CHAPTER IV
SOIL MORPHOLOGY AND
MINERALOGY
110
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Soil plays a vital role in land ecosystems. Its formation begins with the weathering of
bedrock or the transport of sediments from other areas. These small grains of rock
accumulate on the surface of the earth. The process is very slow hundreds to
thousands of years and thus soil loss or degradation can be very detrimental to a
community.
Soil is the top most layer of the earth's crust and it is an organized mixture of organic
and mineral matter. Soil is created by geologic processes and responsive to organisms,
climate and is made up of four main components many processes acts on these
components. The four major components of soil are inorganic material (pebbles, sand,
silt, and clay), soil water, soil air, microorganisms and decaying organic matter
(Richter and Markewitz, 1995; Petersen et al., 2011). Undisturbed soil has its own
distinctive profile characteristics which are utilized in soil classification and survey
and are of great practical importance.
The grain size distribution is commonly used for soil classification and it is the most
fundamental physical properties of a soil. However, there is also potential to use the
grain size distribution as a basis for estimating soil behaviour and process of
weathering in the past. Particle-size distribution is a basic physical property of
mineral soils that affects many important soil attributes (Arya et al., 1999). On the
other hand Soil texture is the average size of soil particle, which depends on the
relative proportion of sand, silt and clay in the soil. If the proportion of the sand in the
soil is increased, the average size of the soil particles and the resultant soil become
coarser in texture. Textually soils can be classified into different classes viz. clay, silty
clay, sandy clay, clay loam, sandy clay loam, silty loam ,silt ,sandy loam ,loamy sand
and sand.
Mineralogy is a major factor for determining the sizes, shapes, and surface
characteristics of the particles in soil and can be a great value for understanding soil
properties and its behavior. Soil forming minerals have been broadly classified into
primary and secondary mineral. Those mineral originated from bed rocks are defined
as primary mineral and those have been formed during the alteration and
decomposition of primary mineral called as secondary mineral. They are also called
111
clay mineral because they are the major constituents of clay and the property of clay
is significantly dependent on the types of mineral (Kolay, 2000).
The data on mineralogical composition of clays is an essential requirement to better
understanding of soil formation as well as to the management and improvement
practices of crop production. Survey of literature reveals that compared to other
tropical countries, less attention has been given to clay mineralogy of Indian soils.
There are other physical and chemical parameters that can also help us to better
understand the exact relationship between soil and parent material, namely; moisture,
organic matter, nitrogen content, electrical conductivity (EC) and pH.
The aims of the current chapter are the following: (1) determination of particle size
distribution of soils; (2) to study the clay mineralogy of different types of soil profiles
developed on different parent material; (3) to determine the physical and chemical
properties of soils to understand the origin of the top soil.
4.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Soil samples were collected from different locations of studied area from different
parts of soil profiles along the channels and road cuts and kept in air tied polythene
covers to minimize any disturbance before experiments (Figure- 4.1). All the soil
samples coded with place, date, type of land use and colour of soil before transporting
to the laboratory for further analyzing.
4.2.1 Particle Size Analysis
The soils have been developed on various bed rocks subjected for size distribution test
and classification. Wet sieve and hydrometer analysis tests have been used for the
above analysis. Analytical test sieves are constructed from a woven-wire mesh, which
is of simple weave that is assumed to give nearly square apertures and is sealed into
the base of an open cylindrical container. The basic analytical method involves
stacking the sieves on top of one another in ascending degrees of coarseness and then
placing the test powder on the top sieve.
The nest of sieves is subjected to a standardized period of agitation, and then the
weight of material retained on each sieve is accurately determined. The test gives the
weight percentage of powder in each sieve size range.
112
Figure- 4.1: Paleosols profiles along the channels and road cuts.
113
Table 4.1: Soil classifications based on size of the sieve
(Coarse-grained soils with D > 75 mm).
4
Sieve Size/
mm
4.75
10
2.000
16
1.180
30
0.600
40
0.425
50
0.300
60
0.250
100
0.150
200
0.075
pan
0.000
Sieve No.
Category
Gravel
Sand
Fines (Silts& Clays)
Figure- 4.2: Sieves with different mesh size to separate the soil particles.
114
About 100 grams of the soil sample subjected to sieving for separation and measuring
of gravel, sand and silt using sieves of different mesh size (Figure. 4.2, Table 4.1).
USDA standard charts and Folk’s classification system are used to identify soil types
in the study area and compared the grain size distribution of soil on different bed
rocks.
The clay and silt have been separated based on an application of 'Stokes' law by the
hydrometer method for one air-dried bulk soil sample (0–10 cm depth) per site, and
distinguished the following particle sizes: clay (0.002 mm), silt (0.002–0.05 mm), and
sand (0.05– 2mm), (Bouyoucous, 1951; Gee and bauder, 1986).
4.2.2 Clay Mineralogy
The XRD studies were determined on powdered fine-earth samples using a D8
Brucker diffractometer (Cu-Kα, 40 kv and 40 mA). Diffraction pattern of selected
samples from different horizons of profiles of study area were scanned from 4° to 80°
2theta, with a scanning speed of 1 degree/minute with a step size of 0.01/sec. Fine
powder was prepared by coning and quartering method for homogeneity followed by
grounding to 200 micron sizes.
4.2.3 Physico-Chemical Properties
The physic-chemical analysis namely, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), organic
matter (OM), total Nitrogen (N) and available phosphorous (P), potassium (K), Iron
(Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), of samples were tested using various
methods.
a) pH
Raw soil sample were mixed with deionized water in equal proportions to form slurry
and using a calibrated pH probe to measure pH.
b) Electrical Conductivity (EC)
Electrical conductivity (EC) was determined in a 1:1 soil to water mixture with a
conductivity bridge after shaking the slurry on a reciprocal shaker for 45 min and
filtering (Richards, 1954).
115
c) Organic Matter
The organic matter content has been determined using Wakley- Black’s wet oxidation
method (De Villiers et al., 1967).
d) Total Nitrogen
Total nitrogen content has been calculated from Wakley- Black’s wet oxidation
method (Jackson, 1967).
e) Moisture Content
For moisture content determination, place 20 g samples in a pre-weighed aluminum
pan, weigh, and place in an oven at 110°C. The sample will be dry after overnight
heating, cooling the sample for 20 minutes in desiccators at room temperature before
weighing, to determine the weight loss, which is the moisture content.
( )
( )
( )
( )
f) Available phosphorus (P), potassium(K), Iron, Mn, Zn and Cu
Available phosphorous content of soil samples were detected by Sodium Bicarbonate
Method described by Olsen et al., 1954. Available potassium has been detected by
flame photometry technique. Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) have been
used for estimation of Available Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu in soil profiles (Baruah and
Barthakur, 1997).
4.2.4 Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation
Simple correlation or Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation is the most widely used
method of measuring the degree of relationship between two variables. This method is
also known as the product moment correlation coefficient. The value of ‘r’ lies
between ±1. Positive values of ‘r’ indicates positive correlation between the two
variables (i.e., changes in both variables take place in the same direction), whereas
negative values of ‘r’ indicate negative correlation, i.e., changes in the two variables
are taking place in the opposite direction. A zero value of ‘r’ indicates that there is no
association between the two variables. When r = (+) 1, it indicates perfect positive
correlation and when it is (-) 1, it indicates perfect negative correlation. The value of
116
‘r’ very near to +1 or -1 indicates high degree of correlation between the two variables
(Kothari, 1990). To identify the association between physico-chemial parameters,
statistical analysis of such as cluster analysis (CA) was used on raw data using SPSS
13.
4.3 RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.3.1 Particle Size Analysis
Based on sieve analysis data, the results of particle size distribution of all selected soil
profiles of the study area which is developed on different bed rocks are discussed as
follow:
4.3.1.1 Soil Profiles of Chikkahali Area
Three soil profiles of Chikkahali region which developed on different bed rocks have
been studied and analyzed. In profile a, b and c the parent rocks were amphibolite,
Gneiss and garneti- ferrous amphibolite respectively (Figure- 4.1 a, b, c).
Sieve and hydrometer investigation of horizon “A” of soil profiles of Chikkahali
region, indicate that the soil profile ‘a’ is classified as muddy sand (ms) and clay
respectively, whereas profile ‘b’ classified as muddy sand (ms) and loam and profile
‘c’ determined as gravely mud (gm) and loam respectively (Table- 4.8, 4.9 and
Figure- 4.9, 4.10, 4.11, 4,12). Results of the studied samples based on particle size
are presented as percentages of the total sample weight (Table- 4.2 and Figure- 4.3).
The histogram graph obtained based on grain size distribution showed multimodal
distribution on all the three studied profiles. In profile ‘a’ and ‘b’ the soils identified
as sandy soil color was dark reddish brown and light red respectively, in profile ‘c’
the soil identified as silt with grayish brown in color.
4.3.1.2 Soil Profiles of Belagula Area
In Belagula region two soil profiles which developed on two parent rocks namely
gneiss and quartzo- feldespathic rock are examined (Figure- 4.1 d, e). Sieve and
hydrometer study of horizon A of two profiles have shown that, in profile ‘d’ soil
was muddy sand (ms) and loam respectively whereas profile ‘e’ exhibited gravelly
muddy sand (gms) and clay loam respectively (Table- 4.8, 4.9 and Figure- 4.9, 4.10,
4.11, 4.12). The histogram graph of both soils profile showed multimodal (Table- 4.3
and Figure- 4.4). In both profiles (d and e) top soil was identified as sandy with dark
red in color.
117
Table- 4.2: Sieve analysis of soil profiles of Chikkahali area (percentage based).
Grain
Size
(mm)
Weight
Percent of
Top Soil
(profile a)
Weight
Percent of
Top Soil
(profile b)
Weight
Percent of
Top Soil
(profile c)
Cumulative
Weight
%Retained
of Top Soil
(profile a)
Cumulative
Weight
%Retained
of Top Soil
(profile b)
Cumulative
Weight
%Retained
of Top Soil
(profile c)
0.053
19.4%
31.9%
4.1%
100%
100%
100%
0.075
17.5%
13.6%
3.4%
80.6%
68.6%
95.9%
0.1
10.7%
20.4%
4.1%
63.1%
55%
92.5%
0.2
12.6%
1.7%
9.1%
52.4%
34.6%
88.4%
0.3
7.8%
10.2%
6.8%
39.8%
32.9%
83.3%
0.4
9.7%
16.3%
19.3%
32%
22.7%
76.5%
0.6
4.8%
3.7%
15.6%
22.3%
6.4%
57.2%
1
14.6%
2%
37.2%
17.5%
2.7%
41.6%
2
1.9%
0.34%
4.4%
2.9%
0.68%
4.4%
4
1%
0.34%
0%
1%
0.34%
0%
Figure- 4.3: Cumulative curves (A, C, E) and histogram charts (B, D, F) of grain size
distribution of top soils in three profiles of Chikkahali area.
118
Table- 4.3: Sieve analysis of soil profiles of Belagula area (percentage based).
Cumulative
Cumulative
Weight
Weight
%Retained of %Retained of
Top Soil
Top Soil
(Profile d)
(profile e)
Grain Size
(mm)
Weight
Percent of
Top Soil
(Profile d)
Weight
Percent of
Top Soil
(profile e)
0.053
35.4%
22.7%
100%
100%
0.075
5.1%
7.3%
64.6%
77.3%
0.1
6.4%
10.2%
58.8%
70%
0.2
1.8%
4.8%
52.4%
59.8%
0.3
3.6%
6.1%
50.6%
55%
0.4
13.3%
11.2%
47%
48.9%
0.6
10.7%
7%
33.7%
37.7%
1
21.9%
11.2%
23%
30.7%
2
1.1%
9.9%
1.1%
19.5%
4
0%
9.6%
0%
9.6%
Figure- 4.4: Cumulative curves (A, C) and histogram charts (B, D) of grain size
distribution of top soils in three profiles of Belagula area.
119
4.3.1.3 Soil Profiles of Bettadabidu Area
Three soil profiles of Bettadabidu area have been studied and top soils developed on
calc-silicate rocks analysed (Figure- 4.1 f, g and h). Sieve and hydrometer
investigation of horizon “A” of soil profiles of Bettadabidu area showed that the soil
profile of ‘f’ and ‘h’ are classified as muddy gravel (mg) and loam soil respectively,
whereas profile ‘g’ is classified as gravely mud (gm) and loam (Table- 4.8, 4.9 and
Figure- 4.9, 4.10, 4.11, 4.12). The particle size and density of soil profiles of study
area, reported as percentages of the total sample weight (Table- 4.4). Based on grain
size distribution by sieve, the histogram graph has been made and showed multimodal
distribution in all the three profiles (Figure- 4.5). The top soil in profile ‘f’ was
identified as gravel with dark reddish gray in color, profile ‘g’ have shown silt texture
and yellowish red in color , in profile ‘h’ the top soil was silt and dark brown in color.
4.3.1.4 Soil Profiles of Sargur Area (Nugu dam)
Extensive field studies have been conducted in Sargur area and four soil profiles
which developed on three types of parent rocks namely amphibolites, meta-pelite and
BIF are examined (Figure- 4.1 i , j, k and l). Sieve and hydrometric study of horizon
“A” determined in profile ‘i’ and ‘j’ which developed on amphibolite are muddy
sandy gravel (msg) with reddish yellow to dark brown in color and loam with dark
reddish brown respectively (Table- 4.8, 4.9 and Figure- 4.9, 4.10, 4.11, 4.12). In
profile ‘k’, the soil has developed on meta-pelite rock, identified as sandy mud (sm)
and loam with dark red in color. The soils developed on BIF in profile ‘l’ have been
classified as gravely muddy sand (gms) and sandy loam with dark red in color.
Histogram distribution of all the four studied profiles determined as multimodal
distribution (Figure- 4.6).
4.3.1.5 Soil Profile of Gundlupet Area
One soil profile of this region was studied and soil that was developed on gneiss rock
is subjected for size distribution (Figure- 4.1 m). Sieve and hydrometer study of
horizon “A” of profile ‘m’ in Gundlupet area identified as muddy sandy gravel (msg)
and loam with multimodal distribution, the top soil was
(Table- 4.6 and Figure- 4.7).
120
yellowish red in color
Table- 4.4: Sieve analysis of soil profiles of Bettadabidu area (percentage based).
Grain
Size
(mm)
Weight
Weight
Percent
Percent of
of Top
Top Soil
Soil
(Profile g)
(Profile f)
Weight
Percent of
Top Soil
(profile h)
Cumulative
Weight
%Retained
of Top Soil
(Profile f)
Cumulative
Weight
%Retained
of Top Soil
(profile g)
Cumulative
Weight
%Retained
of Top Soil
(profile h)
0.053
24.4%
38.3%
25.2%
100%
100%
100%
0.075
8%
8.8%
12.9%
75.6%
75.6%
74.8%
0.1
3.8%
5.2%
8.1%
67.6%
67.6%
61.9%
0.2
3.2%
2.6%
2.7%
63.8%
63.8%
53.8%
0.3
4.8%
4.6%
5.4%
60.6%
60.6%
51.1%
0.4
2.7%
2.6%
2.7%
55.8%
55.8%
45.7%
0.6
4.8%
3.6%
3.8%
53.1%
53.1%
43%
1
10.7%
8.8%
4.8%
48.3%
48.3%
39.2%
2
18.8%
11.9%
10.2%
37.6%
37.6%
34.4%
4
18.8%
15.6%
24.2%
18.8%
18.8%
24.2%
Figure- 4.5: Cumulative curves (A, C, E) and histogram charts (B, D, F) of grain size
distribution of top soils in three profiles of Bettadabidu area.
121
Table- 4.5: Sieve analysis of soil profiles of Sargur area (percentage based).
Weight
Weight Cumulative Cumulative Cumulative
Weight
Weight
Percent
Percent
Weight
Weight
Weight
Grain
Percent of Percent of
of Top
of Top %Retained %Retained %Retained
Size
Top Soil Top Soil
Soil
Soil
of Top Soil of Top Soil of Top Soil
(mm)
(profile j) (profile k)
(profile i)
(profile l) (Profile i)
(profile j) (profile k)
Cumulative
Weight
%Retained
of Top Soil
(profile l)
0.053
18.2%
41.8%
12.8%
17.6%
100%
100%
100%
100%
0.075
5.3%
10.4%
5.7%
14.2%
81.8%
58.2%
87.2%
82.4%
0.1
4.3%
7.1%
4.6%
9.5%
76.4%
47.8%
81.5%
68.2%
0.2
5.4%
5.1%
5.7%
9.5%
72.1%
40.7%
76.9%
58.7%
0.3
9.7%
8.7%
10.3%
12.6%
66.7%
35.6%
71.2%
49.2%
0.4
9.1%
5.1%
9.8%
10%
56.9%
26.9%
60.9%
36.6%
0.6
13.4%
7.6%
14.4%
13.6%
47.8%
21.8%
51.1%
26.6%
1
8.6%
9.7%
9.2%
10%
34.4%
14.2%
36.7%
13%
2
9.7%
2.5%
10.3%
2.5%
25.8%
4.5%
27.5%
3%
4
16.1%
2%
17.2%
0.5%
16.1%
2%
17.2%
0.5%
Figure- 4.6: Cumulative curves (A, C, E, G) and histogram charts (B, D, F, H) of
grain size distribution of top soils in four profiles of Sargur area.
122
Table- 4.6: Sieve analysis of soil profiles of Gundlupet area (percentage based).
Cumulative
Weight
Weight
Grain Size Per cent of Top
%Retained
(mm)
Soil
of Top Soil
(profile m)
(profile m)
0.053
31.9%
100%
0.075
10.2%
68.1%
0.1
8.7%
57.9%
0.2
6.1%
49.2%
0.3
7.6%
43.1%
0.4
5.1%
35.5%
0.6
7.6%
30.4%
1
12.7%
22.8%
2
7.6%
10.1%
4
2.5%
2.5%
Figure- 4.7: Cumulative curves (A) and histogram charts (B) of grain size
distribution of top soils in three profiles of Gundlupet area.
123
4.3.1.6 Soil Profile of Doddakanya Area
In Doddakanya area (Figure- 4.1 n) area, one profile has been studied and soil
developed on ultramafic rock is identified as muddy sandy gravel (msg) and loam
with yellowish brown in color based on Folk’s classification (Table- 4.7, 4.8, 4.9 and
Figure-4.9, 4.10, 4.11, 4.12). The histogram graph of the above soil profile
determined as multimodal (Figure- 4.8).
Table- 4.7: Sieve analysis of soil profiles of Doddakanya area (percentage based).
Cumulative
Weight
Weight
Percent of
Grain Size
%Retained
Top Soil
(mm)
of Top Soil
(profile n)
(profile n)
0.053
16.4%
100%
0.075
6.1%
83.6%
0.1
5%
77.5%
0.2
5%
72.5%
0.3
6.1%
67.5%
0.4
3.9%
61.4%
0.6
6.7%
57.5%
1
13.4%
50.8%
2
22.3%
37.4%
4
15.1%
15.1%
Figure- 4.8: Cumulative curves (A) and histogram charts (B) of grain size
distribution of top soils in three profiles of Doddakanya area.
124
Figure- 4.9: Folk’s classification system based on Gravel (G), Sand (S) and Mud (M).
Table- 4.8: Classification and identification of soils (horizon A) of the all studied
profiles (based on sieve analysis).
Soil data
Percentage from
Sample
Area
Parent material
No.
material passing
Gravel
Sand
Silt
Classification
Profile 1
Chikkahali
Amphibolite
3%
60%
37%
Muddy sand
Profile 2
Chikkahali
Gneiss
1%
55%
44%
Muddy sand
Profile 3
Chikkahali
G. amphibolite
12%
41%
47%
Gravelly mud
Profile 4
Belagula
Quartzo-feldspathic
1%
58%
41%
Muddy sand
Profile 5
Belagula
Quartzo-feldspathic
19%
51%
30%
Gravelly muddy sand
Profile 6
Bettadabidu
Calc-silicate
37%
30%
33%
Muddy gravel
Profile 7
Bettadabidu
Calc-silicate
27%
26%
47%
Gravelly mud
Profile 8
Bettadabidu
Calc-silicate
34%
27%
39%
Muddy gravel
Profile 9
Sargur
Amphibolite
25%
51%
24%
Muddy sandy gravel
Profile 10
Sargur
Meta-pelite
5%
43%
52%
Sandy mud
Profile 11
Sargur
Banded iron formation
27%
54%
19%
Gravelly muddy sand
Profile 12
Sargur
Amphibolite
3%
65%
32%
Muddy sand
Profile 13
Gundlupet
Gneiss
67%
21%
12%
Muddy sandy gravel
Profile 14
Doddakanya
Ultramafic rock
38%
40%
22%
Muddy sandy gravel
125
Figure- 4.10: Folk’s classification system based on Sand, Silt and Clay.
Table- 4.9: Classification and identification of soils (horizon A) of the all studied
profiles (based on hydrometer analysis).
Soil data
Percentage from
sample
Area
Parent material
No
material passing
Sand
Silt
Clay
Classification
Profile 1
Chikkahali
Amphibolite
22%
30%
48%
Clay
Profile 2
Chikkahali
Gneiss
41%
46%
13%
Loam
Profile 3
Chikkahali
G. amphibolite
39%
26%
35%
Clay loam
Profile 4
Belagula
Quartzo-feldspathic
21%
40%
39%
Clay loam
Profile 5
Belagula
Quartzo-feldspathic
35%
36%
29 %
Clay loam
Profile 6
Bettadabidu
Calc-silicate
40%
39%
21%
Loam
Profile 7
Bettadabidu
Calc-silicate
42%
41%
17%
Loam
Profile 8
Bettadabidu
Calc-silicate
41%
43%
16%
Loam
Profile 9
Sargur
Amphibolite
44%
40%
16%
Loam
Profile 10
Sargur
Meta-pelite
47%
39%
14%
Loam
Profile 11
Sargur
Banded iron formation
62%
28%
10%
Sandy loam
Profile 12
Sargur
Amphibolite
40%
47%
13%
Loam
Profile 13
Gundlupet
Gneiss
44%
39%
17%
Loam
Profile 14
Doddakanya
Ultramafic rock
47%
40%
13%
Loam
126
Figure- 4.11: percentage of Gravel, Sand and Silt in different parent rocks.
127
Figure- 4.12: percentage of Sand, Silt and Clay in different parent rocks.
128
4.3.2 Clay Mineralogy
The XRD analysis was carried out by using Rigaku Minifilex Diffractogram
(CN2005). The d-values are calculated using Bragg’s equation and the intensity was
measured in terms of peak highest. The peaks have been indexed and mineral present
in the top soil and weathered rocks were compared and identified by use of the
Xpoweder software (ver. 1.01), standard d-spacing of ASTM and mineral intensity
data by the Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction (JCPDS). The XRD data of
fourteen soil profiles are given in tables- 4.10 to 4.23 and Figures- 4.13 to 4.27. The
identified minerals of the soil profiles (Top soil - Weathered rock) are given in table4.24.
The XRD result shows the existence of the important minerals such as quartz,
muscovite, mica, kaolinite, chlorite, calcite, smectite, biotite, vermiculite, potassium
feldspar, hematite, in top soil and quartz, chlorite, mica, allophone and kaolinite in
weathered rocks respectively, along with the clay minerals such as illite, halloysite,
montmorillinite, chlorite, smectite and calcite magnetite in top soil and mica, illite,
talc, gypsum, kaolinite, chlorite and montmorillinite in weathered rocks respectively.
Compared to other components of soil, information on the genesis of the clay
minerals in various soil groups as well as the relation of the mineral assemblage in the
clay fraction to the pedogenic factors is very weak in the literature dealing with Indian
soils.
The study by Mukherjee (1958), has demonstrated that soils developing on granites
and pegmatites were rich in Kaolinite, whereas soils on slates and shales showed
dominance of illite, the study by Krishnamurthi et al. (1973) have clarified the soils
developed on limestone and calcareous rocks were also rich in illite. In the subtropical
environments with appreciable organic matter accumulation and good drainage, illitechlorite and illite-montmorillonite interlayer minerals dominated the clay.
Montmorillonite was also observed to be the weathering product of limestone and
granite-gneiss (tamhane & Namjoshi, 1959).
The study by Das and Das (1966) revealed that the development of montmorillonite in
black and brown soils of Mysore was due to slow weathering of feldspar in alkaline
environment, but kaolinite resulted from complete hydrolysis of feldspars. Under
humid tropical weathering environment, low in basic cations, resulted in the
129
dominance of Kaolinite and Halloysite in the clay throughout the profile and was
correlated with the almost complete extinction of both plagioclase and orthoclase
feldspar in the profile (Ghosh and Das, 1974).
In the Chikkahali area the dominant clay minerals was determined in soil which
developed on amphibolite were Chlorite (Clinochlor), Mica (Muscovite, Illite),
Kaolinite (Halloysite) and Quartz in weathered zone (B) whereas in the top soil (A),
Mica (Muscovite, Illite) and Quartz were dominant. In the soil profile which
developed on gneiss the dominant clay minerals were Calcite, Mica (Bityite,
Muscovite) and Quartz in weathered zone (B) and Kaolinite (Kaolinite, Halloysite),
Calcite (Barytocalcite), Chlorite and Quartz in top soil (A). In the soil developed on
garnetiferous amphibolite the major clay minerals detected as Calcite, Smectite
(Montmorillinite), Mica (Muscovite, Illite), and Quartz.
The clay mineral study on soil developed on quartzo- feldespathic rock in Belagula
area showed that the Illite, Muscovite, Gypsum, Kaolinite and Quartz in weathered
zone and Kaolinite, Illite, Smectite and Quartz were at majority level. The dominant
clay which identified in the soils developed on Calc-silicate rock in Bettadabidu area
were Vermiculite, Chlorite, Calcite, Smectite, Mica, Hematite and Quartz whereas in
Doddakanya area Kaolinite-serpentinite (serpentinite), Vermiculite and Hematite were
major.
The study on soils in Sargur region shows that the Calcite, Chlorite, Kaolinite, Mica,
Hematite, Magnetite in weathered zone and Chlorite, Smectite, Kaolinite (Halloysite),
Mica (Illite) and Quartz in top soil of profile which developed on Amphibolite bed
rock. The soil developed in metapelite the major clay minerals were chlorite,
Kaolinite (Gibbsite) Mica (Muscovite, Illite), Pyrophyllite and Quartz in weathered
zone and Calcite, Kaolinite (Halloysite), Mica (Illite), Smectite, Magnetite and Quartz
in top soil.
In the soil developed on Banded Iron Formation (BIF) contains Chlorite, Kaolinite
(Halloysite), Mica (Philogopite, Muscovite and Illite), Smectite (Montmorilinite) and
Quartz in weathered zone and Calcite, Mica in top soil. The dominant clay which are
identified in the soils developed on Gneiss in Gundlupet area were Calcite, Mica and
Quartz, in weathered zone and Chlorite, Kaolinite (Halloysite), Mica, Magnetite
Calcite and Quartz, in top soil.
130
A
B
Figure- 4.13: XRD patterns of soil samples weathered (B) and top soil (A) zone from
Chikkahali.
Table- 4.10: XRD data of soil sample from different horizons in Chikkahali area.
Pos. [°2Th.]
Weathered
rock
Top
soil
Height [cts]
Weathered
rock
Top
soil
FWHM [°2Th.]
Top
soil
Weathered
rock
d-spacing [Å]
Rel. Int. [%]
Weathered Top soil Weathered Top soil
rock
rock
9.7909
8.5334
236.64
25.01
0.1693
0.6678
9.02650
10.35361
44.54
15.01
10.7354
11.3832
32.06
11.38
0.4884
2.4155
8.23437
7.76716
6.04
6.83
12.7410
15.2401
116.38
25.40
0.4938
0.4638
6.94233
5.80905
21.91
15.24
14.1379
20.2587
29.76
46.08
0.0232
1.2860
6.25935
4.37990
5.60
27.65
18.9372
27.0201
75.90
166.64
0.2279
0.3510
4.68246
3.29729
14.29
100.00
20.0165
28.9438
85.82
102.04
0.4133
0.2210
4.43236
3.08237
16.15
61.24
26.9203
29.9692
55.13
20.37
0.6597
0.0506
3.30928
2.97919
10.38
12.23
28.8858
31.9020
531.27
16.91
0.2389
0.3864
3.08842
2.80297
100.00
10.15
29.7544
33.6388
81.75
50.21
0.4834
0.3448
3.00022
2.66212
15.39
30.13
31.6135
35.4437
19.21
31.21
2.4117
0.6927
2.82789
2.53058
3.62
18.73
35.0578
36.2494
82.23
27.35
0.0187
0.2235
2.55754
2.47616
15.48
16.41
35.8074
38.1245
68.91
14.96
2.8921
0.2646
2.50571
2.35857
12.97
8.98
45.3050
39.0093
27.85
30.75
0.4959
0.2584
2.00004
2.30709
5.24
18.45
48.8843
39.7901
44.62
19.23
0.2480
0.4531
1.86164
2.26360
8.40
11.54
61.7091
nd
68.52
nd
0.4133
nd
1.50197
nd
12.90
nd
131
A
B
Figure- 4.14: XRD patterns of soil samples weathered (B) and top soil (A) zone from
Chikkahali.
Table- 4.11: XRD data of soil sample from different horizons in Chikkahali area.
Pos. [°2Th.]
Weathered
rock
Height [cts]
FWHM [°2Th.]
d-spacing [Å]
Rel. Int. [%]
Top
Top
Weathered
Weathered Top Weathered Top Weathered Top
soil
soil
rock
rock
soil
rock
soil
rock
soil
20.1433
20.1898
157.93
131.13
0.2858
0.4254
4.40475
4.39469
12.22
12.33
21.1920
21.1779
88.48
83.92
0.0319
0.6565
4.18908
4.19183
6.85
7.89
22.3951
22.4188
490.20
546.79
0.1893
0.1874
3.96669
3.96254
37.94
51.43
23.8730
23.8713
229.25
135.27
0.1737
0.3901
3.72436
3.72461
17.74
12.72
24.5937
24.7366
317.11
451.80
0.2077
0.3604
3.61682
3.59626
24.54
42.50
25.7792
25.7333
253.14
237.70
0.2636
0.6168
3.45313
3.45918
19.59
22.36
26.9805
26.9928
452.26
608.71
0.3191
0.3859
3.30204
3.30056
35.00
57.26
28.1932
28.2269
1292.20
1063.11
0.2789
0.4294
3.16269
3.15900
100.00
100.00
35.2545
30.4669
252.05
178.08
0.1714
0.7459
2.54372
2.93165
19.51
16.75
42.7413
35.2438
138.60
166.00
0.2798
1.2240
2.11388
2.54447
10.73
15.61
45.7986
37.0744
178.10
86.60
0.2169
2.1237
1.97963
2.42293
13.78
8.15
48.3305
37.7606
117.41
104.30
0.3040
1.0593
1.88167
2.38046
9.09
9.81
50.2724
42.7373
84.21
160.16
0.2789
0.2498
1.81344
2.11408
6.52
15.07
67.3746
46.1643
79.51
80.90
0.1187
0.2288
1.38878
1.96479
6.15
7.61
nd
48.4736
nd
59.46
nd
0.9709
nd
1.87645
nd
5.59
nd
50.3505
nd
143.94
nd
0.3633
nd
1.81081
nd
13.54
nd
51.4061
nd
187.48
nd
0.1367
nd
1.77608
nd
17.64
nd
61.8234
nd
82.78
nd
0.6135
nd
1.49946
nd
7.79
nd
45.7737
nd
142.13
nd
0.2666
nd
1.98065
nd
13.37
132
A
Figure- 4.15: XRD patterns of soil samples from Chikkahali area.
Table- 4.12: XRD data of soil sample from Chikkahali area.
Pos. Height FWHM d-spacing Rel. Int.
[°2Th.] [cts] [°2Th.]
[Å]
[%]
Top
Top
Top soil Top soil Top soil
soil
soil
7.1814
33.29
0.0648
12.29951
4.87
20.1572
64.87
1.1374
4.40173
9.50
22.3222
130.09
0.0912
3.97946
19.05
25.5991
42.54
0.0167
3.47700
6.23
26.9030
683.06
0.1882
3.31137
100.00
28.2333
163.70
0.3130
3.15830
23.97
29.7344
115.57
0.1885
3.00219
16.92
35.2241
58.63
0.5522
2.54585
8.58
36.8701
105.03
0.0525
2.43589
15.38
37.7458
69.29
0.1153
2.38136
10.14
39.7227
71.38
0.2042
2.26728
10.45
46.0751
33.58
0.0303
1.96839
4.92
50.3857
65.14
0.1712
1.80963
9.54
64.3001
47.00
0.1838
1.44755
6.88
68.5247
52.66
0.2061
1.36824
7.71
133
A
B
Figure- 4.16: XRD patterns of soil samples weathered (A) and top soil (B) zone from
Belagula area.
Table- 4.13: XRD data of soil sample from different horizons in Belagula area.
Pos. [°2Th.]
Weathered
rock
Height [cts]
FWHM [°2Th.]
d-spacing [Å]
Top
Weathered Top Weathered Top Weathered
soil
rock
soil
rock
soil
rock
Top
soil
Rel. Int. [%]
Weathered Top
rock
soil
21.124
5.7473
121.84
97.23
0.0480
0.1185
4.20244
15.36501
9.84
36.62
22.284
11.6414
336.87
22.46
0.1056
0.0768
3.98618
7.59549
27.21
8.46
24.498
12.8113
165.89
29.19
0.2295
0.1141
3.63066
6.90439
13.40
10.99
25.822
20.2443
64.44
80.51
0.1445
0.2863
3.44754
4.38299
5.21
30.32
26.937
20.9688
1237.88
21.97
0.1268
0.6382
3.30731
4.23317
100.00
8.27
28.141
22.5120
249.99
62.43
0.1912
0.4579
3.16848
3.94635
20.20
23.51
29.774
23.2696
165.84
223.76
0.1887
0.1698
2.99825
3.81954
13.40
84.27
30.546
23.9387
198.98
125.89
0.2027
0.0898
2.92421
3.71429
16.07
47.41
34.495
24.5741
160.82
96.05
0.1333
0.1123
2.59796
3.61966
12.99
36.18
39.806
26.9190
114.69
265.52
0.2254
0.2251
2.26272
3.30944
9.27
100.00
42.034
28.2134
103.07
198.89
0.2160
0.2328
2.14782
3.16048
8.33
74.91
43.625
50.2979
67.83
96.96
0.3602
0.1959
2.07311
1.81258
5.48
36.52
67.971
51.5739
163.94
92.63
0.1266
0.0954
1.37804
1.77070
13.24
34.89
nd
62.4612
nd
39.15
nd
0.3392
nd
1.48568
nd
14.75
nd
64.2082
nd
38.62
nd
0.3072
nd
1.44940
nd
14.54
134
B
A
Figure- 4.17: XRD patterns of soil samples weathered (A) and top soil (B) zone from
Belagula area.
Table- 4.14: XRD data of soil sample from different horizons in Belagula area.
Pos. [°2Th.]
Height [cts]
Weathered
Weathered
Top soil
rock
rock
Top
soil
FWHM
[°2Th.]
Weathered
rock
Top
soil
d-spacing [Å]
Rel. Int. [%]
Weathered Top soil Weathered
rock
rock
Top
soil
12.8347
5.5971
29.30
67.75
0.1707
0.2290
6.89183
15.77699
7.41
15.01
18.8205
7.3687
16.14
59.25
2.0894
0.1798
4.71123
11.98731
4.08
13.13
23.3933
21.3814
36.05
451.23
0.3562
0.0596
3.79962
4.15240
9.12
100.00
24.5699
22.2710
395.29
199.84
0.1764
0.1250
3.62027
3.98850
100.00
44.29
26.8572
26.9237
93.06
249.00
0.2430
0.1556
3.31691
3.30887
23.54
55.18
27.5329
29.8370
47.04
386.67
0.1332
0.2422
3.23703
2.99210
11.90
85.69
28.7670
30.6159
101.40
89.26
0.1418
0.0657
3.10091
2.91772
25.65
19.78
29.8033
32.1123
192.63
53.19
0.1918
0.1148
2.99540
2.78509
48.73
11.79
31.2083
34.2936
321.18
381.91
0.1490
0.0755
2.86367
2.61277
81.25
84.64
33.3098
35.6201
28.08
110.82
0.1553
0.1449
2.68765
2.51845
7.10
24.56
39.5887
36.8630
49.35
115.76
0.1233
0.0330
2.27465
2.43634
12.48
25.65
42.0574
39.7699
72.61
97.54
0.1865
0.1478
2.14666
2.26470
18.37
21.62
43.6226
48.8892
78.04
30.36
0.2931
0.9828
2.07320
1.86147
19.74
6.73
49.5712
60.2512
195.15
31.11
0.1228
0.1203
1.83744
1.53478
49.37
6.90
49.9933
61.2712
168.49
50.83
0.1463
0.2998
1.82291
1.51165
42.63
11.26
135
A
Figure- 4.18: XRD patterns of soil samples from Bettadabidu area.
Table- 4.15: XRD data of soil sample in Bettadabidu area.
Pos.
[°2Th.]
Height
[cts]
FWHM
[°2Th.]
d-spacing
[Å]
Rel. Int.
[%]
Top soil
Top soil
Top soil
Top soil
Top soil
7.8805
21.73
0.0125
11.20983
11.46
24.8021
14.37
1.3724
3.58691
7.58
26.9782
171.39
0.3128
3.30231
90.42
28.9196
112.25
0.2678
3.08489
59.22
29.8357
189.56
0.3018
2.99222
100.00
31.1980
172.74
0.2275
2.86460
91.13
33.4556
71.28
0.6231
2.67627
37.61
35.9663
62.23
1.1704
2.49500
32.83
39.8340
59.29
0.2135
2.26120
31.28
41.3101
45.42
1.1855
2.18375
23.96
48.0955
28.34
0.3880
1.89031
14.95
48.9827
48.40
0.2834
1.85813
25.54
50.7186
57.34
1.0258
1.79853
30.25
55.9902
14.80
0.3851
1.64104
7.81
57.1494
17.06
0.1100
1.61048
9.00
60.3410
30.01
0.5073
1.53270
15.83
67.5992
29.08
0.1289
1.38471
15.34
68.4936
15.47
1.2620
1.36879
8.16
136
A
Figure- 4.19: XRD patterns of soil samples from Bettadabidu area.
Table- 4.16: XRD data of soil sample in Bettadabidu area.
Pos.
[°2Th.]
Height
[cts]
FWHM
[°2Th.]
d-spacing
[Å]
Rel. Int.
[%]
Top soil
Top soil
Top soil
Top soil
Top soil
12.1201
44.16
0.0664
7.29651
26.06
16.9476
8.29
0.0126
5.22743
4.89
21.4718
17.38
1.3799
4.13512
10.26
26.9639
132.17
0.2863
3.30403
78.00
28.8543
87.90
0.2154
3.09172
51.87
29.7646
169.45
0.2513
2.99921
100.00
33.4367
57.81
0.3472
2.67774
34.12
36.1997
50.36
0.3152
2.47945
29.72
36.9130
31.65
1.2009
2.43315
18.68
39.8122
50.98
0.2192
2.26240
30.08
41.1934
26.57
0.1988
2.18967
15.68
42.6149
9.72
0.0936
2.11986
5.73
43.6063
37.65
0.3468
2.07394
22.22
50.4859
40.64
0.2550
1.80627
23.98
57.8221
21.93
0.8113
1.59333
12.94
65.0911
29.09
0.6727
1.43186
17.16
137
A
Figure- 4.20: XRD patterns of soil samples from Bettadabidu area.
Table- 4.17: XRD data of soil sample in Bettadabidu area.
Pos.
[°2Th.]
Height
[cts]
FWHM
[°2Th.]
d-spacing [Å]
Rel. Int.
[%]
Top soil
Top soil
Top soil
Top soil
Top soil
12.1201
44.16
0.0664
7.29651
26.06
16.9476
8.29
0.0126
5.22743
4.89
21.4718
17.38
1.3799
4.13512
10.26
26.9639
132.17
0.2863
3.30403
78.00
28.8543
87.90
0.2154
3.09172
51.87
29.7646
169.45
0.2513
2.99921
100.00
33.4367
57.81
0.3472
2.67774
34.12
36.1997
50.36
0.3152
2.47945
29.72
36.9130
31.65
1.2009
2.43315
18.68
39.8122
50.98
0.2192
2.26240
30.08
41.1934
26.57
0.1988
2.18967
15.68
42.6149
9.72
0.0936
2.11986
5.73
43.6063
37.65
0.3468
2.07394
22.22
50.4859
40.64
0.2550
1.80627
23.98
57.8221
21.93
0.8113
1.59333
12.94
65.0911
29.09
0.6727
1.43186
17.16
138
B
A
Figure- 4.21: XRD patterns of soil samples weathered (A) and top soil (B) zone from
Sargur area.
Table- 4.18: XRD data of soil sample from different horizons in Sargur area.
Pos. [°2Th.]
Height [cts]
FWHM [°2Th.]
d-spacing [Å]
Top Weathered
soil
rock
Weathered
rock
Top
soil
Weathered
rock
Top
soil
Weathered
rock
9.0112
8.7035
13.67
18.99
1.8936
0.0576
9.80567
10.15158
8.19
8.77
11.2143
9.2992
18.40
25.57
0.0828
0.4199
7.88375
9.50263
11.03
11.81
14.8048
11.0330
42.38
14.83
0.0627
0.0804
5.97887
8.01291
25.40
6.85
17.3493
12.7895
43.78
17.63
0.0724
0.2564
5.10730
6.91610
26.24
8.14
22.8846
20.5578
12.24
28.69
2.2376
3.8365
3.88293
4.31685
7.33
13.25
27.0755
21.3770
166.87
30.29
0.1833
1.8291
3.29066
4.15324
100.00
13.99
33.6041
26.8022
47.34
216.49
0.1918
0.1601
2.66478
3.32359
28.37
100.00
35.3402
33.5824
36.91
34.51
0.1916
0.4296
2.53775
2.66646
22.12
15.94
36.0336
36.8729
40.90
53.85
0.3376
0.4544
2.49050
2.43571
24.51
24.88
39.8618
39.7872
45.80
38.71
0.0570
0.3932
2.25969
2.26376
27.45
17.88
40.5252
48.9767
21.30
15.19
2.0886
1.1406
2.22422
1.85835
12.76
7.01
41.3722
50.3964
35.25
25.99
0.0719
0.1693
2.18062
1.80927
21.13
12.00
48.6446
55.4045
79.82
36.13
0.1863
0.2172
1.87025
1.65700
47.83
16.69
53.5600
64.4562
19.78
12.04
0.0894
0.2158
1.70962
1.44442
11.85
5.56
54.5928
68.6233
14.72
28.51
1.4049
0.8046
1.67970
1.36652
8.82
13.17
60.2168
nd
27.12
nd
0.1300
nd
1.53557
nd
16.25
nd
139
Top
soil
Rel. Int. [%]
Weathered Top
rock
soil
B
A
Figure- 4.22: XRD patterns of soil samples weathered (A) and top soil (B) zone from
Sargur area.
Table- 4.19: XRD data of soil sample from different horizons in Sargur area.
Pos. [°2Th.]
Height [cts]
FWHM [°2Th.]
d-spacing [Å]
Rel. Int. [%]
Weathered Top Weathered Top Weathered Top Weathered Top Weathered Top
rock
soil
rock
soil
rock
soil
rock
soil
rock
soil
7.2347
9.7235
20.76
5.99
0.9187
4.0000
12.20899
9.08885
11.56
2.16
12.7399
12.7547
17.78
10.48
0.1664
0.0126
6.94290
6.93488
9.90
3.78
17.5056
21.1475
29.07
79.51
0.5330
0.1646
5.06203
4.19780
16.19
28.67
20.1430
24.4961
23.37
23.36
0.1884
0.8740
4.40481
3.63101
13.02
8.42
21.1153
26.9902
12.57
277.37
1.1048
0.2115
4.20413
3.30087
7.00
100.00
22.3732
28.1404
17.39
74.88
0.0573
0.2922
3.97051
3.16851
9.68
27.00
26.9905
29.8106
179.56
51.75
0.1822
0.1493
3.30084
2.99469
100.00
18.66
28.2742
33.5329
39.41
14.47
0.1621
1.3798
3.15383
2.67028
21.95
5.22
29.9007
56.8423
51.04
37.63
0.2981
0.1250
2.98587
1.61845
28.42
13.57
32.1984
60.4698
11.29
8.90
0.6055
1.9990
2.77784
1.52975
6.29
3.21
34.6447
nd
50.49
nd
0.1563
nd
2.58709
nd
28.12
nd
38.7708
nd
22.65
nd
0.0877
nd
2.32073
nd
12.61
nd
39.7447
nd
55.48
nd
0.2661
nd
2.26608
nd
30.90
nd
48.0467
nd
19.85
nd
0.2541
nd
1.89212
nd
11.05
nd
50.4383
nd
48.25
nd
0.2763
nd
1.80787
nd
26.87
nd
60.6758
nd
22.89
nd
0.1393
nd
1.52505
nd
12.75
nd
62.5990
nd
37.28
nd
0.4068
nd
1.48274
nd
20.76
nd
67.4084
nd
13.91
nd
0.0831
nd
1.38816
nd
7.75
nd
140
A
B
Figure- 4.23: XRD patterns of soil samples weathered (A) and top soil (B) zone from
Sargur area.
Table- 4.20: XRD data of soil sample from different horizons in Sargur area.
Pos. [°2Th.]
Height [cts]
FWHM [°2Th.]
d-spacing [Å]
Rel. Int. [%]
Weathered Top Weathered Top Weathered Top Weathered Top Weathered Top
rock
soil
rock
soil
rock
soil
rock
soil
rock
soil
6.9983
9.3723
23.33
63.54
0.1188
0.2512
12.62087
9.42868
6.87
11.50
7.8479
13.0001
20.83
46.28
0.0378
0.7392
11.25642
6.80451
6.14
8.37
10.2369
20.4696
36.12
55.43
0.4217
0.2837
8.63418
4.33526
10.64
10.03
16.4022
21.3781
22.45
69.72
0.2081
0.0394
5.40001
4.15303
6.61
12.62
20.1664
22.5261
123.61
158.34
0.3950
0.2409
4.39974
3.94390
36.41
28.65
21.0636
24.7531
32.55
104.87
0.7056
0.2688
4.21433
3.59389
9.59
18.98
22.6037
25.9374
22.46
63.93
0.5714
0.2135
3.93055
3.43242
6.62
11.57
24.4132
27.1415
48.71
552.67
0.2068
0.3094
3.64315
3.28282
14.35
100.00
26.9364
28.3484
339.52
536.00
0.3082
0.3122
3.30734
3.14574
100.00
96.98
28.1790
30.8800
55.83
56.48
0.0719
0.1541
3.16426
2.89337
16.44
10.22
33.4605
35.4022
25.09
96.88
0.7821
0.1893
2.67589
2.53345
7.39
17.53
39.6703
36.9740
29.84
50.43
0.1438
0.1371
2.27016
2.42928
8.79
9.12
40.8283
42.8415
18.14
100.83
0.3313
0.1937
2.20841
2.10917
5.34
18.24
42.6815
50.4696
42.58
66.39
0.2775
0.3915
2.11671
1.80682
12.54
12.01
43.6789
55.4297
27.81
45.41
0.2328
0.6951
2.07066
1.65630
8.19
8.22
60.1906
60.3207
22.04
59.74
0.0668
0.3248
1.53618
1.53317
6.49
10.81
60.6894
65.6762
21.69
46.96
0.0731
0.2169
1.52474
1.42052
6.39
8.50
62.4694
68.4163
51.82
48.67
0.2048
0.2403
1.48550
1.37015
15.26
8.81
68.4385
nd
39.59
nd
0.1472
141
nd
1.36976
nd
11.66
nd
B
A
\Figure- 4.24: XRD patterns of soil samples weathered (A) and top soil (B) zone
from Sargur area.
Table- 4.21: XRD data of soil sample from different horizons in Sargur area.
Pos. [°2Th.]
Height [cts]
FWHM [°2Th.]
d-spacing [Å]
Weathered Top Weathered Top Weathered Top Weathered
rock
soil
rock
soil
rock
soil
rock
Top
soil
Rel. Int. [%]
Weathered Top
rock
soil
10.9047
6.6938
22.72
85.25
0.0945
0.3742
8.10686
13.19423
17.09
59.12
18.3173
12.7680
29.64
12.62
0.0134
4.0000
4.83952
6.92768
22.30
8.75
25.6884
20.2001
30.07
144.20
0.0395
0.4603
3.46512
4.39248
22.63
100.00
26.9816
24.3898
132.91
22.53
0.2557
1.5654
3.30190
3.64660
100.00
15.62
28.8820
26.0255
59.80
13.16
0.2349
4.0000
3.08882
3.42100
45.00
9.13
29.7918
28.9961
106.45
60.85
0.2215
0.1085
2.99654
3.07693
80.09
42.20
33.4649
30.1599
52.94
37.16
0.3315
0.1789
2.67555
2.96079
39.84
25.77
39.8154
30.8584
22.03
46.12
1.3665
0.1548
2.26222
2.89535
16.57
31.99
43.7035
33.4676
29.91
25.08
0.3528
0.3444
2.06955
2.67534
22.50
17.39
45.8976
35.3013
8.21
43.13
0.0330
0.9234
1.97559
2.54046
6.17
29.91
64.2843
45.3696
39.05
44.49
0.1407
0.3742
1.44787
1.99735
29.38
30.85
nd
61.7653
nd
108.96
nd
0.6424
nd
1.50073
nd
75.56
nd
65.4242
nd
8.44
nd
3.6143
nd
1.42538
nd
5.85
nd
69.1912
nd
33.26
nd
0.1743
nd
1.35668
nd
23.07
142
A
B
Figure- 4.25: XRD patterns of soil samples weathered (A) and top soil (B) zone from
Gundlupet.
Table- 4.22: XRD data of soil sample from different horizons in Gundlupet area.
Pos. [°2Th.]
Height [cts]
FWHM [°2Th.]
d-spacing [Å]
Rel. Int. [%]
Weathered Top Weathered Top Weathered Top Weathered Top Weathered Top
rock
soil
rock
soil
rock
soil
rock
soil
rock
soil
20.3711
12.5687
48.73
107.94
0.2666
0.3072
4.35600
7.03709
13.44
16.78
21.4022
14.1838
79.93
52.39
0.2638
0.0125
4.14840
6.23922
22.04
8.15
23.6223
20.2287
138.93
197.71
0.0186
0.5893
3.76332
4.38633
38.31
30.74
25.9322
21.1354
29.67
204.19
0.1657
0.4995
3.43310
4.20017
8.18
31.75
26.9591
21.9950
344.02
94.62
0.2972
3.6495
3.30461
4.03793
94.87
14.71
28.2081
25.1640
362.63
149.29
0.2110
1.9090
3.16106
3.53613
100.00
23.21
29.7633
26.9233
26.72
643.17
0.4007
0.2382
2.99933
3.30893
7.37
100.00
39.9005
28.1289
35.86
364.24
0.1928
0.5903
2.25759
3.16979
9.89
56.63
46.0743
30.5431
58.09
60.50
0.1499
3.7269
1.96842
2.92451
16.02
9.41
60.2499
39.8213
48.10
72.56
0.2308
0.1377
1.53481
2.26189
13.27
11.28
62.4423
42.0302
37.52
76.26
0.3476
0.2152
1.48608
2.14799
10.35
11.86
65.5583
42.7252
52.68
69.74
0.3686
0.1042
1.42278
2.11464
14.53
10.84
68.4721
45.7948
40.10
70.41
0.4106
0.5112
1.36917
1.97978
11.06
10.95
nd
62.3916
nd
49.24
nd
1.8993
nd
1.48717
nd
7.66
nd
64.0410
nd
78.47
nd
0.3741
nd
1.45278
nd
12.20
nd
68.4069
nd
69.61
nd
0.2104
nd
1.37031
nd
10.82
nd
47.3568
nd
51.99
nd
0.1769
nd
1.91806
nd
8.08
143
A
Figure- 4.26: XRD patterns of soil samples from Doddakanya area.
Table- 4.23: XRD data of soil sample in Doddakanya area.
Pos.
[°2Th.]
Height FWHM d-spacing Rel. Int.
[cts]
[°2Th.]
[Å]
[%]
Top soil
Top soil
Top soil
Top soil
Top soil
12.3394
330.68
0.2330
7.16731
61.36
24.5320
328.25
0.3144
3.62577
60.91
26.8176
190.97
0.1426
3.32172
35.43
31.0793
75.52
0.1092
2.87527
14.01
32.7722
538.93
0.2921
2.73051
100.00
35.9889
302.44
0.3274
2.49348
56.12
42.0419
82.42
0.0252
2.14742
15.29
43.1326
275.99
0.2109
2.09561
51.21
46.9941
78.70
0.2439
1.93202
14.60
52.3670
100.83
0.1047
1.74573
18.71
54.0398
229.37
0.2471
1.69557
42.56
60.2960
84.30
0.2975
1.53374
15.64
61.6095
76.38
0.3063
1.50416
14.17
144
Table- 4.24: The minerals identified by XRD analysis.
Profile No.
Area
Soils name
(Sand, Silt,
Clay)
Minerals in the
weathered rocks
Minerals in the Top Soil
1
Chikkahali
Clay
2
Chikkahali
Loam
Smectite,Calcite and
Quartz
Kaolinite, Calcite, Chlorite and Quartz
3
Chikkahali
Clay loam
nd
Calcite, Montmorillinite, Illite and
Quartz
4
Belagula
Clay loam
Illite and Quartz
Kaolinite, Illite and Quartz
5
Belagula
Clay loam
6
Bettadabidu
Loam
nd
Vermiculite, Calcite, Illite and Quartz
7
Bettadabidu
Loam
nd
Chlorite, Calcite and Smectite
8
Bettadabidu
Loam
nd
Chlorite, Hematite, Calcium ferric and
Quartz
9
Sargur
Loam
Chlorite, Kaolinite,
Smectite and Quartz
Smectite, Kaolinite, Illite, Allophone,
Calcium ferric and Quartz
10
Sargur
Loam
Chlorite, Kaolinite,
Smectite, Illite, Allophone
and Quartz
Calcite, Kaolinite (Halloysite),
Smectite, Illite and Quartz
11
Sargur
Sandy loam
Chlorite, Kaolinite, Illite),
Montmorilinite,
Allophone and Quartz
Calcite and Illite
12
Sargur
Loam
Chlorite and Calcite
Hematite
Chlorite, Kaolinite, Illite,
Montmorilinite and Quartz
13
Gundlupet
Loam
Calcite (Calcite
magnetite) and Quartz
Chlorite, Kaolinite, Calcite (Calcite
magnetite), Microcline, sericite,
Quartz
14
Doddakanya
Loam
nd
Kaolinite-serpantinite, Vermiculite
and Hematite
Chlorite, Illite, Kaolinite , Illite, Kaolinite, Smectite and Quartz
Smectite and Quartz
Illite, Gypsum, Kaolinite, Illite, Smectite, Kaolinite (Halloysite)
Smectite, Sepiolite and
and Quartz
Pyroxene
145
4.3.3 Physico-Chemical Parameters
Physico-chemical properties of soils depend on both natural and anthropogenic
factors, together acting over different spatial and temporal scales. The results of the
physico-chemical analysis namely gravel, sand, silt, clay, pH, electrical conductivity
(EC), organic matter (OM), total nitrogen (N), available phosphorus (P), available
potassium (K), available Iron (Fe), available manganese (Mn), available zinc (Zn),
available cupper (Cu) and moisture content in all fourteen paleosols profiles from six
study areas in and around Mysore district have been presented in the tables- 4.25 and
4.26 .
4.3.3.1 Gravel
All the paleosol profiles were characterized by moderate gravel content throughout
the profile horizons with a tendency to slightly increase with depth especially in C
horizon. In all the study profiles gradual increase towards the parent horizon was
observed (table- 4.25). In the pedon developed on gneiss in Gundlupet area, high
gravel content (74%) have recorded.
4.3.3.2 Sand
All the pedons are characterized by moderate to high total sand content ranging from
12 per cent to 70 per cent in different paleosol profiles. Except in the profile
developed on amphibolite, the sand content increased towards the C horizon (table4.25). The distribution was either uniform or slight decrease with depth.
4.3.3.3 Silt
Silt content in the studied profiles ranged from 18 to 60 per cent in horizons (table4.25). The percentages of silt were varied in the profiles and might be due to variation
in weathering of parent material. These results were in agreement with the findings of
Naidu (2002), who reported an irregular trend in silt content with depth in sugarcane
growing soils of Karnataka.
4.3.3.4 Clay
Clay content ranged from 10 to 48 per cent in top soils, 9 to 40 per cent in weathered
zone (B) and from 10 to 39.5 per cent in highly weathered soil profiles, exhibiting
146
narrowing of range passing through uplands to lowlands (table- 4.25). The High clay
content in top horizons is due to the illuviation process occurring during soil
development. Similarly, the illuviation process also affected the vertical distribution
of silt and sand content. Similar observations were also made by Sharma et al. (2004).
The midlands and lowlands showed increased trend up to B horizons of these pedons
and it is reduced in lower horizons, which might be due to accumulation of clay
particles from the uplands.
4.3.3.5 pH
The soil profile pH is a measurement of acidity or alkalinity of a soil, which affects
the availability of nutrients, activity of microorganisms and the solubility of soil
minerals, however in horizons B and C the pH value are affected due to solubility of
minerals as well as moisture. Based on definition of USDA (1999), the pH
measurement is actually measuring the hydrogen ion activity (H+) in the soil solution.
The soil formation and development appears to be a dominants factor on the
formation of different pH values of these areas.
The pH of the soil profiles from Chikkahali area varies from 7.5 to 8. The pH of the
top soil in Belagula area was 7.9- 8.2, in Bettadabidu was 7.8- 8, in Sargur area was
around 7.5-8.2, in Gundlupet was 8.6 and in Doddakanya was 8.2. The variation in pH
across the horizons of soil in all study profiles have been represented in table- 4.25.
The soil pH of study areas shows slightly acidic to neutral and from neutral to mildly
alkaline (according to USDA, 1999), and less variation have been observed in soil
horizons. The gradually increasing soil pH in the horizons of soil profile (weathered
to top soil) is the evidence of soil formation and high degree of development of the
soil (Shrikant et al., 1993).
4.3.3.6 Electrical Conductivity (EC)
Electrical conductivity of all soil samples from different horizons has been tested and
the value reported in units of millimhos per centimeter (mmhos/cm). According to
Pillai and Natarajan (2004) the EC ranged from 0.02 to 0.20 (mmhos/cm) indicated
non-saline nature of the soil.
147
The EC value of the soil sample in the study area range between 0.1 mmhos/cm to
0.28 mmhos/cm indicating that the soils are nonsaline. The table- 4.25 characterized
the soil according to its EC value in top soil as well as horizons. The EC value from
bed rock towards the top soil gradually increased due to chemical and physical
weathering and availability of ions generated in the process of soil formation.
4.3.3.7 Organic Carbon
Present organic carbon in the soil of study areas range from 0.03% to 1.2%. The
variation of soil organic matter across the study areas as well as soil horizons has been
represented in table- 4.25. Walia and Rao (1996) working with red soils of
Bundelkhand watershed of Uttar Pradesh, noticed that the organic carbon content of
soils (0.5 – 1.5%) decreased with depth. The distribution was mainly associated with
physiography and land use.
SOC is the main constituent of SOM. SOM is formed by the biological, chemical and
physical decay of organic materials that enter the soil system from sources above
ground (e.g. leaf fall, crop residues, animal wastes and remains) or below ground (e.g.
roots, soil biota). In general the concentration of organic carbon is lower in the subsoil
compared to the top soil on the other hand with increasing the soil deep the OC value
decrease. This is possibly due to the influence of fresh organic matter inputs on the
top soil from straws, dead roots, leaf litter and manure in some cases. Based on
Bationo (2001) fine fractions, higher in the subsoil are important soil component in
the direct stabilization of organic molecules. The clay and also silt also play a key role
in organic carbon stabilization.
4.3.3.8 Total Nitrogen
The total nitrogen of soil sample from different study areas varies between 0.0005
Kg/ha to 0.64 Kg/ha. Total nitrogen content in top soil significantly high due to
effects of total organic matter. The distribution of soil total nitrogen in different study
sites and along soil horizons represented in table- 4.26. The bulk of the soil nitrogen is
tied up in soil organic carbon. This is in total agreement with Stevenson (1982) who
stated that over 90 % of nitrogen in the soil is bound to organic matter, from which a
large amount becomes available to plants only after mineralization. Generally, the
148
higher the organic carbon and nitrogen contents the higher potential productivity and
soil resiliency.
4.3.3.9 Moisture Content
The role of moisture in the soil and soil formation is critical. High moisture
availability in soil promotes the weathering of bedrock and sediments, chemical
reactions, and plant growth. The availability of moisture also has an influence on soil
pH and the decomposition of organic matter.
The moisture contents of soils in the study areas verified from 2% to 19%. The
moisture value of the soil profiles along with different horizons is presented at table4.25.
4.3.3.10 Available Phosphorus (P)
Available phosphorous in the sampling sites varies between 1 Kg/ha to 32 Kg/ha.
Available phosphorous refers to the inorganic form, occurring in the soil solution,
which is almost exclusively ‘orthophosphate’. The weathering and pedogenesis
change the soil P chemistry (distribution of inorganic P as well as the P retention
properties in the profile); Apatite is the only primary mineral in igneous rocks with a
significant P content. During the soil formation, this original P pool decreases to
secondary forms such as organic P. The P content of soil samples of all six study
areas has been represented in table- 4.26.
4.3.3.11 Available potassium (K)
Available potassium ranges from 6 Kg/ha to 155 Kg/ha. The variation of available K
across the study aresa has been represented in table- 4.26. The K is usually the most
abundant in soils (Reitemeier, 1951). Igneous rocks of the Earth’s crust have higher K
contents than sedimentary rocks. Of the igneous rocks, granites and syenites contain
46 to 54, basalts 7, and peridotites 2.0 g K/kg. Among the sedimentary rocks, clayey
shales contain 30, whereas limestones have an average of only 6 g/kg (Malavolta,
1985). Mineral soils generally range between 0.04 and 3% K. Total K contents in
soils range between 3000 and 100,000 kg/ ha in the upper 0.2 m of the soil profile. Of
this total K content, 98% is bound in the mineral form, whereas 2% is in soil solution
149
and exchangeable phases (Schroeder, 1979; Bertsch and Thomas, 1985). As noted
earlier, most of the total K in soils is in the mineral form, mainly as K-bearing
primary minerals such as muscovite, biotite, and feldspars. Common soil K-bearing
minerals, in the order of availability of their K to plants, are biotite, muscovite,
orthoclase, and microcline (Huang et al., 1968). Mineral K is generally assumed to be
only slowly available to plants; however, the availability is dependent on the level of
K in the other forms, and the degree of weathering of the feldspars and micas
constituting the mineral K fraction (Sparks and Huang, 1985; Sparks, 1989).
The release of K from micas proceeds by two processes: (1) the transformation of Kbearing micas to expansible 2: 1 layer silicates by exchanging the K with hydrated
cations, and (2) the dissolution of the micas followed by the formation of weathering
products. The relative importance of these two mechanisms depends on the stability
of micas and the nature of soil environments (Sparks and Jardine, 1981; Sparks,
2000). Based on current research in the soil of study area large amounts of k are due
to the mechanisms of weathering. The result revealed that the top soil contain high
amount of K compare to lower horizons.
4.3.3.12 Available Iron (Fe)
The available iron in soil samples of the study areas ranges from 1.78 ppm to 20.4
ppm table- 4. 26. During the weathering, four components are released from the rock;
minerals in solution, oxides of iron and alumina, various forms of silica, and stable
wastes as very fine silt (mostly fine quartz) and coarser quartz (sand). Soil colour is
primarily influenced by soil mineralogy. Many soils colour are due to various iron
minerals. The development and distribution of colour in a soil profile result from
chemical and biological weathering, especially redox reactions. Iron oxides give
tropical soils their unique reddish coloring. The abundance of iron and aluminum
oxides found in these soils are the results of strong chemical weathering and heavy
leaching. The presence of the iron oxides causes the A horizon of these soils to be
stained red. Leaching causes these soils to have low quantities of base cations.
4.3.3.13 Available Manganese (Mn)
By weathering of igneous and metamorphic rock, Mn (II) is released. This Mn (II) is
oxidized to Mn (III) and Mn (IV) in presence of oxygen. Manganese can form more
150
than 30 known oxide and hydroxide minerals. Sometimes they also appear in
combined valence forms, containing both Mn (III) and Mn (IV). Manganese oxides
are characterized by open crystal structures, large surface areas and high negative
charges (Tebo et al., 2004).
The Mn contents of profile samples were collected from 14 sites, shows ranged from
0.66 ppm to 21.1 ppm. The table- 4.26 represented the amount of Mn in all 14 sites.
4.3.3.14 Available Zinc (Zn)
The Zinc content of soil sample in the study area was ranged between 0.02 ppm to 2.5
ppm. Zn is usually present in the ferromagnesian minerals. Due to ionic radii, the zinc
shows similarity to magnesium iron group of minerals. The table- 4.26 represented the
Zn values in all horizons of soil profiles in the study areas. The result shows the
distribution of Zinc in all horizons of the soil profiles of the study areas.
4.3.3.15 Available Cupper (Cu)
The available Cu content of sampling sites and along the profiles varied between 0.11
ppm to 3.14 ppm. The pH is a major parameter in solubility of Cu. the ionic potential
of Cu is less than 3 and it is expected to pass into the ionic solution and thereby got
depleted (Rao and Murthy, 1981) during the process of weathering and leaching. On
the other hand the higher concentration of Cu in some soils is due to the highest
concentration of iron as Cu replaces ferrous iron due to their similarity in ionic radii
(Rankama and Shama, 1950). The table- 4.26 clearly represented the Cu values in
sample profile in the study areas.
4.3.4 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
The results of the statistical analysis, namely, correlation between chemical and
physical parameters are presented in tables- 4.27 to 4.32.
In the soil samples of Chikkahali area, pH is positively correlated with OC (r =
0.918), N (r = 0.906), clay (r = 0.918) and negatively correlated with Fe (r = -0.832)
and sand (r = -0.742). EC is positively correlated with P (r = 1), Zn (r = 0.913), sand(r
= 0.581), silt (r = -0.982) and negatively correlated with K (r = -0.931), Mn (r = 0.785) and clay (r = -0.930). OC is positively correlated with N (r = 1) and negatively
151
correlated with sand (r = -0.947). K is negatively correlated with Zn (r = -0.999) and
positively correlated with silt (r = 0.982). Mn is positively correlated with Fe (r =
0.980) and silt (r = 0.888) table- 4.27.
In the soil sample of Belagula area EC value is positively correlated with silt (r =
0.982) and clay (r = 0.786); and negatively correlated with sand (r = -.835). OC is
positively correlated with N (r = 0.995), Zn (r = 0.921), Mn (r = 0.984) and Fe (r =
0.926); and negatively correlated with P (r = -0.967). Zn is positively correlated with
Cu (r = 1), Mn (r = 0.976) and Fe (r = 1) table- 4.28.
In Bettadabidu area the soil data is statistically analyzed. pH is positively correlated
with OC (r = 0.866) and K (r = 0.924); and negatively correlated with sand (r = -1)
and Cu (r = -0.999). EC is positively correlated with Cu (r = 0.903), Mn (r = 0.926),
Fe (r = 0.985) and sand (r = 0.929); and negatively correlated with K (r = -0.715) and
OC (r = -0.619), whereas Cu is positively correlated with sand (r = 0.998) and silt(r =
0.554) table- 4.29.
In the soil sample of Sargur area P is highly correlatable with Zn (r = 0.905), Cu (r =
0.914), Mn (r = 0.973), Fe (r = 0.999) and silt (r = 0.956) whereas Mn is positively
correlated with Fe (r = 0.936) and sand (r = 0.811); and negatively correlated with silt
(r = -0.999) table- 4.30.
In the case of Gundlupet area, Mn is positively correlated with pH (r = 0.991), OC (r
= 1), N (r = 1), P (r = 0.999), K (r = 0.995), Zn (r = 0.976) and Cu (r = 0.996). A
positive correlation is seen between OC and P (r = 0.999) and a negative correlation is
seen between EC and silt (r = -0.684). A positive correlation exists between K and Fe
(r = 1) Table- 4.31.
In the Doddakanya area, OC strongly correlated with P (r =1) and negatively
correlated with total N(r = -1). There are significant and fairly strong positive
correlations between Zn and Cu (r = 0.999), Zn and sand (r = 0.956), Fe and silt (r =
0.999) as well as P and Mn (r = 0.966) Table- 4.32. In the present study, EC is
positively correlated with silt and negatively with clay in the almost soil profiles.
According to Joshi et al (1983), the influence of soil parameters on DTPA extractable
micronutrients in texturally different soils of arid and semi arid lands and they
152
appeared variable. Based on them the DTPA extractable manganese was influenced
positively in coarse textured soils by OC and free manganese and in fine textured soils
by iron. The DTPA extractable copper in coarse and medium texture soils appeared
related with the OC content.
Distributions of trace elements in the semi arid soils of Haryana and their relationship
with soil property have been extensively studied by Sangwan and Singh (1993).
According to them Mn had significant negative correlation with pH and EC, whereas
available Cu is significantly and positively correlated with OC and clay.
In the present study total N positively correlated with Zn in the study areas like
Chikkahali, Belagula and Gundlupet, whereas in Bettadabidu, Sargur and
Doddakanya the correlation was negative. Except in the Chikkahali area, in all other
study areas, Zn was highly correlated with cu. In all the soil profiles developed on
different bed rocks of the study areas the Mn was positively correlated with Fe.
Sims (1986) has studied the soil pH effect on distribution of Mn, Cu and Zn. He
demonstrated that soil pH markedly altered distribution of Mn and Zn but had little
effect on Cu. Khetawat and Vashishtha (1977) have studied the distribution of
micronutrients and their relationship with soil properties in the vineyards of
Rajasthan. They have found that available Cu is positively correlated with pH and
organic carbon and negatively correlated with calcium carbonate.
153
Table- 4.25: The physico-chemical parameters of the soil samples of the studies area.
Area
Profile
No.
Horizons
Gravel
%
Sand
%
Silt
%
Clay
%
Mois.
%
pH
%
EC
mmhos/cm
OC
%
Chikkahali
1
A
B
3
8
22
28
30
32
48
40
3.75
3.75
8
7.6
0.1
0.13
1.2
1.2
Chikkahali
2
Chikkahali
3
Belagula
4
Belagula
5
Bettadabidu
6
Bettadabidu
7
Bettadabidu
8
Sargur
9
Sargur
10
Sargur
11
Sargur
12
Gundlupet
13
Doddakanya
14
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
19
1
5
8
12
17
19
4
11
12
19
19
54
37.5
39
43
27.5
28
30
34
37
39
25.5
59
61
5
21
49.5
4.5
27.5
43.5
3
31
53.5
67
72
74
37.5
39
40
21
40.5
22.5
21
39
35
28
50
40
20.5
46.5
30
34.5
40
38
33
42
40
38
41
41
39
12
40
35
47
46
45
62
49
57
40
43
55
70
44
48
47
45
47
60
46.5
66
63
26
38
36
36
42
40
43.5
32
36
39
42
45
41
44
47
43
46
43
40
53
55
39
41
42
28
39
29
47
43
36
18
39
38
40
46
41
19
13
11.5
16
35
27
36
14
18
39.5
10
38
29.5
21
20
22
17
16
15
16
14
18
48
10
10
14
13
13
10
12
14
13
14
9
12
17
14
13
9
12
3.75
2.5
3.75
4
6.6
7
7
5
5
3.3
6
5
3
10
8
6
12
6
5
10
5
4
9
14
10
19
8
5
4
3
9
5
14
5
5
15
15
2
4
5
7.2
7.8
7.4
7.2
7.5
7.2
7.2
7.9
7.6
7.2
8.2
7.6
7.2
8
7.3
7.2
7.8
7.5
7
7.9
7
6.9
7.6
7.2
7.2
7.5
7.2
7.1
8
7
6.5
8.2
7.7
7.1
8.6
8
7.8
8.2
7.9
7
0.1
0.17
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.11
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.15
0.13
0.1
0.28
0.18
0.1
0.17
0.13
0.11
0.1
0.15
0.12
0.1
0.1
0.13
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.12
0.15
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.13
0.1
0.11
0.14
0.06
0.72
0.03
nd
0.57
0.1
0.05
0.24
0.09
0.03
0.66
0.03
0.09
0.42
0.1
0.06
0.18
0.08
0.03
0.18
0.08
0.03
0.96
0.12
0.08
0.45
0.24
0.24
0.12
0.18
0.21
0.12
0.3
0.09
0.54
0.15
0.1
0.03
0.03
0.01
154
Table- 4.26: The physico-chemical parameters of the soil samples of the studies area.
Area
Profile
No.
Horizon
s
N
Kg/ha
Chikkahali
1
Chikkahali
2
Chikkahali
3
Belagula
4
Belagula
5
Bettadabidu
6
Bettadabidu
7
Bettadabidu
8
Sargur
9
Sargur
10
Sargur
11
Sargur
12
Gundlupet
13
Doddakanya
14
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
A
B
C
0.64
0.64
0.03
0.36
0.015
nd
0.285
0.005
0.0025
0.012
0.0045
0.0015
0.033
0.0045
0.0015
0.021
0.005
0.003
0.09
0.004
0.0015
0.09
0.004
0.0015
0.48
0.06
0.004
0.0225
0.012
0.012
0.006
0.009
0.0105
0.006
0.015
0.0045
0.027
0.0075
0.005
0.015
0.015
0.0005
155
P
Kg/h
a
4
2
2
32
2
2
4
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
1
3
2
2
3
2
1
3
4
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
6
17
6
4
3
2
1
K
Kg/h
a
91
18
9
45
9
6
118
16
9
45
9
9
36
9
9
155
12
9
91
10
9
100
8
8
55
82
9
73
9
9
73
9
9
100
109
9
73
9
8
9
6
6
Zn
PPM
Cu
PP
M
0.3
0.94
0.9
1.82
0.8
0.23
0.53
0.23
0.3
0.11
0.27
0.08
0.14
1.61
0.12
1.45
0.08
1.32
1.58
1.75
0.11
0.34
0.54
0.42
2.5
2.54
0.53
0.81
0.16
0.82
0.33
0.63
0.26
0.35
0.18
0.12
0.036 0.81
0.027 0.65
0.015 0.52
0.19
0.73
0.13
0.54
0.08
0.38
0.04 0.66
0.47 1.25
0.6
2
0.3
2.33
0.47
1.7
0.82 2.02
0.84 3.14
0.3
1.57
0.55 0.29
0.53 1.77
0.4
1.93
0.19 0.43
0.35 1.53
0.02 0.42
0.06
0.4
0.94 0.54
0.53 0.32
0.21 0.17
Mn
PP
M
3.7
7.2
4.5
2.09
0.42
0.3
6.4
5.3
3.7
6.37
2.75
2.96
11.3
1.75
7.85
19.9
12.3
9
21.1
19.7
7.6
19.5
17.2
13.7
6.88
20.4
16.2
14.4
10.8
9.37
19.4
8.94
1.29
15.6
11.8
1.59
15.8
6.47
5.2
6.68
6.3
4.7
Fe
PP
M
3.15
11.3
5.52
2.78
1.78
1.45
4.73
3.2
2.7
3.27
2
5.27
4
5.78
5.5
8.34
7.5
5.2
6.92
4.6
3.1
7.07
6.2
4.2
7.65
9.23
12.6
6.66
7.46
5.24
20.4
7.39
6.87
5.98
4.61
6.79
10.4
3.17
3.2
11
5
2.5
Table- 4.27: Pearson’s co-efficient of correlation for soil parameters of Chikkahali
area.
pH
pH
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
1
EC
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
OC
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
P
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
K
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Zn
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Cu
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Mn
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Fe
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
.115
.927
.918
.260
.906
.278
.115
.927
.470
.688
.510
.659
-.583
.604
-.706
.501
.-832
.374
-.742
.468
.300
.806
.258
.834
Sand Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Silt
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Clay
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
EC
OC
N
P
K
Zn
Cu
Mn
Fe
1
-.289 1
.813
-.316 1*
1
.795 .018
1* -.289 -.316
.813 .795
-.931 -.081 -.053
.238 .949 .966
.913 .126 .098
.268 .919 .937
-.874 -.212 -.184
.323 .864 .882
-.785 -.366 -.340
.426 .761 .779
.647 -.543 -.519
.552 .635 .653
.581 -.947 -.956
.606 .207 .190
.982 -.103 -.131
.121 .934 .916
-.930 .621 .643
.240 .574 .556
*.Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
1
-.931
1
.238
.913 -.999** 1
.268 .029
-.874 .991 -.996 1
.323 .084
.05
-.785 .957 .969 .987
1
.426 .187 .158 .103
-.647 .881 -.902 .936 .980 1
.552 .314 .285 .230 .127
.581 -.243 .198 -.112 .049 246
.606 .844 .873 .928 0.969 .842
.982 .983 .974 .950 .888 .779
.121 .117 .147 .202 .305 .431
-.930 .731 .699 .635 .502 .321
.240 .478 .507 .562 .665 .794
**.Correlation is significant at the 0.05
level (2-tailed)
156
Table- 4.28: Pearson’s co-efficient of correlation for soil parameters of Belagula area.
pH
pH
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
1
EC
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
OC
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
P
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
K
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Zn
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Cu
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Mn
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Fe
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
0
1
.965
.170
.986
.106
-.866
.333
.721
.488
.991
.084
.987
.103
.996
.056
.993
.077
-.551
.629
.189
.879
.619
.575
Sand Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Silt
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Clay
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
EC
OC
N
P
K
Zn
Cu
Mn
Fe
1
-.264
.830
-.165
.894
.500
.667
.693
.512
.132
.916
.161
.897
-.088
.944
.120
.923
-.835
.371
.982
.121
.786
.425
1
.995
.064
-.967
.163
.512
.658
.921
.254
.910
.273
.984
.114
.926
.247
-.311
.799
-.077
.951
.389
.745
1
-.937 1
.228
.596 -.277
.593 .821
.956 -.793
.190 .417
.947 -.744
.208 .436
.997 -.907
.050 .277
.959 -.800
.183 .410
-.405 .060
.734 .962
.024 .327
.985 .788
.480 -.143
.681 .909
*Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
1
.806
1
.404
.823
1*
1
.385 .019
.657 .976 .969
1
.544 .140 .159
.799
1* .999** .978
1
.411 .007 .026 .133
-.976 -.656 .678 -.475 -.647
.141 .545 .526 .685 .552
.817 .317 .344 .102 .306
.391 .795 .776 .935 .802
.991 .717 .737 .547 .709
.088 .491 .473 .632 .499
**.Correlation is significant at the 0.05
level (2-tailed)
157
Table- 4.29: Pearson’s co-efficient of correlation for soil parameters of Bettadabidu
area.
pH
pH
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
1
EC
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
OC
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
P
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
K
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Zn
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Cu
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Mn
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Fe
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
-.929
.242
.866
.333
-.866
.333
-.866
.333
.924
.250
-.165
.894
-.999**
.041
-.721
.488
-.851
.352
-1*
Sand Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Silt
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Clay
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
EC
OC
N
P
K
Zn
Cu
Mn
Fe
1
.
.978
.135
.721
.488
-.240
.846
-.091
.942
1
1
-.619
.575
.619
.575
.619
.575
-.715
.492
.520
.652
.903
.283
.926
.246
.985
.110
.929
.242
-.500 .143
.667 .909
.756 -.459
.454 .696
1
-1*
1
-1*
1*
1
.992
.083
.350
.772
-.896
.293
-.277
.821
-.474
.686
-.866
.333
-.866
.333
.982
.121
-.992
.083
-.350
.772
.896
.293
.277
.821
.474
.686
.866
.333
.866
.333
-.982
.121
-.992
.083
-.350
.772
.896
.293
.277
.821
.474
.686
.866
.333
.866
.333
-.982
.121
*.Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
1
.225
.855
-.946
.210
-.400
.738
-.584
.603
-.924
.250
-.794
.416
.949
.204
1
.102
.935
.803
.407
.659
.542
.165
.894
-.771
.439
.521
.651
1
.675
.529
.815
.393
.998
.041
.554
.626
-.796
.414
.851
.352
-.030
.981
-.299
.807
**.Correlation is significant at the 0.05
level (2-tailed)
158
Table- 4.30: Pearson’s co-efficient of correlation for soil parameters of Sargur area.
pH
pH
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
1
EC
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
OC
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
P
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
K
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Zn
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Cu
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Mn
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Fe
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
.721
.488
-.961
.179
-.961
.179
.240
.845
.721
.488
.629
.567
-.175
.888
.457
.698
.199
.872
.891
.300
-.513
.657
-.721
.488
Sand Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Silt
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Clay
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
EC
OC
N
P
K
Zn
Cu
Mn
Fe
1
-.500 1
.667
-.500 1*
1
.667
-.500 -.500 -.500
1
.667 .667 .667
1* -.500 -.500 -.500
.667 .667 .667
-.085 -820 -820 .905
.946 388 388 .279
-.809 -.105 -.105 .914
.400 .933 .933 .267
-.288 .686 .686 .973
.814 .519 .519 .148
-.536 -.463 -.463 .999**
.640 .693 .693 .027
.327 -.982 -.982 .655
.788 .121 .121 .546
.225 .731 .731 .956
.856 .478 .478 .189
-1* .500 .500 .500
.667 .667 .667
*.Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
1
-.085
.946
-.809
.400
-.288
.814
-.536
.640
327
.788
.225
.856
-1*
1
.655
.546
.979
.131
.887
.306
.914
.267
-.990
.090
085
.946
1
.796
1
.414
.930 .936
1
.240 .174
.291 .811 .622
.812 .398 .572
-.755 -.999** -.943
.455 .041 .215
.809 .288 .536
.400 .814 .640
**.Correlation is significant at the 0.05
level (2-tailed)
159
Table- 4.31: Pearson’s co-efficient of correlation for soil parameters of Gundlupet
area.
pH
pH
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
1
EC
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
OC
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
P
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
K
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Zn
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Cu
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Mn
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Fe
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
-.693
.512
.990
.088
.990
.088
.995
.063
.974
.146
.938
.225
.974
.145
.991
.084
.970
.157
-.240
.846
-.051
.967
.911
.270
Sand Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Silt
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Clay
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
EC
OC
N
P
K
Zn
Cu
Mn
Fe
1
.
.994
.072
-.110
.930
-.183
.883
.849
.355
1
1
-.587
1
.600
-.587 1*
1
.600
-.619 .999** .999** 1
.575 .025 .025
-.512 .996 .996 .992
1
.658 .058 .058 .083
-.401 .977 .977 .968 .992
1
.738 .137 .137 .162 .079
-.513 .996 .996 .992
1*
.992
1
.657 .056 .056 .081 .001 .081
-.592 1*
1* .999** .995 .976 .996
.597 .004 .004 .021 .061 .141 .060
.497 .994 .994 .989
1*
.994 1*
.669 .068 .068 .094 .011 .069 0.12
.866 -.104 -.104 -.143 -.013 .111 -.015
.333 .934 .934 .909 .991 .929 .990
-.684 -.189 -.189 -.150 -277 -.394 -.275
.520 .879 .879 .904 .822 .742 .823
-.929 .846 .846 .866 .794 .712 .795
.242 .358 .358 .333 .416 .495 .415
*.Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
004
.998
-.298
.811
.783
.427
**.Correlation is significant at the 0.05
level (2-tailed)
160
Table- 4.32: Pearson’s co-efficient of correlation for soil parameters of Doddakanya
area.
pH
pH
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
1
EC
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
OC
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
P
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
K
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Zn
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Cu
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Mn
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Fe
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
.038
.976
.971
.154
-.971
.154
.971
.154
.693
.512
.939
.224
.925
.248
.995
.066
.344
.777
.196
.058
.277
.821
-.885
.309
Sand Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Silt
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Clay
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
EC
OC
N
P
K
Zn
Cu
Mn
Fe
1
.277
.821
-.277
.821
.277
.821
-.693
.512
-.309
.800
-.344
.776
.142
.909
.952
.199
-.052
. 967
.971
.154
.500
.667
1
-1*
1
1*
-1*
1
.500
.667
.828
.379
.807
.403
.990
.088
.559
.622
.945
.212
.500
.667
-.971
.154
-.500
.667
-.828
.379
-.807
.403
-.990
.088
-.559
.622
-.945
.212
-.500
.667
.971
.154
.500
.667
.828
.379
.807
.403
.990
.088
.559
.622
.945
.212
.500
.667
-.971
.154
*.Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
161
1
.899
.288
.915
.264
.615
.579
-.438
.711
.756
.454
-.500
.667
-.277
.821
1
.999**
.024
.898
.290
-.001
.999
.966
.166
-.071
.955
-.670
.533
1
.880
.314
-.039
.975
.956
.190
-.109
.931
-.641
.557
1
.440
1
.710
.981 .257
.124 .834
.376 .999**
.755 .045
-.928 -.742
.243 .468
**.Correlation is significant at the 0.05
level (2-tailed)