CHAPTER
The city of Machu Picchu was a religious
center of the Inca Empire.
The Incas
26.1 Introduction
In Chapter 25, you learned about daily life
in the Aztec Empire of Mexico. Now you will
learn about the Inca Empire, a great society
that developed in llu- Andes Mountains of Soulh
America. The Inca Empire arose in the 1400s
C.E. It lasted until 1532, when the Incas were
conquered by Spanish explorers.
From north to south, the Inca Empire
stretched more than 2,500 miles. To communicate across this vast distance, the Incas used
runners called chasquis to relay messages from
one place to another.
Imagine that you are a young chasqui. From
your messenger station along the Royal Road,
you see another chasqui racing toward you. You
know he carries an important message from the
emperor. You dart out of the messenger station
and run alongside the other runner while he
hands you a set of strings called a quipu. Knots
tied at different places in the strings stand for
numbers. They will help you remember the
message. The other chasqui also gives you a
verbal message. Once he is certain that you
have both parts of the message, he stops running. His work is over. Now it is up to you to
get the message to the next station as quickly
as possible.
This remarkable relay system helped the
Incas manage their far-flung empire. In this
chapter, you will explore how the Inca Kmpire
was built and maintained. You'll also learn
about the Incas' class structure, family
life, religion, and relations with other
peoples.
Use this illustration as a graphic organizer to help you
understand more about the Inca Empire.
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289
The Inca Empire, About 1500 C.E.
PACIFIC
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Chapter 26
OCEAN
26.2 The Rise of
the Inca Empire
At the height of their power in the early
1500s C.E., the Incas ruled over a vast, wellorganized empire. From north to south, the
Inca Empire stretched almost the length of
the Andes mountain range, a distance of
2,500 miles. It reached from the Pacific
Coast in the west to the Amazon River
Basin in the east. Today this territory
includes most of Peru and Ecuador, as
well as parts of Bolivia, Chile, and
Argentina. Perhaps 10 million people
lived under Inca rule.
How did the Incas build and manage
such a huge empire? In part, the Incas
adopted ideas and institutions that had been
pioneered by earlier cultures. Two peoples
who had an especially strong influence on
the Incas were the Moche and the Chimu.
The Moche lived along the northern coast
of Peru from about 100 B.C.E. to 700 C.E.
They built cities, dug irrigation canals, and
developed special classes of workers.
The Chimu kingdom in northern Peru flourished during the 1300s
and 1400s. Like the Moche, the Chimu built well-planned cities and
used elaborate irrigation methods. They preserved the artistic traditions
of the Moche and passed them on to the Incas. They also built good
roads and created a message system using runners. The Incas adopted
and improved upon all of these achievements.
The Beginnings of the Empire The center of the Inca
Empire was the capital city of Cuzco, which was located in a valley
high in the mountains of southern Peru. The Incas first settled in this
area around 1200 C.E. Apart from this fact, their early history is cloaked
in myth.
According to one Inca legend, the people were descended from Inti,
the sun god. Inti commanded his son, Manco Capac, to rise out of the
waters of Lake Titicaca. Manco Capac then founded the Inca tribe.
In another legend, Inti appeared before a later Inca ruler. He said
the Incas must become a great power and educate the people they met.
But for more than 200 years, the Incas increased their territory by only
about a dozen miles around Cuzco.
The Incas began expanding their empire in 1438, when they were
attacked by the neighboring Chancas. The Inca emperor and many
citizens fled Cuzco. But one of his sons, Yupanqui, stayed behind and
led his army against the Chancas. Inca legend says that the stones on
the battlefield turned into powerful warriors. Yupanqui's victory made
his people the strongest group in the area.
After driving off the Chancas, Yupanqui took the name Pachacuti,
which means "earthshaker." He also seized the throne. Pachacuti and
his son Topa Inca then launched a series of conquests against nearby
tribes. With each victory, the Inca army became larger and more skilled.
Soon the Incas subdued almost every major group in the central
Andes. In 1470, they conquered the Chimu. By the 1500s, their empire
covered about 350,000 square miles.
Roads and Messengers To manage their far-tlung holdings,
Inca leaders came to rely on a system of roads. The two main routes
were the coastal road and the inland road, which was called the Royal
Road. Smaller roads connected them.
Some historians have said that the Incas' system of roads was as
impressive as that of ancient Rome. About 15,000 miles of road linked
all corners of the empire. The roads crossed tropical jungles, high
mountains, and raging rivers. Inca officials
used the roads to travel throughout the
empire. Shelters were placed every 15 to
30 miles to give travelers places to rest.
The roads also allowed the emperor at
Cuzco to communicate with officials in
distant places. The Incas sent messages by
an elaborate relay system. They built messenger stations every couple of miles along
the main roads. Chasquis, or messengers,
carried the messages from one station to
the next. Using this system, messages
could travel more than 250 miles a day.
A message consisted of memorized
words, and sets of strings called quipus. The
quipus served as memory aids. Knots tied at
various places and on strings of different
colors stood for numbers. The Incas had no
system of writing, but the quipus helped
them keep track of populations, troops, and
tribute, as well as information about their
legends and achievements. The oral comments that accompanied a quipu helped a
trained expert decipher the message. For the
Inca government, quipus proved to be an
effective substitute for written language.
Chasquis counted the knots and
strings on quipus to relay messages
about various things, such as the
number of people in a military troop
or the amount of goods given in
tribute to an Inca leader.
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291
Inca legend says that the emperor
was descended from Inti, the sun
god. He was thus the "son of the
sun."
26.3
litter a seat or chair on which
a person is carried; a kind of
carriage for high-ranking people
292
Chapter 26
Class Structure
Inca society was based on a strictly organized class structure. There
were three broad classes: the emperor and his immediate family, nobles,
and commoners. Throughout Inca society, people who were "Inca
by blood"—those whose families were originally from Cuzco—held
higher status than non-lncas.
As the Inca Empire grew, its class structure became more complex.
Let's look at the roles and responsibilities of each social class in the
empire.
The Emperor At the top of Inca society was the emperor, called
the Sapa Inca. The Incas believed that the Sapa Inca was descended
from Inti, the sun god. For this reason, the Sapa Inca ruled with complete authority.
Everything in the empire belonged to the Sapa Inca. He lived in
great splendor. When the Spanish came to Cuzco in the 1500s, they
were dazzled to see fine gardens, golden statues, and jars made of gold
and silver studded with emeralds. Servants carried the Sapa Inca everywhere on a golden litter. His subjects dared not look him directly in
the eye.
The Sapa Inca could have many wives and hundreds of children.
But he had one "primary" wife, who was called the Coya. Traditionally,
to ensure the purity of the royal blood, the Coya was the Sapa Inca's
full sister. The Sapa Inca chose his heir from their children.
Nobles Below the Sapa Inca were the nobles. The Inca nobility
was made up of leaders who helped administer the vast empire.
All nobles enjoyed certain privileges. They received gifts of land,
servants, llamas, and fine clothing. They did not pay taxes, and men
had the right to marry more than one wife. However, nobles were not
all of equal rank. There were three main classes of nobles: Capac Incas.
who were considered relatives of the emperor; Hahua Incas, who did
not share the royal blood; and curacas, who were leaders of people
conquered by the Incas.
The highest-ranking nobles were the Capac Incas. Like the emperor
himself, they were believed to be descended from Manco Capac, the
legendary founder of the Inca dynasty.
Capac Incas controlled the empire's land as well as its valuable
resources, such as llamas, coca leaves, and gold. They held the most
important posts in the government, army, and priesthood. The apus, or
governors, of the four quarters of the empire came from this group.
As the empire grew, the Incas needed more nobles to staff the government's complex bureaucracy. As a result, some people who were not
true Incas also gained entry into the noble class. Called Hahua Incas,
they were considered "Incas by privilege." Often
leaders from around Cuzco became Hahua Incas.
vSometimes people of common birth gained this
status as well.
Additional conquests created a need for the third
class of nobles, the curacas. The curacas were local
leaders of conquered peoples. Curacas carried out
various jobs. Many collected taxes. Others worked
as inspectors, making sure everyone followed Inca
laws and customs, such as wearing proper clothing
and keeping clean homes. Curacas were required
to spend time in Cu7.co learning these laws and
customs. They were allowed to rule their people
only if they followed Inca ways.
Commoners Most of the people in the Inca
Empire were commoners who worked as farmers
and herders. The Incas did not practice slavery in the
usual sense of the word. However, they did require
commoners to support the government, both through
the products of their labor and by working on government-sponsored projects. Men did jobs like building roads, while women might weave cloth.
Inca farmers grew a variety of crops, including
squash, peppers, beans, peanuts, more than 20 types
of corn, and more than 200 types of potato. The most
important crop was the potato, which could survive heavy frosts at
altitudes as high as 15.000 feet above sea level. Corn could be grown at
altitudes nearly as high. The Incas enjoyed corn fresh, fried, and popped.
Inca farmers were required to give most of their crops to the government. The government placed the crops it collected in storehouses
throughout the empire. The food was then distributed to warriors, temple priests, and people in need. For example, the government gave food
to people who could no longer work, particularly the aged, the sick, and
the disabled.
TfcAWXXK
In this illustration, dating from about
1565, Inca farmers harvest potatoes.
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293
26.4 Family Life
ayllu an Inca clan (group of
related families), the basic unit
of Inca society
communal shared by a
community or group
In this Inca coming-of-age ceremony,
a boy receives the weapons of an
Inca warrior.
;
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Chapter 26
Families in the Inca Empire belonged to larger clans called ayllus.
The ayllu was the basis of Inca society. Everyone was born into an
ayllu, and most people lived their entire lives within the borders of its
land. So to understand family life in the Inca Empire, we need to begin
with the ayllu.
Life in the Ayllu Groups of families made up the ayllus, which
ranged in size from small villages to large towns. Each ayllu had its
own farming land and homes, but the ayllu did not own the land. As
you have read, everything in the empire belonged to the emperor. The
government loaned lar.-d to the ayllus for living and for farming. The
people of an ayllu then worked this communal land cooperatively to
grow crops and produce goods.
Everyone had responsibilities to the ayllu and to the government. All
members of the ayllu had to work, except for the very young and the
very old. The leaders of the ayllu made sure all the work got done. For
instance, a leader might assign some men to clear the fields and others
to dig irrigation ditches.
The households of the ayllu came under the authority of a series of
curacas. One head of household ruled every 10 households. Fifty of
these heads of household came under the supervision of a higher-level
curaca. At still higher levels, curacas managed groupings of 100, 500,
1,000, 5,000, and 10,000 households.
One of the functions of the curacas
was to make sure ayllus paid their taxes.
The Incas had no currency, so taxes were
paid in the form of goods and labor. The
Sapa Inca claimed one third of everything
an ayllu produced. Another third supported the Inca temple system. Commoners
kept the remaining third for themselves.
In addition, men had to pay the mit'a,
or public duty tax. Men paid the mit'a by
contributing labor to government projects
each year. In response to the government's
need, the leaders of an ayllu assigned
work to its members. For example, men
I
might repair roads, build storehouses, or
\j *
work in the mines.
Childhood Most Incas were born
into ayllus of hardworking commoners.
The children of commoners learned about
their responsibilities early in life. Young
children performed simple tasks around
the home. As they grew older, girls
A
took care of the babies, fetched water,
cooked, made clothing, and learned to l\!
weave. Boys looked after the animals
and helped in the fields.
The children of most commoners
did not receive any formal education.
Instead, they learned the skills they
needed, as well as Tnca customs, from
their elders. Some especially talented
boys were trained in crafts or record
keeping so they could serve the
emperor.
Unlike boys from commoner families, the sons of nobles had special
atnaiitas, or tutors. Amautas taught
religion, geometry, history, military
strategy, public speaking, and physical training.
Around the age of 15, all boys
received a loincloth, a strip of cloth
worn around the waist. The sons of
nobles underwent a much more elaborate ritual. These boys had to pass
month-long tests of courage, strength,
and discipline. After passing these
tests, the boys swore loyalty to the
Sapa Inca and received the weapons
of an Inca warrior.
Marriage Young men and women remained at home until they
married. Unlike the emperor and the nobility, male commoners married
only one wife. Young men married in their early 20s, while girls could
marry at 16.
People usually married within their ayllu. Some marriages were
arranged by families or by the young people themselves. In some cases,
the local curaca chose a wife for a young man who was not yet married.
Every year, the curaca also held a "marriage market" where young men
chose brides. When a couple agreed to marry, they held hands and
exchanged sandals.
Once they were married, couples established their own homes. Commoners typically lived in one-room houses made of adobe brick or stone.
Noble families had fancier houses with several rooms. While nobles
enjoyed the help of servants, commoners worked hard to produce their
own food and clothing and to fulfill their responsibilities to the ayllu.
Inca couples agreed to marry by
holding hands and exchanging
sandals.
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295
26.5
In this Inca festival held in honor of
the sun god, Inti, men in traditional
dress carry skeletons on platforms.
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Chapter 26
Religion
Religion was an important part of Inca life. Like other groups in the
Americas, the Incas believed that the gods influenced their daily lives.
Consequently, they showed their devotion to the gods through a number
of practices. Let's look first at the Incas' basic beliefs about the gods,
and then at their rituals and other religious practices.
Religious Beliefs The Incas believed in many gods who controlled various aspects of nature. For example, Illapu was the weather
god and rain giver. Paca Mama was the Earth Mother, and Mama
Cocha was the goddess of the sea. The Incas believed that all these
gods had received their power from a supreme god, Viracocha, the
creator of the world.
But to the Incas, the most important god was Inti, the sun god. Inti
was important for two reasons. First, Incas believed that the emperor's
family was descended from Inti. Second, Inti was also the god of
agriculture, which was the basis of Inca life.
The Incas also believed that
spirits dwelled in certain sacred
objects and places, called huacas.
Huacas included temples, charms,
and places in nature such as
springs and rocks. Because the
Incas believed in an afterlife, the
tombs and bodies of the dead
were also considered huacas.
People often prayed and made
offerings to all these huacas.
Religious Practices The
Inca religion was highly formal
and required a large number of
priests to conduct rituals and ceremonies. Priests worked at temples
and shrines devoted to the gods.
The most important temples were
those dedicated to Inti. The high
priest, a close relative of the
Sapa Inca, presided over the
Sun Temple in Cuzco. Priests
who worked in the sun temples
in the countryside came from the
families of curacas.
Like the Maya and the Aztecs,
the Incas offered sacrifices to the
gods. Some sacrifices took place
regularly. For example, each day
priests threw corn on a fire to
encourage the sun to appear. "Eat
this. Lord Sun," the priests said,
"so that you will know we are
your children." In many rituals,
the Incas sacrificed live animals,
usually llamas or guinea pigs.
The Incas also practiced
human sacrifice, but only on the
most sacred occasions or in times
of a natural disaster. At such times
children might be sacrificed,
because the Incas believed that
their purity honored the gods.
In addition to performing rituals and sacrifices, priests practiced
divination to try to predict the
future. Divination helped the
Incas decide what course of action
to lake. For example, a priest
might ask an oracle when the
army should attack another tribe.
Chosen Women A unique
aspect of Inca religion was the
role played by the Chosen
Women. Each year, government
officials visited all the towns in
the empire to search for the most
beautiful, graceful, and talented
girls between the ages of 8 and 10. Selected girls were honored as
Chosen Women and taken to live in convents. There they studied Inca
religion, learned how to prepare special food and drink for religious
ceremonies, and wove garments for the Sapa Inca and the Coya.
Around the age of 15, many Chosen Women left their convents.
Some went to work in temples or shrines. Others became convent
teachers, called mamaconas. Still others went to Cuzco and became
wives of nobles or secondary wives of the Sapa Inca himself.
A few Chosen Women were sacrificed at important religious
ceremonies. The rest spent almost their whole lives either serving
Inti or fulfilling their roles as wives of nobles or the emperor. Only
in old age were they sometimes allowed to return to the homes and
families ihey had left so many years earlier.
The Chosen Women in Inca society
were honored as servants of Inti.
divination the art of telling the
future or finding hidden knowledge through religious means
oracle a person through whom a
god or spirit is believed to speak
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297
26.6 Relations with Other Peoples
As the Inca expanded their empire,
foreign tribes could choose to join
the empire or face Inca warriors
in battle.
LO
,
CAP!
298
Chapter 26
/8A
The Incas had several methods of bringing other groups of people
into the empire. They did not immediately resort to war. Instead, the
Sapa Inca generally sent a delegate to meet with a tribe. The delegate
explained that the tribe could join the Inca Empire and enjoy peace and
prosperity. Everyone understood that the alternative was war against the
strong Inca army.
When faced with these options, many tribes chose to join the empire.
Their leaders were then allowed to retain some local power. In this way,
the Incas expanded their empire without always having to fight.
If a tribe resisted, however, the two sides met in battle. The Incas
used a variety of weapons, including spears, axes, and clubs. They
were especially skilled at hurling stones with a sling. The fighting
often cost the enemy tribe many of its men. Usually the Incas won.
Sometimes the Incas moved a defeated
tribe to other parts of the empire, so
that its people losl their native lands
as well.
Becoming part of the empire meant
adopting the ways of the Incas. The
leaders of a conquered tribe had to
build a sun temple. While the tribe
could go on worshiping its own gods,
it had to accept the Inca gods as the
most powerful. Local leaders and their
sons were brought to Cuzco to study
Inca laws as well as Quechua, the official language. Then they returned to
their people as curacas.
As the new territory accepted Inca
ways, teachers arrived to create Incastyle villages. When necessary, they
organized ayllus and taught the people
how to build storehouses, irrigation
systems, and terraced farming fields.
Meanwhile, the Incas took an
important religious object belonging
to the tribe and kept it in Cuzco. The
Incas claimed they acted out of respect
for the local religion. In reality, the
object was held "hostage" in the
capital. If the tribe ever rebelled,
the government could destroy the
sacred object.
Despite these efforts, sometimes the Incas failed to bring a
tribe fully into their empire. In
such cases they might remove—
and usually kill—the local leader.
Some rebellious tribes were
forced to move far away. The government then settled loyal members of the empire in their place.
In this way, the Incas reduced the
chance of resistance to their rule.
Many historians have wondered what drove the Incas to conquer such a huge empire. Part of
the answer may lie in a unique
Inca belief. The Incas thought that
even after death, the Sapa Inca
continued to rule the lands he had
conquered. In order for the new
emperor to establish his own
source of power and wealth, he
had to take new lands. Only then
would he have land that belonged
to him alone.
Inca soldiers lead captive people
away from their homelands to be
26.7 Chapter Summary
resettled elsewhere in the empire.
In this chapter, you learned about life in the Inca Empire. In the
1400s, the Incas began rapidly expanding their power from their
base in Cuzco. Eventually they created a huge empire that extended
almost the length of the Andes Mountains. An impressive system of
roads and messengers helped the emperor manage his vast holdings.
The strict Inca class structure had three main levels: the emperor
and his family, the nobility, and the commoners. All Incas belong to
ayllus, which provided the empire with crops, goods, and labor. Like
other peoples in the Americas, the Incas engaged in many religious
practices to maintain a proper relationship with their gods. As empire
builders, they used a variety of means to bring other groups under
their control.
You have now learned about three great empires in the Americas:
those of the Maya, the Aztecs, and the Incas. In the next chapter,
you'll explore the achievements of these three peoples in greater
depth.
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299