised.
- Mary Queen of Scots: All this legislation in order to enforce Elizabeth’s ideal of
the English middle way was borne out of the reality of English life at the time, not
simply out of the government’s desire to control all. There were real threats to the
crown, especially since in 1568, the Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots, had fled her
increasingly Presbyterian country to find refuge in England where Elizabeth, her
cousin, offered her asylum. [Mary, believed to have murdered her husband in order
to marry her lover, was deposed by the Scottish lords in 1567 and fled to England]
But Mary’s presence in England was a danger; some English Catholics considered
that she had more right to be queen of England than Elizabeth (who was seen by
some as a bastard, the daughter of Anne Boleyn, and not a rightful heir to the
throne). For these reasons, Elizabeth showed herself to be kind and protected Mary,
but she ordered her to remain confined in several places remote from court; the
queen feared that rebellious Catholic could attempt to overthrow her and put Mary
in her place.
- The Rising of the North: In 1569, the Catholic Earls of Northumberland and
Westmorland led a rebellion in order to re-establish the old religion, get rid of
Protestant politicians and release Mary Queen of Scots from imprisonment. They
initially did not mean to overthrow Elizabeth, to whom they declared their
allegiance in a declaration, but they wanted to denounce those they called her ‘evil
counsellors’, whom they blamed for the country’s increasing turn towards
Calvinism. Queen Elizabeth summoned the two Earls to courts, but fearing for their
lives, they chose not to present themselves before her. Since negotiation was
impossible, they resolved to use force: they marched on the city of Durham and
seized it; they entered the Cathedral, symbolically overturned the Communion Table
6
(which replaced the traditional Catholic altar) and tore the English Bible and the
Prayer Book. Their forces continued to march south but they were soon defeated by
Elizabeth’s army led by the Earl of Essex. The Earl of Northumberland was
beheaded in 1572 and his head displayed by the gates of York for two years;
Westmorland managed to escape to the Continent but most others were not so lucky
and were put to death.
- The Babington Plot: Elizabeth was in an uncomfortable position: she feared
Mary's influence and the fact that her presence could motive her English subject to
rally around her. On the other hand, she could not let a fellow queen be deposed
and disgraced by her own people. Offering help was the only solution, but it was
essential to keep Mary far from court. Even after the Rising of the North, the queen
refused to have her cousin executed or even killed surreptitiously. However, the
1586 plot led by Sir Anthony Babington finally persuaded her because it presented
her with undeniable proof of the complicity of Mary queen of Scots with the plotters
discussing Elizabeth’s murder. One of Elizabeth’s closest ministers, Sir Francis
Walsingham, spied upon the actions of English recusants and particularly the
goings-on around Mary and discovered the plot. Babington was tortured and put to
death and Mary Queen of Scots was found guilty of treason and executed. The
Catholic threat within the realm was not to be tolerated any longer.
7