LANGUAGE ARTS 902:
NATURE OF LANGUAGE
CONTENTS
I. WHAT IS LANGUAGE?
Origin of Language
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
Make-Up of Language
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
A Second Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
II. HOW DID WE GET OUR LANGUAGE? . . . . . . 10
Indo-European Migrations
Indo-European Families
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Old English to Modern English . . . . . . . . . . 16
III. HOW SHALL WE USE LANGUAGE?
. . . . . . . 20
Listening and Speaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Author:
Editor:
Consulting Editor:
Revision Editor:
Margaret Goding, M.A.Ed.
Richard W. Wheeler, M.A.Ed.
Larry Howard, Ed.D.
Alan Christopherson, M.S.
804 N. 2nd Ave. E., Rock Rapids, IA 51246-1759
© MCMXCVI by Alpha Omega Publications, Inc. All rights reserved.
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NATURE OF LANGUAGE
All of God’s creatures have some form of communication. One worker bee tells the other
workers where to find the sweetest blossoms; dolphins send underwater messages to other
dolphins. Even a Venus Fly Trap, that clever little plant which literally eats insects, has to send
out some form of communication to lure the bugs its way. Only man has language, a unique
system involving listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
You are going to investigate a few things in this LIFEPAC ® that will help you understand and
use our very flexible language to better advantage. Whether you are preparing yourself to be a
lawyer, mechanic, homemaker, stenographer, teacher, or President of the United States, you can
profit from this study.
When you know what our language consists of and where it comes from, you will become
more skillful at using it. As you become more careful with your pronunciation and spelling,
increase your vocabulary, and improve your voice control, you will find that even adults will listen
with respect to what you have to say. So, full speed ahead into LIFEPAC 902 on the NATURE OF
LANGUAGE.
OBJECTIVES
Read These objectives. The objectives tell you what you will be able to do when you have
successfully completed this LIFEPAC.
When you have completed this LIFEPAC, you should be able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Explain the origin and background of language.
Discuss the make-up of language.
Present a convincing argument for learning a second language.
Trace the migration of the Aryan-speaking people from Babel to Europe.
Identify the Indo-European language families.
Tell which major languages contributed what to English.
Discuss the changes in English from Old English to Modern English.
Demonstrate a vocabulary that includes the meanings of older words and root words.
Use six prefixes skillfully in reading.
Use the suffixes -able and -ible skillfully in writing.
Survey the LIFEPAC. Ask yourself some questions about this study. Write your questions
here.
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1
I. WHAT IS LANGUAGE?
What do you think when you hear the word language? Do you picture someone speaking in a
language foreign to yours? a book containing information to learn? or a facial expression conveying
an unspoken communication? Spoken words, written words, and nonverbal expressions are all
language; and all three types of language are necessary for communication.
To define language in everyday terms is not an easy task. In our effort to define language, we
might ask these three questions:
1. Has man always had language, or did he develop it?
2. After the confusion of tongues at the Tower of Babel, did the many resulting
language families still have anything in common?
3. If a person intends never to travel in or move to a foreign country, does he need to
study any language other than his own?
SECTION OBJECTIVES
Review these objectives. When you have completed this section, you should be
able to:
1.
Explain
1.1
1.2
1.3
2.
Discuss the make-up of language:
2.1
2.2
3.
the origin and background of language:
Give the Biblical source of language.
Discuss some Biblical backgrounds of language.
Cite some evidence that man has always had language.
List four characteristics languages have continued to hold in common.
Define the four common characteristics of language.
Present a convincing argument of learning a second language.
VOCABULARY
Study these words to enhance your learning success in this section.
– ). Study of the origin, development, races, customs, and
anthropology (an´ thru pol´ u je
beliefs of man.
–
–
archaeology or archeology (är´ ke ol´ u je). Study of cities, artifacts, and customs of the
ancient world.
– t). To leave one’s own country to live in another.
emigrate (em´ u gra
–
idiom (id e um). A phrase or expression whose meaning cannot be understood in the
ordinary sense.
linguist (ling´ gwist). A person who studies the history and structure of language.
linguistics (ling qwis´ tiks). Having to do with language or the study of languages.
– ). The study of word forms and how they are affected by their
morphology (môr fol u je
origins.
nonverbal (non ver´ bul). Language that is not expressed in words.
phonetics (fu net´ iks). The branch of linguistics dealing with pronunciation.
– nol´ u je
– ). The branch of linguistics dealing with sounds in words.
phonology (fo
semantics (su man´ tiks). The branch of linguistics having to do with meaning.
syntax (sin’ taks). The branch of linguistics having to do with word order.
tongues (tungz). The languages of people or nationalities.
– k’). The only one of its kind.
unique (yu ne
2
Note: All vocabulary words in this LIFEPAC appear in boldface print the first time they are
used. If you are unsure of the meaning when you are reading, study the definitions given.
- qual, te. rm; it, -i ce; hot, o
- pen, ôrder; oil; out;
Pronunciation Key: hat, a-ge, cãre, fär; let, e
.
cup, pu t, rüle; child; long; thin; /TH/ for then; /zh/ for measure; /u/ represents /a/ in about,
/e/ in taken, /i/ in pencil, /o/ in lemon, and /u/ in circus.
ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE
The origin of language is as early as man. God is the source of language.
Man was created in the image of God. He was created with the capacity to
communicate freely with God and with other men. Both the Bible and
archaeology provide some background for the study of language.
Source. Some people will tell you that man, emerging from his savage
state, began to make himself understood by a series of grunts and groans.
These sounds, accompanied by gestures and facial expressions, gradually—
over a period of hundreds of years—led to words. Words led to sentences;
sentences led to more complex syntax and finally to idiomatic expressions
and semantics. All this “language development” only took place as man’s
brain increased in size, of course!
Genesis 1:3 states, “And God said… .” This statement is repeated several
times in that first chapter of Genesis: in verses 6, 9, 11, 14, 20, 24, 26, 28, and
29. When Adam was created, God communicated with him (Genesis 2:16-17);
and Adam communicated with God (Genesis 2:19-20)—in a fully developed
language.
Background. Archaeological evidence indicates that man had more than
one fully-developed language in which he was able to write phonetically and
idiomatically. That is, he used sounds and word meanings in more than one
way. This use of semantics shows that flexible, expressive languages were
being used several hundred years before Abraham.
Still earlier, Noah had to have an involved language structure because of
the complicated plan he received for building the ark. In addition, Noah was a
teacher and preacher known by all. He was a preacher of righteousness to a
corrupt world. God’s destruction resulted from men’s rejection of Noah’s
message.
That man was created knowing language is told us in this one sentence
from Genesis 2:20: “And Adam gave names to all cattle…fowl…and beast… .”
Have you ever tried to find a name for a living creature which has never
been classified? For this task, a sophisticated language with a great variety of
nouns is required. Linguists tell us that the simplest spoken languages have
very few nouns. Their languages are built up of more complex verb forms,
instead. Some languages, for example, often contain a complete expression of
subject, verb, and object in only one word. In these languages, nouns are used
to express the most basic of daily needs.
Adam’s language, on the other hand, must have had a phonology that
could suggest the very sound an animal made. Likewise, the nouns must have
had more than one meaning, which involves the use of semantics and the
idiom.
3
Complete these statements.
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
The Genesis account of Creation assumes ______________________ to be the source
of language.
A recurring statement in Genesis chapter 1 that is related to language begins
with these three words: “And God ______________________ .”
Archaeological evidence indicates that flexible, expressive languages were
being used several hundred years before ______________________ .
A man who both received a complicated building plan from God and delivered
a message of righteousness to the people of his day was ______________________ .
Adam’s task of naming “every living creature” required a language with a
great variety of ______________________ .
Match the following items using only clues from reading the text.
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
1.15
_________
_________
_________
_________
_________
_________
_________
_________
_________
_________
nonverbal
phonetics
semantics
idiom
syntax
archaeology
linguist
linguistics
phonology
tongues
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
languages of people or nationalities
dealing with pronunciation
a person who studies languages
dealing with word meanings
dealing with word arrangement
the studying of cities and ancient
peoples
an expression which cannot be
understood in the ordinary sense
dealing with sounds of words
study of language structure
language without words
spoken words
Complete these activities.
1.16
On the bus, at home, or in class, sit quietly and watch another person for about
five minutes. Jot down any nonverbal language that person uses. (For
example, he frowns, he chews his pencil, he rests his chin in his hand, etc.)
What do these nonverbal acts mean?
(Translate them.)
Write your
observations here:
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1.17
Pretend you are writing a letter to a friend who has been taught that the first
humans could not use spoken language. Explain in the letter in a few wellorganized sentences how you can be sure man had language from the
beginning.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
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4
MAKE-UP OF LANGUAGE
When God confused the languages of man at Babel, members of the newly
created language families migrated to different areas. You will learn more
about those migrations in Section II of this LIFEPAC.
As a great variety of languages developed following the confusion at Babel,
all languages have retained at least four common characteristics:
1.
a pattern of sounds. This pattern is a series of sounds that only
the human speech organs can utter.
2.
a collection of words. Words stand for objects, actions, or ideas.
Man is the only created being that has words.
3.
a system of word arrangement. A connected pattern of words
used to express thoughts is present in all languages. The different
arrangements of words in one “tongue” or another is sometimes
called the thought pattern of that tongue.
4.
the elements of grammar. These elements include syntax, or
meaningful order, and morphology, or variations of words to show
how they serve in a sentence. (For example: He gave the ball to me.
I gave the ball to him. The change in form gives meaning to the
pronouns he and him and I and me.)
Answer these questions.
1.18
What are four characteristics that languages have continued to have in
common since Babel?
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1.19
What are the names and definitions of two elements of grammar that have
been a part of all languages since Babel?
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What is the different arrangement of words in one “tongue” or another
sometimes called?
____________________________________________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________________________________________
Why are the sounds of animals not properly called language?
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1.20
1.21
5
A SECOND LANGUAGE
One might ask this question:
“Why learn a second language if all
languages have so much in common?” You may think now that you will never
need another language. Anyway, English may seem difficult enough to learn.
A growing number of people are traveling to South America, Europe, and Asia.
Even more are emigrating from Latin America to the United States to work or
to study. If you are a typical teenager, you probably enjoy communicating
both verbally and nonverbally. Speaking and writing only English, you can
communicate only with people of English speaking backgrounds. By learning
Spanish you could speak or write to many more.
By studying Latin you can improve your understanding and spelling of the
English language. More than 50 per cent of our English words are of Latin
origin. If you want to be a botanist, nurse, doctor, or anthropologist, you
will need to study Latin.
Learning a second language can help in understanding people of other
cultures as well. People living in the central United States may think that all
the world speaks English.
Many of these people are unwelcome when
traveling to Latin America or elsewhere, not because they insist on speaking
only English, but because they know nothing about the customs of the people
who speak another language.
USE OF A SECOND LANGUAGE
6
Each language has its unique thought pattern. Speakers of simpler
languages express themselves in relationship to the physical. Words related
to the physical world are more important and are placed first in the structure
of a sentence, or take a more prominent place in expression. Speakers of
European, Middle Eastern, and Asian languages have an entirely different
outlook and place more emphasis upon words for thinking and simply being.
A speaker of a simpler language will talk more about things; others speak more
about ideas.
Although man has always had language and all language has much in
common, each branch of each language family is adapted in many ways to the
characteristics of its native speakers. For this reason many missionaries have
noticed that their children’s personalities were influenced by the second
language they learned as small children.
Surely a missionary’s child raised in Colombia would waggle his index
finger to say “No!” and wave good-bye with palm up, fingers moving toward
himself. If you can accept the strange gestures of another culture, you have
come a long way in understanding its people. All language, nonverbal
included, begins to make sense when the culture is known.
NEED OF A SECOND LANGUAGE
Answer true or false.
1.22
1.23
1.24
1.25
1.26
__________ To emigrate is to leave one’s country to live in another.
__________ Learning a second language does not help in understanding people
of other countries.
__________ A Navajo talks about ideas; a Spaniard talks about things.
__________ The study of Latin can improve one’s understanding and spelling of
English.
__________ More than 50 per cent of our English words are of Latin origin.
7
Complete this activity with a friend.
1.27
Pretend that your friend and you do not understand each other’s language.
Ask him the following questions in sign language. If he understands, have him
answer the same way.
Where is the nearest restaurant?
How far is the next bus station?
What time is it?
Where can I spend the night?
Where can I check my suitcase?
How much does this scarf cost?
Have your teacher or another student check your dialogue. If the third person
understands both of you, you should get an A. If you talk with words, you get
a point off.
Review the material in this section in preparation for the Self Test. The Self Test
will check your mastery of this particular section. The items missed on this Self Test
will indicate specific areas where restudy is needed for mastery.
SELF TEST 1
Complete these items (each answer, 4 points).
1.01
1.02
1.03
1.04
1.05
1.06
1.07
The name given the science of language study is _________________________________ .
The people who study languages are named _______________________________________ .
The four characteristics that all languages have in common are
a. _________________________________________________________________________________________
b. _________________________________________________________________________________________
c. _________________________________________________________________________________________
d. _________________________________________________________________________________________
To leave one’s country to live in another is to _____________________________________ .
The study of word forms and how they are affected by their origin is known as
______________________ .
Man is the only created being that has ______________________ (for communication).
One’s understanding and spelling of English can be improved by the study of
__________________________________ .
Match these items (each answer, 3 points).
1.08
1.09
1.010
1.011
1.012
1.013
1.014
1.015
1.016
1.017
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
__________
anthropology
archaeology
idiom
nonverbal
phonetics
phonology
semantics
syntax
tongues
unique
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
8
language without words
dealing with word meanings
the only one of its kind
study of the origin, development,
races, customs, and beliefs of man
having to do with word order
can be understood in the ordinary
sense
cannot be understood in the
ordinary sense
another word for languages
study of ancient cities, artifacts, and
customs
dealing with sounds in words
dealing with pronunciation
Answer these questions (each numbered answer, 5 points).
1.018
Why are the sounds of animals not properly called language?
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
What are three advantages of learning a second language?
a. ___________________________________________________________________________________________
b. ___________________________________________________________________________________________
c. ___________________________________________________________________________________________
How do you explain the origin of language?
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
What are some evidences that man has always had language?
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
What are three types of language?
a. ___________________________________________________________________________________________
b. ___________________________________________________________________________________________
c. ___________________________________________________________________________________________
In our effort to define language, what are three questions that we might ask?
a. ___________________________________________________________________________________________
b. ___________________________________________________________________________________________
c. ___________________________________________________________________________________________
1.019
1.020
1.021
1.022
1.023
Score
80
Teacher check
100
________
_______________
Initial
9
Date
II. HOW DID WE GET OUR LANGUAGE?
From Creation to Babel, everyone spoke one language (Genesis 11:1). The migration of men
from Babel led to the development of various languages. In this section you can trace the
development of our modern English from Babel through the Indo-European migrations and IndoEuropean families of languages, including Old English.
SECTION OBJECTIVES
Review these objectives. When you have completed this section, you should be
able to:
4.
Trace the migration of the Aryan-speaking people from Babel to Europe:
4.1 From the Tigris-Euphrates valley to the Indus valley.
4.2 From the Indus valley to Eastern Europe.
5.
Identify the Indo-European language families:
5.1 Name five languages in the Latin branch of Southern Europe.
5.2 Name seven languages in the Germanic branch of Western Europe,
England, and Scandinavia.
5.3 Locate the Greek branch.
5.4 Name four languages of the Celtic branch.
6.
Tell which major languages contribute what to English:
6.1 The Germanic contribution.
6.2 The Latin contribution.
7.
Discuss the changes in English from Old English to Modern English:
7.1 Trace the effects of other languages upon English.
7.2 Explain the “Great Vowel Shift.”
VOCABULARY
Study these words to enhance your learning success in this section.
Aryan (er´ –e un). The prehistoric language from which Indo-European comes.
aspirate (as´ pur it). Letters pronounced with a puff of air as hot.
Breton or Briton (bret´ n or brit´ n). The people or language of ancient England.
– s). A form of noun, pronoun, or adjective that shows its relation to other words.
case (ka
Celts (selts). Ancient people of the British Isles.
Chaucer (chô´ sur). Poet of the fourteenth century England.
– ). A group of pastors or priests.
clergy (kler´ je
council (koun´ sul). A group of people called together to give advice.
dialect (di’ u lekt). A form of speech that varies from the standard language.
diphthongal glide (dif thông´ ul glid). One vowel which becomes two sounds when
pronounced, as in long a.
– ´ ze
– as´ tik). A churchman such as pastor or bishop.
ecclesiastic (i kle
gender (jen´ dur). The grouping of nouns into class: masculine, feminine, and neuter.
10
– t vou´ ul shift). A period in the history of England when the spelling
Great Vowel Shift (gra
of vowels changed to diphthongs or other spelling changes.
– un). Of or having to do with a group of related languages
Indo-European (in´ do yur´ u pe
spoken in India, Western Asia, and Europe.
Indus valley (in´ dus val´ –e). The great valley located along the Indus River between India
and Pakistan.
melting pot (mel´ ting pot). One city or country containing many cultures.
– me
– u). An ancient country which is now Iraq.
Mesopotamia (mes´ u pu ta
mood (müd). The form of verb to indicate fact, doubt, command, etc.
number (num´ bur). The form of a word which indicates the singular or plural.
peninsula (pu nin´ su lu). A piece of land almost surrounded by water.
person (per´ sun). A change in a pronoun or verb to show who is speaking.
replenish (ri plen´ ish). To fill again.
– ´ ve
– un). Native of Norway, Sweden, or Denmark.
Scandinavian (skan´ du na
–
Shakespeare (sha k´ spir). A poet of sixteenth century England.
tense (tens). The form of the verb which shows time relation.
Tyndale (tin´ dl). Translator of the Bible in the sixteenth century.
Wycliffe (wik´ lif). Fourteenth-century translator of the English Bible.
ziggurat (zig´ u rat). A high tower with many stories, each one smaller than the one below.
INDO-EUROPEAN MIGRATIONS
As you learned in Section I, those who believe God’s Word also believe that
man was created with knowledge of a complete, comprehensive language.
However, you may still be wondering where our English Language originated.
To discover that source, let us go back to the Tower of Babel.
The Babel Tower. The Tower of Babel was located somewhere between
the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in what is now oil-rich Iraq. If a map or globe
is in your classroom, you may want to find this country. Locating Iraq on a
map or globe will help you understand the following information.
Imagine yourself a young person at work on the great tower, called by
archaeologists a ziggurat, or hill of heaven. Noah and his sons have followed
God’s command to replenish the earth, but the people have remained in the
fertile valley of ancient Mesopotamia (Iraq). You hear them making plans.
Remember Genesis 11:5-9? They plan to build a tower which reaches the hill
of heaven.
A great tower has been uncovered at Ur, another ancient city of
Mesopotamia, which measures 200 feet by 150 feet (60m x 46m) at its base.
The original height is unknown. The tower was made of burned bricks;
therefore, your job might have been to gather clay for the bricks or to tend the
fires to harden them.
You have heard all the plans in a language you understood perfectly; but
when you return to work the next morning, people are jabbering, waving their
hands (nonverbal language!), and running about trying to find someone who
will understand. God had “confounded” their language. You would not hear
English because the languages spoken at Babel were probably only the root
languages, that is, those basic language families from which all modern
languages have their beginning.
11
Eventually you find a group that has the same phonetics that you find
yourself using. Later, you move with that group eastward over the high
mountains and burning deserts of what are now Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan.
You Aryan-speaking people arrive at the great Indus valley and decide to make
it your home. Historians will call you the Indus people, not the Aryans.
The Indus people. More than thirty-five hundred years ago, one branch of
the Indus people conquered India, bringing with them beautiful poetry and prose
written in Sanskrit. This Sanskrit became the basis for the eastern branch of the
Indo-European language. Other Indus people migrated to eastern Europe and
spread their language there. Today, almost all Europeans speak an Aryan tongue
except for a few who use dialects that have another root language. Other
words meaning the same thing are Indo-European and Indo-German.
Write the letter for the correct answer on the blank.
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
The term Aryans refers to a/an/the __________ .
a. superior race
b. ancient
c. ancient city
d. ancient people
language
A great tower has been uncovered at Ur, an ancient city of __________ .
a. Iran
b. Afghanistan
c. Mesopotamia d. Aryan
The Indus people were __________ -speaking people.
a. Indu
b. Aryan
c. Iranian
d. Sanskrit
The branch of Indus people that conquered India brought with them poetry and
prose written in __________ .
a. Indu
b. Aryan
c. Iranian
d. Sanskrit
Today almost all Europeans speak a/an __________ tongue.
a. Indu
b. Aryan
c. Iranian
d. Sanskrit
Complete these activities.
2.6
2.7
Using your text as a guide, trace on your map (Map 1) the migrations of the
Aryan-speaking people. Use red arrows from the Tigris-Euphrates area to the
Indus valley. Use blue arrows from the Indus valley to Eastern Europe.
Ask your pastor or minister of youth to explain to you the meaning of Genesis
11:4 as it relates to God’s decision “to confound their language.” Your teacher
might ask you to share your answer with your class.
INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILIES
The most influential language family is the Indo-European family. About
half the people of the world speak a language that belongs to this family of
languages. Look back at your map of Europe and Asia (Map 1). The Aryanspeaking people have arrived in the eastern part of Europe. In that area, print
the word Aryan and circle it.
Of course these people did not remain in one place. As their numbers
increased they began migrating to other areas where they could support
themselves. They probably moved in family groups, because that is the way
they had always governed themselves. Each family head acted as the ruler over
his children and their families, making them his own little city or state. This
family head, in turn, would represent his descendants in a council that advised
all the other groups.
12
Latin. On Map 1, draw an arrow to southern Europe and label it Latin.
When this Aryan-speaking family arrived in southern Europe, their language
began to grow and change. They probably found people there who had
another language. No doubt plants and animals were there that they had
never seen before, as well as unfamiliar objects. They naturally adapted
themselves to the language and civilization they found, absorbing some
customs and words. Eventually this Latin branch became five different, yet
closely related, languages:
French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, and
Romanian.
Germanic. On Map 1 draw another arrow with three points: one to
Western Europe, one to England, and one to Scandinavia (the boots up north
of England). Label the main part of the arrow Germanic. The Germanic
languages are Dutch-Flemish, German, English, Norwegian, Swedish, Danish,
and Icelandic.
W
RUSSIA
S
North Sea
ED
EN
Greek and Celtic. Two other branches of the Indo-European language
which have affected our English language are Greek and Celtic. On Map 1
draw an arrow to the modern Greek peninsula (you may need to consult a
larger map or globe for this activity). Label it Greek. Draw another to modern
Scotland and Ireland and label it Celtic. The four Celtic languages of Gaelic,
Scots-Gaelic, Welsh, and Breton contributed some fascinating words, ideas,
and legends to our language.
UNITED
KINGDOM
FRANCE
Aral
Sea
Romania
SPAIN
Black Sea
Ita
ly
Caspian
Sea
Greece
g
Ti
Turkey
ri
s
tes
er
hra
iv
IRAQ
Eup
R
Mediterranean Sea
IRAN
Riv
er
Red Sea
Persian Gulf
INDIA
Arabian Sea
Indo-European Language Families
(Map 1)
Indian
Ocean
13
Complete these statements.
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
About half the world’s population speaks a language that belongs to the
_________________________________________ language family.
Speakers of the Aryan language came to Eastern Europe from the TigrisEuphrates area by way of the _______________________ valley.
In Southern Europe the Latin branch of the Aryan-speaking family became the
following five different, but closely related, languages:
a. _____________________________________ d. _____________________________________
b. _____________________________________ e. _____________________________________
c. _____________________________________
In Western Europe, England, and Scandinavia, the Germanic branch of the
Aryan-speaking family became the following seven languages:
a. _____________________________________ e. _____________________________________
b. _____________________________________ f. _____________________________________
c. _____________________________________ g. _____________________________________
d. _____________________________________
Two other branches of the Indo-European language are ____________________ and
Celtic.
The four Celtic languages are these:
a. _____________________________________ c. _____________________________________
b. _____________________________________ d. _____________________________________
The language of ancient England was ________________________ .
Complete this activity.
2.15
Using your text and Map 1, make a chart showing the four western branches
of Indo-European and the languages that are part of each branch; include the
sublanguages given in the text.
Indo-European
14
LANGUAGE
ARTS
9
0
2
LIFEPAC TEST
80
Name
Date
100
Score
LANGUAGE ARTS 902: LIFEPAC TEST
Match these items (each answer, 2 points).
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
_________
_________
_________
_________
_________
_________
God
Noah
Adam
Aryan
Latin branch
Old English
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
French
Greek
is the source of language
relied upon word endings
was the ancient origin of IndoEuropean language
f. received complicated building
instructions from God
g. gave names to every living creature
Answer true or false (each answer, 2 points).
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
______________
______________
______________
______________
______________
All languages have elements of grammar.
Learning a second language will expand one’s English vocabulary.
Many English conjunctions and relative pronouns are of Greek origin.
In 1611, the word conversation meant manner of living.
Adding a prefix to a word changes the root spelling.
Write the letter for the correct answer on each blank (each answer, 3 points).
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
All of the following prefixes mean in or into except _________ .
a. ir
b. im
c. em
d. in
If the root word is a full word, the suffix is usually _________ .
a. -ible
b. -able
French was merged with Old English by the _________ .
a. Normans
b. Danes
c. Saxons
d. Angles
The root word graph means to _________ .
a. speak
b. write
c. read
d. listen
The following prefix means -into _________ .
a. un
b. ir
c. in
d. il
Use the suffix -ible when _________ .
a. a final silent e is dropped from the root word
b. a final y changes to i in the root word
c. the root word is full
d. the root word is not full
Words of Latin origin make up _________ per cent of the English language.
a. 50
b. 65
c. 25
The Indus people were _________ -speaking people.
a. Indu
b. Aryan
c. Iranian
All of the following languages are Celtic except _________ .
a. Welsh
b. Breton
c. Greek
The following language is not Germanic _________ .
a. English
b. French
c. German
Anglo-Saxon words make up _________ of the words used most in our language.
a. one-fourth
b. four-fifths
c. two-fifths
1
Complete these items (each answer, 4 points).
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
Archaeological evidence indicates that flexible, expressive languages were being used
several hundred years before ____________________________ .
All languages have retained a pattern of sounds that only the _____________
______________________________________________ speech organs can utter.
One can increase his understanding of people in other cultures by learning a
_________________________________________ language.
Aryan-speaking people emigrated from the Tigris-Euphrates valley to the
a. ________________________ valley and then to Eastern b. ___________________________ .
Spanish belongs to the a. ________________________ branch of the b. __________________
language family.
About four-fifths of the words you use most often in daily speech are of
_________________________________ origin.
Latin has made the ____________________________ most important contribution to the English
language.
All Indo-European languages have clearly defined ____________________________ .
Answer this question (this answer, 5 points).
31.
Why are the sounds of animals not properly called language?
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
2
NOTES:
3
FR
EN
CH
D
U
TC
H
M
ID
D
LE
G
ER
M
AN
WE
ST
GER
MA
NIC
L
N
CA
LIA
N
ITA
E
V
O
SPANIS
H
POR
PR
TUG
CAT
UES
ALA
E
N
N
TIN ROMANIAN
ISH BULGARIAN
SIA
L
LA
S
O
P
RU
SE
RB
CZ
C
OI
V
E
CR
LA
CH
S
OA
OLD
LETT
TI
C
ISH
I
AN
V
A
SL BALTIC LIT
HU
O
LT
AN
BA
IA
N
IT
AL
IC
GE
RM
AN
IC
ALB
ANI
AN
SA
N
SK
RI
T
FLEMISH
IAN
RIS
AN OLD F
FRISIAN
RM
GE
AR
ME
NIA
N
N
IA
G
Y
R
AN
PH
AT
I
OL
AL
G
IC
N
BE
ANI
UST
HIND
DUTCH
GREEK
HE
LL
EN
IC
GOT
HLA
NDI
C
EA
ST
NO
RS
E
IC
AN
RM
GE
H
RT
NO
W
LO
OLD
H
ENGLIS
NORS
E
OLD SAXON
H
NIS
DA
IC
AN
RM
GE
SWEDISH
WEST
MIDDLE
ENGLISH
ST
EA
IC
ND
LA
ICE
SCH
EUT
TTD
PLA
IC
TH
GO
E
ES
RO
FA
NORWEGIAN
N
MA
ER
HG
HIG
YI
DD
IS
H
ERN
MOD ISH
L
ENG
IC
LT
CE
SH
IRI
GA
EL
IC
WELSH
BRETON
N
TA
ES
AV
PERSIAN
IN
DI
AN
AN
NI
IRA
Indo-European
The Family of Indo-European Languages
15
OLD ENGLISH TO MODERN ENGLISH
What confusion! English is now classified as a Germanic language, but it
was not always so. Just as the United States is considered the melting pot
of the nations, so English could be considered the melting pot of IndoEuropean languages.
Other-language effects. Only one-fourth of the words in the English
dictionary are of Germanic origin. However, these words are conjunctions,
relative pronouns, and adverbs as and, if, but, who, what, when, where, that,
which, here, there. The articles a, an, the are Germanic in origin as well as
many simple names of ordinary things. Because of these facts, about fourfifths of the words you use most often in daily speech are of Germanic, or
Anglo-Saxon, origin.
The words of Latin origin are the second most important in the English
language. These words may have come to us directly from Latin or in a more
roundabout way from French, Spanish, Italian, or Portuguese.
One advantage of a language that grew up in such a hit-or-miss fashion as
English is the ease with which new words can be formed out of old ones. By
simply joining two words such as rain and fall, you can say exactly what you
mean. Some other languages have to use many words to express what you
can say in English with one compound. Try explaining railway, backslide,
outcome, or whiplash. How many words did you have to use?
In Section III other convenient features of the English language will be
considered: prefixes, suffixes, and the like. The purpose here is to examine
the growth of Modern English from the ancient languages of the Britons and
the Celts spoken in the British Isles before Christ.
The people living in England in 55 B.C. were considered savages by the
Romans. Rome took nearly ninety years to conquer them, but finally the whole
area was added to the Roman Empire. Latin became the official language.
Even the Latin name Britannia was given to the country. When missionaries
came, they spoke Latin and Greek. That is why so many of our words having
to do with religion are of either Latin or Greek origin: church, minister, spirit,
ecclesiastic, elders, bishop, and scribe are just a few of them.
All Indo-European languages have clearly defined parts of speech. These
include nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs. These words take on certain
endings to show gender, number, case, person, mood, and tense.
Because Latin had no particular word order, but depended upon endings to
give the meaning, Old English kept these endings for a time. Chaucer was the
one who led the change to Middle English. His writings represent examples of
the language in transition. As sentences gradually began to fall into a regular
pattern of subject-verb-object, the word endings were changed to what we call
Middle English, then dropped at last to become Modern English. Blindan
became blinde, then blind. As word order became more important, word
endings became less important.
The real English language, then, did not begin until Angles, Saxons, and
Jutes brought their Germanic language into the islands and pushed back the
Romanized Britons. Since these Anglo-Saxons were practical people they
contributed the everyday words: bread, water, sea, land, world, be, have, ask,
answer, go, and as you have seen, all our connecting words, adverbs, and
pronouns. These people were the ones who picked up, used, and standardized
the Latin words mentioned earlier.
In A.D. 870 the Danes, also of a Germanic language group, invaded
England.
Since some words in Anglo-Saxon were awkward, the Danes
replaced them with such shorter words as take, cut, and get. Other words were
not replaced, but came to us along with the Danish words: (the first word is
Anglo-Saxon, the second Danish) no, nay; from, fro; shirt, skirt; ditch, dike.
16
An even greater change came to the English language in 1066. The
Normans came into England from Northern France. Their language, too, was
of indo-European origin, but through the Latin branch. They were a well
educated people who had been Christian for centuries. They used only Latin
and French in their literature. To them the English language was only for the
lower class. French words were added to the language, but only in a more
refined form; that is, English words for meat referred to the animal itself: ox,
calf, swine; but the French words referred to the food as it was eaten: beef,
veal, pork.
The French words did not replace the English. The two languages simply
co-existed: (the first word is Anglo-Saxon, the second French) heal, cure;
glass, mirror; wedlock, marriage; sorrow, grief; might, power. Some words in
Anglo-Saxon were results of pagan medical practices, or what the Normans
considered ignorance. These words are no longer used: leechcraft, earthcraft,
steadholder.
The merging of Old English and French was even more difficult than the
process of merging Old English and Danish. The French-speaking Normans
were the overlords, the clergy, and the scholars. The Anglo-Saxons were the
subjects. All writing was done in Latin or French, except for a few brave poets
of whom Chaucer was one. The Bible was in Latin, read only by the clergy.
Can you see why Wycliffe and Tyndale were willing to give their lives to
translating the Bible?
Answer true or false.
2.16
2.17
__________
__________
2.18
__________
2.19
2.20
2.21
__________
__________
__________
2.22
__________
2.23
2.24
__________
__________
2.25
__________
Words of Latin origin are the most important in the English language.
Although only one-fourth of the words in the English dictionary are of Germanic
origin, about four-fifths of the words we use most often in daily speech are of
Germanic origin.
Such English words as conjunctions, relative pronouns, and adverbs are of
Latin origin.
Many English words related to religion are of either Latin or Greek origin.
Indo-European languages have clearly defined parts of speech.
One effect of Latin upon Old English syntax was the reliance upon word
endings rather than word order.
Chaucer’s writings represented examples of our language in transition from
Middle English to Modern English.
The Normans used only English and French in their literature.
After the Norman invasion of England, the French-speaking Normans were the
overlords, the clergy, and the scholars; the Anglo-Saxons were the subjects.
During the Old-English period, nearly all writing was done in Latin or French;
the Bible was done in Latin.
Complete these activities.
2.26
Look at the vocabulary for this section. Find five very ordinary words which
have different meanings when used in connection with language. Write them
here and also write their linguistic meanings.
a. _________________________________________________________________________________________
b. _________________________________________________________________________________________
c. _________________________________________________________________________________________
d. _________________________________________________________________________________________
e. _________________________________________________________________________________________
17
2.27
2.28
List ten words used in our language that are almost the same as in their original
language. For example, dialogue is the same in French; amen is listed from
Hebrew. Many Spanish words are used in the entire country, particularly in the
Southwest.
e. ________________________
i. ________________________
a. ________________________
b. ________________________
f. ________________________
j. ________________________
c. ________________________
g. ________________________
k. ________________________
d. ________________________
h. ________________________
l. ________________________
In the following list of breakfast foods, you will find words from at least eight
different languages. Try matching the foods on the right with the languages on
the left. Check your answers (1) with a good dictionary and (2) with the answer
key.
a. __________________________ Chinese
cereal
b. __________________________ French
bacon
c. __________________________ Arabic
eggs
d. __________________________ Portuguese
toast
e. __________________________ Old Norse
butter
f. __________________________ Latin
marmalade
g. __________________________ from the name of a
coffee
Roman goddess
cocoa
h. __________________________ Nahuatl or Mexican
tea
Spanish
The Great Vowel Shift. Many other changes came to the English
language; however, one change that took place between Chaucer and
Shakespeare will be mentioned. This change, called the Great Vowel
Shift, can be blamed for some of the headaches you have in learning to spell
English.
Until Chaucer’s time an effort had been made to keep the vowels “pure,”
both in speaking and writing. By pure vowels we mean vowels with a steady
sound, not a 10 glide as we have in our long vowels today. Say long a to
yourself. You slide to long e before you finish. This glide was taking place in
Anglo-Saxon speech, and writers were having trouble spelling these sounds.
At that time the sounds of Latin and French vowels were converted to some of
the diphthong spellings that give us trouble in Modern English: a change in
spelling from long vowels to diphthongs. Long e became ee, ie, ey ea; long a
took on such forms as, ai, ey, and ei; long i became igh because of the
aspirate at the end; long o sometimes ended in a slight ah sound, thus it
became oa or ough. These changes are just some of the difficulties of the
English language that can be explained by its origin. More will be included in
the next section.
Answer these questions (answer in complete sentences).
2.29
What is meant by “pure” vowels?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
18
2.30
What is meant by the Great Vowel Shift?
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Review the material in this section in preparation for the Self Test. The Self
Test will check your mastery of this particular section as well as your
knowledge of the previous section.
SELF TEST 2
Match these items (each answer, 2 points).
2.01
2.02
2.03
2.04
2.05
2.06
2.07
2.08
2.09
2.010
_________
_________
_________
_________
_________
_________
_________
_________
_________
_________
Aryan
Celts
dialects
Tyndale
ziggurat
Indus valley
Normans
morphology
emigrate
syntax
a. sixteenth century religious reformer
b. word order in a sentence
c. the language from which IndoEuropean came
d. Aryan-speaking people lived here
e. the study of word forms
f. to leave one’s country
g. invaded England in 1066 A.D.
h. speech which is not standard
i. ancient people of British Isles
j. a very high tower
k. earliest settlers in France
Write the letter for the correct answer in each blank space (each answer, 3 points).
2.011
2.012
2.013
2.014
2.015
2.016
2.017
2.018
2.019
2.020
The science of language study is _______ .
a. archaeology
b. linguistics
c. anthropology
Words of Latin origin make up _______ per cent of the English language.
a. 50
b. 65
c. 25
French was merged with Old English by the _______ .
a. Saxons
b. Danes
c. Normans
Anglo-Saxons words make up _______ of the words used most in our language.
a. one-fourth
b. four-fifths
c. two-fifths
Only about _______ of the words in the English dictionary are of Germanic
origin.
a. one-third
b. one-half
c. one-fourth
Anthropology is the study of _______ .
a. cities
b. man
c. animals
Archaeology is the study of _______ .
a. cities
b. man
c. animals
The Genesis account of Creation reveals the source of language to be _______ .
a. Adam
b. God
c. men
A man who both received a complicated building plan from God and delivered
a message of righteousness to the people of his day was _______ .
a. Adam
b. Noah
c. Abraham
The following language belongs to the Latin branch of Aryan-speaking family:
_______ .
a. French
b. German
c. English
19
Complete these items (each answer, 4 points).
2.021
The three types of language are written, a. ___________________ , and
b. _______________________ .
The four major Indo-European language families are Germanic, a. ______________ ,
b. ________________________ , and Celtic.
Both Latin and Old English syntax relied upon word endings rather than word
___________________________________ .
The Germanic language was brought into English by the a. ______________________ ,
b. _________________________ and Jutes.
Many words in English having to do with religion are of a._________________________
and b. _________________________ origin.
Indo-European languages have clearly defined parts of_________________________ .
2.022
2.023
2.024
2.025
2.026
Answer these questions (each answer, 5 points).
2.027
What is meant by the “Great Vowel Shift”?
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
What was Chaucer’s influence on Old English?
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
2.028
Score
Teacher check
80
100
________
_______________
Initial
Date
III. HOW SHALL WE USE LANGUAGE?
Spoken words, written words, and nonverbal expression are three types of language. Skills
utilizing language are listening, speaking, reading, and writing. These four skills and how to
improve them are the subjects of this section.
SECTION OBJECTIVES
Review these objectives. When you have completed this section, you should be
able to:
8.
Demonstrate a vocabulary that includes the meanings of older words and root
words:
8.1
Define five words that have changed from their original meanings.
8.2
Define and use in word building eight root words.
20
9.
Use six prefixes skillfully in reading:
9.1
9.2
10.
Define six prefixes.
Determine the meanings of words containing known prefixes.
Use the suffixes -able and -ible skillfully in writing.
VOCABULARY
Study these words to enhance your learning success in this section.
context (kon´ tekst). The parts of a sentence which influence the meaning of a word.
mnemonics (ni mon´ iks). Aids used to improve the memory.
– t). Something that is no longer used.
obsolete (ob´ su le
peers (pirz). Persons of the same grade, age, rank, etc.
root (rüt). The part of a word to which prefixes and suffixes are added.
schwa (schwä). An unstressed vowel sound as a in about or u in circus, represented here by
the symbol u.
LISTENING AND SPEAKING
Teachers endeavor to present materials to students at the proper reading
level: so many sentences and syllables per 100 words for a third grader and
so many for a ninth grader, for example. However, reading level is not the only
thing to consider.
Listening and speaking skills are also essential
considerations. Read the following selections. Pretend you are hearing each
selection in a lecture.
Selection 1
Them dirty lousy politicians is getting altogether too high and mighty, the
way they is always arranging to take advantage of the little businessmen by
raising up the tax payments and collecting more money from the little fellows.
They ain’t nothing much can be done about this here business, because them
politicians has certainly got the inside connections and they always work
through under-cover arrangements. It’s mighty funny that the generals and
the admirals and the presidents of the big corporations aren’t paying out no
oversized tax installments but only just the little businessmen who aren’t
getting much money nohow.
Selection 2
You ask me, do you, how fares the morpheme? I tell you it is the warp and
woof of style. Use it awry and your style is inept. Like Pater, you must grasp
its forte. The prefix shapes the things to come. By their apt use, you do but
whet your style. Your prose takes on a new semantic sheen. Your yen for
verbal zest now finds an open way. You see your style is now less trite. Your
peers will laud your new eclat. You will preempt a place among your mentors.
What made the Selection 2 more difficult? Vocabulary made the difference,
of course! Yet the reading level for Selection 1 was Grade 16, or college
graduate level; and the reading level of Selection 2 was fourth-grade level.
If you do not understand what you hear, you may not have had an
opportunity to build your vocabulary. Unless you listen to speakers older than
you, you tend to build your own language into a dialect, understood only by
your peers.
In this section you will look at some words that have lost their original
meanings, and some word roots that help you build your vocabulary.
21
Word meanings. By 1611, when the King James translation of the Bible
was completed, the English language had become so well stabilized that we
can still understand it today. We use the King James Version because it is so
beautifully expressed and is true to the original Greek and Hebrew languages.
Although not obsolete, some words have changed their original meanings so
much that we cannot understand certain passages if we use today’s meanings
for the words.
One such word is conversation. In many passages is stated something like
this:
“Your vain conversation received from your fathers,” or “Our
conversation is in heaven.” In the first passage, conversation refers to a
manner of life; and in the second, it means citizenship. If you were to look up
the root word and prefix, you would find that it means to have some kind of
interaction with another person. Can you see, then, why it was used to refer
to the way a person conducted himself in private and in public?
The word peculiar was used in 1611 to mean a very special person or
object. This meaning can be followed to its present meaning, strange, odd, or,
unusual. Likewise, the word corn in England was the name used for all other
grains except corn. They had never seen the grain they obtained later from the
American Indian. Also, temperance meant only self control, sober only
serious-minded. Today these words are generally used in an entirely different
way; they are often applied to drunkenness.
The Translation of the Bible
22
Complete these statements.
3.1
3.2
Failing to understand what one hears may be a result of a limited ______________ .
___________________ .
Something that is no longer used is called ____________________________ .
Complete this chart.
3.3
3.4
3.5
word
conversation
peculiar
corn
1611 meaning
________________________________
very special
grain
present meaning
interaction
________________________________
________________________________
Look up the following words. The meanings given to them are the
meanings they had in 1611. In each case write the modern meaning in the
space provided.
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15
word
without
ghost
feebleminded
shamefaced
husbandman
to let
throughly
charity
goodman
ensue
1611 meaning
outside
wind
fainthearted
with godly fear
farmer
to hinder
thoroughly
love
owner
pursue
present meaning
________________________________
________________________________
________________________________
________________________________
________________________________
________________________________
________________________________
________________________________
________________________________
________________________________
Now choose two words from the preceding list. Go to a friend and tell
him or her (1) what the word meant originally and (2) why you think it came to
mean what it does now. When you have done this, write the words here and
have your friend initial in the space provided.
3.16
My two words are _______________________________________________________________________
I listened to the explanation ___________________________________________________________
Initials of listener
Tell your parents or an older relative or friend two words, such as
“cool,” that you use in talking to your peers. Ask them what the words
mean to them. Write the words and both meanings (peer, present) here. If you
can think of more than two, include them.
3.17
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
23
Sometimes you can determine the meanings of obsolete words by the
context. Read the stanza from this ballad written in Scottish-English
dialect in the century before King James. Write it in modern English.
You can probably do all but erst (once) brand (sword), and gang (walk) if you
remember the “Great Vowel Shift.”
“Why dois your brand sae drap wi bluid, Edward, Edward,
Why dois your brand sae drap wi bluid.
And why sae sad gang yee O?”
“O I hae killed my hauke sae guid,
And I had nae mair but hee O.”
“Your haukis bluid was nevir sae reid, Edward, Edward,
Your haukis bluid was nevir sae reid,
My deir son I tell thee O.”
“O I hae killed my reid roan steid, Mither, mither,
O I hae killed my reid roan steid,
That erst was sae fair and free O.”
3.18
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Word roots. Another way to increase your speaking vocabulary is to
master the meanings of certain word roots. As a carry over from the Latin,
different endings for nouns, adjectives, and adverbs are still used. For
example: beauty is a noun; beautiful, an adjective; and beautifully, an adverb.
To form English words, people have taken certain roots from the original
language; added other words, prefixes, or suffixes; and made new words. The
Greek word helix, meaning spiral, plus opter meaning wing, has combined to
make helixopter or helicopter. Para plus allelos, became parallel. If you know
these facts, you cannot misspell either of these words!
24
3.19
3.20
3.21
3.22
3.23
3.24
3.25
3.26
Study the following list of roots and their meanings for a few
minutes before you go on with the activity.
From each of the following roots, make at least two words. Find what each
word means, if you do not know. You may use your dictionary.
root
definition
new words
soph
wise, wisdom
________________________________
log
talk, knowledge
________________________________
sect
cut
________________________________
graph
write
________________________________
plic, ply
fold
________________________________
doc, doct
teach
________________________________
tact, tang, ting
touch
________________________________
man, manu
hand
________________________________
READING
As you have already learned, English grew up from Latin, German, Celtic,
and Greek roots to which were added other words, prefixes, or suffixes, and,
at times, all three. These kinds of words are difficult to spell, pronounce, and
understand unless you unlock them with several keys.
The first key we have already tried: knowing the meaning of the root word.
In this section you will learn to work skillfully with certain prefixes. No doubt
you have studied them many times before; therefore, this study will merely be
a review for you. Since re means to do again, you will look over again some
of the facts you may have forgotten.
One very comforting fact concerning prefixes is this: Adding a prefix does
not change the spelling of the root word. With whatever letter the base word
begins, its spelling is not changed when a prefix is added. Add mis to spell
and you must write misspell, even though a strange double s combination
results. Caution: Do not apply this rule to suffixes, for adding suffixes often
causes a change in the root word. By this time you have probably learned that
you can never say always about the English language; but, if you know this
little rule about the addition of prefixes, at least you can read and write them
with assurance.
However, can you understand them? Some small dictionaries list only the
root words and give only a list of the most common prefixes. Since the
addition of prefixes does not change spelling, one way to save space is to list
words in this way. If you only have one of the little pocket-type dictionaries,
you can save yourself time by looking up the root word. If you know the
meaning of the prefix, then you know the meaning of the word. You will work
in this way with the prefixes im, em, in, en, il, and ir.
The prefixes en, em, im, and in mean in or into. The m takes the place of
n in words that begin with consonants such as p and b, which are pronounced
with the lips in position to say m. Thus we have impart, imbue, immune, but
intake, income, and innovate. At times the prefix meaning in is spelled en
from the Old French. Encourage (put courage into) is one of these spellings.
Furthermore, en is written em before b, m, p and ph. Notice the words
empower, emboss, and emplace.
In addition to meaning in or into, the prefixes in and im also mean not.
Consider the words inapt and immature.
25
The other two prefixes il and ir, which come from certain Latin forms, also
mean not. Be careful not to confuse the prefix il with the prefix ill, meaning
bad.
If you have any doubt as to the true meaning of a word, consult your
dictionary to see where the syllables are divided.
Complete these statements.
3.27
3.28
Adding a prefix to a root word ____________________ (does, does not) change the
spelling of the root word.
This rule (3.27) ____________________ (does, does not) apply to suffixes.
Read the following paragraph in which all six prefixes are used at
least once, and do the following activities. Do you understand it?
Probably you don’t; but after you have finished your activity, you will.
Remember, the prefixes in and im have two meanings.
Henry was not illiterate, but the letter was so well encoded that he found it
irrelevant. “What an irresponsible person,” he said impatiently, “to write such
an invincible, illogical letter. It was certainly an illaudable thing to do. I would
like to indoctrinate him with irresistible teaching.”
In the above paragraph are ten words containing prefixes. On the following
lines, copy the words, then write the meaning of each one. If you need to use
the dictionary, find the base word only and then determine the meaning from
the prefix. Example: illiterate . . . look up literate.
3.29
3.30
3.31
3.32
3.33
3.34
3.35
3.36
3.37
3.38
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
WRITING
Some people spell so poorly that their messages cannot be decoded. Many
of the things you have learned about the origin of the English language will
help you in the spelling of it. Still, you will need to study certain troublesome
spellings. Because the unstressed vowels in the word endings -able and -ible
sound the same, you need some mnemonics to help you learn to spell them
correctly. In our vocabularies, these unstressed vowels called the schwa are
indicated by the u; but when is the vowel a and when is it i? Is the word
detestable or detestible, predictable or predictible? The answer depends upon
the Latin derivation of the word. Although you may never have studied Latin,
you can still be fairly sure of your spelling if you learn and practice these
mnemonics which divide the -able and -ible words into groups.
26
Complete these activities.
3.39
3.40
3.41
3.42
3.43
Group I. If the root is a full word, the ending is usually -able.
Write the endings for the following words:
a. detest ________________________________
f. accept ________________________________
b. predict _______________________________
g. perish _________________________________
c. mail __________________________________
h person ________________________________
d. avail _________________________________
i. correct ________________________________
e. depend ______________________________
j. detect _________________________________
Group II. When the root is a full word except for a final e, the forms usually
are spelled with -able and by dropping the final e. Example: blam(e) becomes
blamable.
Add these endings:
a deplore ______________________________
f. love ___________________________________
b. desire ________________________________
g size ___________________________________
c. debate _______________________________
h. pleasure ______________________________
d. excite ________________________________
i. use ____________________________________
e. presume _____________________________
j. value _________________________________
Group III. The suffix -able always follows i. Thus, if you follow our English
custom of changing y to i in these words, you will add -able.
Try these words:
a. envy _________________________________
d. satisfy ________________________________
b. justify _______________________________
e. appreci _______________________________
c. rely __________________________________
f. soci ___________________________________
Group IV. When the root has other forms built on the letter a, the -able form
is used. example: demonstrate becomes demonstrable.
Now change these words:
a. duration _____________________________
d. hospitality ___________________________
b. irritate _______________________________
e. abomination _________________________
c. reparations _________________________
f. penetrate _____________________________
Group V. When the root ends in hard c or g, -able is used.
Complete the following words.
a. despic _______________________________
e. applic _________________________________
b. educ _________________________________
f. amic __________________________________
c. emplac ______________________________
g. practic ________________________________
d. revoc ________________________________
h. navig _________________________________
The suffix -able is the only possible ending after hard c or g, in order to keep
the proper pronunciation.
Study the following mnemonics for these words taking -ible. More of these
words exist than you will find here, but you will have enough here to help you
with your future spelling.
27
3.44
3.45
3.46
Group VI. When the root is not a full word, -ible
Complete these words:
a. aud
_______________________________
e. plaus
b. cred _______________________________
f. tang
g. horr
c. divis _______________________________
d. feas _______________________________
h. terr
is used.
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
Group VII.
When the word has an immediate -tion form, -ible is used. Thus:
collection becomes collectible.
Change these words:
a. digestion _________________________
c. exhaustion
_________________________
b. corruption _________________________
d. contraction _________________________
Would this mnemonic apply to presentation and expectation? The answer is no
because they are complete words and the suffix -tion is not an immediate
addition of -ion. An a is needed.
Group VIII. When the root ends in ns, miss, or soft c or g, -ible is used.
Defense becomes defensible.
Try these words:
a. indefens _________________________
d. neglig _______________________________
b. sens _____________________________
e. intellig _______________________________
c. irrespons _________________________
f. intang _______________________________
An exception is indispensable. You can remember this word by thinking that
an able worker is both indispensable and dependable.
Now try your skill on these words. (1) Write the endings you think they
should have. (2) Write the number of the mnemonic which applies. Check your
answers with the key. If you missed more than three, read the section again.
3.47
3.48
3.49
3.50
3.51
3.52
3.53
3.54
3.55
3.56
3.57
3.58
deplor _____________________________________________________________________________________
predict ____________________________________________________________________________________
avail _______________________________________________________________________________________
exhaust ___________________________________________________________________________________
applic _____________________________________________________________________________________
aud ________________________________________________________________________________________
depend ___________________________________________________________________________________
cred _______________________________________________________________________________________
sens ______________________________________________________________________________________
justifi _____________________________________________________________________________________
irrit ________________________________________________________________________________________
indispens _________________________________________________________________________________
28
Before you take this last Self Test, you may want to do one or more of
these self checks.
1.
2.
3.
_________
_________
_________
4.
_________
Read the objectives. See if you can do them.
Restudy the material related to any objectives that you cannot do.
Use the SQ3R study procedure to review the material:
a. Scan the sections.
b. Question yourself.
c. Read to answer your questions.
d. Recite the answers to yourself.
e. Review areas you did not understand.
Review all vocabulary, activities, and Self Tests, writing a correct answer for
every wrong answer.
SELF TEST 3
Complete the following statements (each answer, 3 points).
3.01
3.02
3.03
3.04
3.05
3.06
3.07
A mnemonic is an _______________________________________________________________________ .
Language is expressed in these three ways: a. __________________________, b. _____
_____________________, and c. _________________________ .
The meaning of a word is influenced by the _____________________ in which it is
found.
In this LIFEPAC the schwa is expressed by _____________________ .
Endings are added to a word _____________________ .
Mesopotamia is now the country of _____________________ .
Your _____________________ are those of your own age group.
Add the suffix -able or -ible to these words. Then write the mnemonic that applies
(each answer, 1 point).
3.08
3.09
3.010
3.011
3.012
3.013
3.014
3.015
desir ______________________________________________________________________________________
envi _______________________________________________________________________________________
person _____________________________________________________________________________________
digest _____________________________________________________________________________________
horr _______________________________________________________________________________________
demonstr _________________________________________________________________________________
practic ____________________________________________________________________________________
depend ___________________________________________________________________________________
Number the following items in the order in which English came to us (each numbered
item, 2 points).
3.016
3.017
3.018
3.019
3.020
3.021
3.022
Aryan-speaking people came to the Indus valley.____________________________________
The Normans invaded England.________________________________________________________
Tongues were confused at Babel.______________________________________________________
The Indus valley people came to Western Europe.___________________________________
The Angles and Saxons took over England.___________________________________________
The Romans invaded England.__________________________________________________________
The Danes invaded England.____________________________________________________________
29
Name three things all languages have in common (each answer, 3 points).
3.023
3.024
3.025
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Write one word for each root and tell the meaning of the root (each numbered item, 2
points).
3.026
3.027
3.028
3.029
3.030
sect _______________________________________________________________________________________
graph _____________________________________________________________________________________
log ________________________________________________________________________________________
soph ______________________________________________________________________________________
tang _______________________________________________________________________________________
Match these words with their meanings by writing the correct letter in the blank
(each answer, 1 point).
3.031
3.032
3.033
3.034
3.035
_________
_________
_________
_________
_________
written in symbols
does not apply
not dependable
cannot be conquered
not worthy of praise
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
54
irresponsible
invincible
encoded
illaudable
irrelevant
Score
Teacher check
67
________
_______________
Initial
Before taking the LIFEPAC Test, you may want to do one or more of
these self checks.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
________
________
________
________
________
Read the objectives. See if you can do them.
Restudy the material related to any objectives that you cannot do.
Use the SQ3R study procedure to review the material.
Review activities, Self Tests, and LIFEPAC vocabulary words.
Restudy areas of weakness indicated by the last Self Test.
30
Date