History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
Breakdown of Atomic Blast Zones
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[1] Vaporization Point
Everything is vaporized by the atomic blast.
98% fatalities.
Overpress=25 psi. Wind velocity=320 mph.
[2] Total Destruction
All structures above ground are destroyed.
90% fatalities
Overpress=17 psi. Wind velocity=290 mph.
[3] Severe Blast Damage
Factories and other large-scale building collapse.
Severe damage to highway bridges.
Rivers sometimes flow countercurrent.
65% fatalities, 30% injured.
Overpress=9 psi. Wind velocity=260 mph.
[4] Severe Heat Damage
Everything flammable burns.
People in area suffocate because most available oxygen is consumed by the fires.
50% fatalities, 45% injured.
Overpress=6 psi. Wind velocity=140 mph.
[5] Severe Fire & Wind Damage
Residency structures are severely damaged.
People are blown around.
2nd and 3rd-degree burns suffered by most survivors.
15% dead. 50% injured.
Overpress=3 psi. Wind velocity=98 mph.
Mr. Noble
Various sources including PBS, Atomic Archive and others
1
History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
Blast Zone Radii
Z on e
1
3 different bomb types
10 KILOTONS
1 MEGATON
Airburst - 1,980 ft
Airburst - 8,000 ft
0.5 miles
2.5 miles
2
3
1 mile
1.75 miles
3.75 miles
6.5 miles
4
5
2.5 miles
3 miles
7.75 miles
10 miles
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20 MEGATONS
Airburst - 17,500 ft
8.75 miles
14 miles
27 miles
31 miles
35 miles
The bomb dropped on Hiroshima was 20 Kilotons
The bomb dropped on Nagasaki was less than 10 Kilotons
EFFECTS
When a nuclear bomb explodes the first thing bomb victims experience is the intense flow of protons
from the blast, which releases 70-80% of the bomb's energy. The effects go up to third degree thermal
burns, and are not a pretty sight, and initial deaths are a result to this effect. Then the next phase is the
supersonic blast front. From researchers have found they've said that you see it coming before you
hear it. The pressure front has the effect of blowing away anything in its path. After the Japanese
bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, heavy steel girders were found bent 90-degree angles from this
blast. After the supersonic blast front comes the overpressure phase. The pressure gradually dies off,
and there is a negative overpressure phase, with a reversed blast wind. This reversal is due to air
rushing back to fill the void air left by the explosion. The air then gradually returns to room pressure. At
this stage, fires caused by electrical destruction and ignited debris; turn the place into a firestorm.
After a few days of the Hiroshima bombings, an estimated of over fifty thousand died. Finally, comes
the middle term effects such as keloid and retinal blastoma formations, and soon genetic or hereditary
damage can show up to forty years after initial irradiation.
Mr. Noble
Various sources including PBS, Atomic Archive and others
2
History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
THE MUSHROOM CLOUD
When a bomb explodes, it releases a sudden rush of heat and smoke, which results in some kind of
cloud. As for a nuclear bomb, when it explodes, instantaneously the heat from fusion and fission raises
the surrounding air to 10 million degrees C. Visible from hundreds of kilometers away, the superheated
air plasma gives off so much light that it looks brighter than the sun. The resultant fireball quickly
expands. It is made up of hot air and at a rate of a few hundred meters per second. After a minute or
so, when the fireball has risen to a few kilometers, it begins to cool off and is no longer affective.
The surrounding cooler air exerts some drag on this rising air, which slows down the outer edges of the
cloud and the unimpeded inner portion rises a bit more quickly than the outer edges. A vacuum effect
occurs when the outer portion occupies the vacuum left by the higher inner portion, which results a
smoke ring. The inner material gradually expands out into a mushroom cloud, due to convection. If the
explosion is on the ground dirt and radioactive debris get sucked up the stem, which sits below the
fireball.
Collisions and ionization of the cloud particles result in lightning bolts flickering to the ground.
Initially, the cloud is orange-red due to nitrous oxide formation. This reaction happens whenever air is
heated. When the cloud cools to air temperature, the water vapor starts to condense. The cloud turns
from red to white. In the final stages, the cloud can get about 100km across and 40km high, for a
megaton class explosion.
ELECTROMAGNETIC PULSE
A nuclear explosion gives off radiation at all wavelengths of light. Some is in the radio/radar portion of
the spectrum called the EMP effect. The EMP effect increases the higher you go into the atmosphere.
High altitude explosions can knock out electronic devices by inducing a current surge in closed circuit
metallic objects such as: computers, power lines, phone lines, TVs, radios, etc. The damage range can
be over 1000km.
Nuclear Stockpiles and Tests
According to the Natural Resources Defense Council, the U.S. currently maintains approximately
10,000 nuclear warheads in various states of readiness. It's believed that under START III, that
number will be reduced to 2,500.
Russia's plans are not known. At the end of 1997, Russia's nuclear stockpile numbered 23,000
weapons. This included active, operational forces; retired, non-deployed warheads awaiting
dismantlement; and weapons in reserve.
Mr. Noble
Various sources including PBS, Atomic Archive and others
3
History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
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The United States conducted 1030 nuclear tests from 1945 - 1992.
The Soviet Union conducted 715 tests between 1949 and 1990.
In September 1996 the United Nations General Assembly voted to adopt the
Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT), which prohibits all "nuclear
weapons test explosions and all other nuclear explosions."
As of September 1998, 150 nations had signed the treaty, and 21 nations had
ratified it.
Notable exceptions are India and Pakistan, both of which conducted nuclear
tests in May 1998.
Source: Natural Resources Defense Council
Mr. Noble
Various sources including PBS, Atomic Archive and others
4
History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
HIROSHIMA & NAGASAKI
Little Boy
Fat Man
Heat
On the ground, beneath the explosion center (hypocenter), the temperature rose to approximately
7,000 degree F. Roof (ceramic) tiles on houses within 1/3-mile radius from the explosion center
melted, and graystones, which contained silicon particles became white. The heat within 1 1/4 mile
radius from the explosion center burned clothes.
Bomb blast
The explosion generated an ultra high pressure. The wind velocity on the ground beneath the
explosion center was 980 miles/hr, which is five times stronger than the wind generated by strong
hurricanes. The pressure was 3.5 kg per square centimeter, which is equivalent to 8,600 pound per
square feet. At a point that was 1/3 mile from the explosion center, the wind velocity was 620
miles/hr; the pressure was 4,600 pound per square feet. Most of concrete buildings inside this range
were completely destroyed. Even a mile from the explosion center, where the wind velocity was 190
miles/hr and the pressure was 1,180 pound per square feet, all brick buildings were completely
destroyed.
Hiroshima
As many know, atomic bombs have been used only twice in warfare. The first and foremost blast site
of the atomic bomb is Hiroshima. A Uranium bomb (which weighed in at over 4 & 1/2 tons) nicknamed
"Little Boy" was dropped on Hiroshima August 6th, 1945. The Aioi Bridge, one of 81 bridges
connecting the seven-branched delta of the Ota River, was the aiming point of the bomb. Ground Zero
was set at 1,980 feet. At 0815 hours, the bomb was dropped from the Enola Gay. It missed by only 800
feet. At 0816 hours, in the flash of an instant, 66,000 people were killed and 69,000 people were
injured by a 20 kiloton atomic explosion.
The point of total vaporization from the blast measured one half of a mile in diameter. Total
destruction ranged at one mile in diameter. Severe blast damage carried as far as two miles in
diameter. At two and a half miles, everything flammable in the area burned. The remaining area of the
blast zone was riddled with serious blazes that stretched out to the final edge at a little over three
miles in diameter.
Mr. Noble
Various sources including PBS, Atomic Archive and others
5
History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
Nagasaki
On August 9th 1945, Nagasaki fell to the same treatment as Hiroshima. Only this time, a Plutonium
bomb nicknamed "Fat Man" was dropped on the city. Even though the "Fat Man" missed by over a
mile and a half, it still leveled nearly half the city. Nagasaki's population dropped in one split-second
from 422,000 to 383,000. 39,000 were killed, over 25,000 were injured. That blast was less than 10
kilotons as well. Estimates from physicists who have studied each atomic explosion state that the
bombs that were used had utilized only 1/10th of 1 percent of their respective explosive capabilities.
PBS
PBS BlastMap adds startling relevance to nuclear weapon devastation…check out the link below…
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/sfeature/blastmap.html
LITTLE BOY
The uranium bomb Little Boy was ready for delivery by July 31. On August 2, LeMay's staff specified
Hiroshima as the primary target, with Kokura and Nagasaki as alternates. Hiroshima was chosen
because intelligence reports had indicated that there were no Allied POW camps located there. The
raid was set for August 6, and Col. Tibbets was to command the attacking B-29. On the day before the
mission, his plane (a Martin-Omaha-built B-29-45-MO serial number 44-86292) had been painted with
the name Enola Gay, after his mother.
Mr. Noble
Various sources including PBS, Atomic Archive and others
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History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
Seven bombers B-29 Superfortess took off :
Weather report:
Straight Flush (Maj. Claude Eatherley, Hiroshima)
Jabbit III (Maj. John Wilson, Kokura)
Full House (Maj. Ralph Taylor, Nagasaki)
Attack:
Enola Gay with "Little Boy" (Col. Paul W. Tibbets, Jr.)
Great Artiste - observing (Maj. Charles Sweeney)
No. 91 - observing (Maj. George Marquardt)
Backout, Iwo Jima Island:
Top Secret (Cpt. Charles McKnight)
Enola Gay crew:
Col. Paul W. Tibbets, Jr. - aircraft commander, pilot
Capt. Robert Lewis - copilot
Maj. Thomas Ferebee - bombardier
Capt. Theodore "Dutch" van Kirk - navigator
Lt. Jacob Beser - radar officer
Lt. Richard Nelson - radio
Col. William "Deak" Parsons - navy weapons expert
Lt. Morris R. Jeppson - bomb electronic system control
Sgt. Wyatt Duzenbury - flight engineer
Sgt. Robert Shumard - flight engineer assistant, side gunner
Sgt. Joe Stiborik - side gunner
Sgt. George "Bob" Caron - tail gunner
The attack began with a flight of three special reconnaissance F-13As which took off to report the
weather over the primary and secondary targets. Col. Tibbets followed in Enola Gay an hour later,
accompanied by two other B-29s, which would observe the drop. While on the way to Japan, Major
Claude Eatherly, flying Straight Flush, radioed that Hiroshima was clear for a visual bomb drop. Navy
weapons expert Captain William Parsons armed the bomb while in flight, as it was deemed too
dangerous to do this on the ground at North Field, lest an accident happen and the bomb go off,
wiping out the entire base.
At 8:15am, the Enola Gay released "Little Boy" from an altitude of 31,500 feet. The radar fuse on the
bomb had been preset to go off at an altitude of 2000 feet above the ground.
Mr. Noble
Various sources including PBS, Atomic Archive and others
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History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
Fat Man
FAT MAN
The plutonium bomb Fat Man was loaded into a B-29 known as Bock's Car (Martin-Omaha-built B-2935-MO serial number 44-27297), named after its commander, Capt. Frederick C. Bock. However, on
this mission, the aircraft was flown by Major Sweeney, with Capt. Bock flying one of the observation
planes. The primary target was to be Kokura Arsenal, with Nagasaki as the alternative.
Bock's Car took off on August 9, with "Fat Man" on board. This time, the primary target of Kokura was
obscured by dense smoke left over from the earlier B-29 raid on nearby Yawata, and the bombardier
could not pinpoint the specified aiming point despite three separate runs. So Sweeney turned to the
secondary target, Nagasaki. There were clouds over Nagasaki as well, and a couple of runs over the
target had to be made before the bombardier could find an opening in the clouds. At 11:00am, "Fat
Man" was released from the aircraft and the bomb exploded. The yield was estimated at 22 kilotons.
Mushroom Cloud
Nagasaki
Mr. Noble
Shadow burned into the wall close to ground zero
Hiroshima.
Various sources including PBS, Atomic Archive and others
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History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
DESCRIPTIONS
ATOM BOMB
What Is It?
The atom bomb originated in 1939. Dr. Albert Einstein convinced then-President Franklin Roosevelt to
fund development of the bomb. U.S. scientists worked in extreme secrecy to finish the bomb, which
they told the Army was ready for use by 1943. On August 6, 1945, the B-29 "Enola Gay" flew from
Tinian to strike Hiroshima, Japan, on the world's first atomic bombing mission. Three days later
"Bockscar" dropped the plutonium bomb on Nagasaki. The Japanese surrendered in the following days
thereby ending World War II.
These are bombs whose huge explosive power is caused by a sudden release of energy resulting from
the splitting of nuclei of a heavy chemical element such as plutonium or uranium by neutrons in a very
rapid chain reaction.
Uranium Bomb - the nuclear bomb that was dropped on Hiroshima was a gun-type uranium bomb.
Uranium is supposedly the material of choice for terrorists since the design is simple, although highly
enriched U-235 - the main element - is not easy to make.
Plutonium Bomb - the bomb dropped on Nagasaki was a plutonium bomb, using the element Pu-239.
Plutonium is not hard to obtain and is produced in most nuclear reactors. It can then be separated
using chemistry. A higher component of the element, Pu-240, is highly radioactive and often tends to
pre-detonate bombs before the chain reaction is complete. An implosion design is used to prevent this,
but because the process is difficult, it isn't very likely a small terrorist group could do it without some
sort of state help.
In this type of bomb, the plutonium is often arranged as a hollow shell, with explosives on the outside.
The explosives drive the shell into a blob and compress it enough to set it off.
How Are They Spread?
There are various deployment methods for nuclear weapons.
Intercontinental ballistic and cruise missiles are long-range, rocket-powered ballistic missiles capable of
carrying atomic warheads. Specific types include the Peacekeeper, Midgetman, Minutemak, Navaho
and Snark. Submarine-launched ballistic missiles are another option. Bombs can also be dropped by
various types of bomber and tanker aircraft, and other types of missiles.
Nuclear weapons kill people not only by their conventional impact and explosion, but also with the
radioactive material they emit. Here are the various ways the radiation can be spread to humans:
Mr. Noble
Various sources including PBS, Atomic Archive and others
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History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
External radiation - occurs when either part of or all of the body is exposed from an external
source, such as when a person is standing near the site of where a radiological device is set off
and he or she is exposed to radiation, which can be absorbed by the body or can pass
completely through it.
Contamination - occurs when radioactive materials in the form of solids, liquids or gases are
released into the air and contaminate people externally, internally or both. This happens when
body parts such as the skin become contaminated and/or if the harmful material gets inside the
body via the lungs, gut or wounds.
Incorporation of radioactive material - occurs when body cells, tissues and organs such as
bone, liver, thyroid or kidney, are contaminated.
Gamma radiation can travel many meters in the air and many centimeters once in human tissue;
therefore they represent a major external threat. Dense material is needed as a shield. Beta radiation
can travel meters in air and is moderately penetrating of human skin, but clothing and some protection
can help. Alpha radiation travels a very short distance through the air and can't penetrate the skin, but
can be harmful if inhaled, swallowed or absorbed through open wounds.
Radiation in the first hour after an explosion is about 90 percent, with it going down to about 1 percent
of the original level after two days. Radiation only drops to trace levels after 300 hours.
What Are Symptoms of Exposure?
People in the immediate vicinity would likely die from the force of the conventional explosion itself.
Some survivors of the blast might die of radiation poisoning in the weeks afterward. Those farther
away from the explosion might suffer radiation sickness in the days and weeks afterward, but recover.
Over time, risks of cancer in the affected area would rise, but perhaps only slightly.
A mix of physical symptoms must be used to judge the seriousness of exposure. Impact of radiation
poisoning also changes if the body has experienced burns or physical trauma. In the case of treatable
victims, extensive medical treatment may be needed for more than two months after exposure.
Some symptoms may include vomiting, headache, fatigue, weakness, diarrhea, thermal burn-like skin
effects, secondary infections, reoccurring bleeding and hair loss.
Worries?
A big international issue now - particularly for the United States and Russia - is to reduce their
stockpiles. The United Nation's International Atomic Energy Agency is responsible for overseeing 900
of the world's nuclear facilities.
The former Soviet republics of Ukraine, Belarus, and Kazakhstan - where the Soviets based many of
their nuclear warheads - safely returned their weapons to post-communist Russia in the 1990s, but all
three countries continue to have stockpiles of weapons-grade uranium and plutonium. Ukraine and
Kazakhstan have nuclear power plants whose byproducts could not be used to make a nuclear bomb
but might still tempt terrorists trying to make a "dirty bomb."
Mr. Noble
Various sources including PBS, Atomic Archive and others
10
History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
Some experts also worry about Pakistan and its untested security systems, dozens of nuclear weapons
and many Islamist militants who also are Osama bin Laden sympathizers. Pakistan reportedly began
quietly accepting American help to improve its nuclear security measures in early November 2001.
In the 1990s, U.S. authorities discovered several Al Qaeda plots to obtain nuclear materials, and the
CIA recently told Congress that bin Laden tried to "acquire or develop a nuclear device."
HYDROGEN BOMB
What Is It?
First developed by the United States in the early 1950s, the hydrogen or thermonuclear bomb is
perhaps a thousand times more powerful than a uranium- or plutonium-based fission bomb, making it
effectively the nuclear weapon's nuclear weapon.
Only the five permanent United Nations Security Council members — the United States, Russia, Britain,
France and China — are known to possess hydrogen bombs.
The difference between a hydrogen bomb and a regular uranium or plutonium bomb is that a
hydrogen bomb uses fusion instead of fission to generate the main explosion.
In a fission reaction, unstable isotopes of the heavy elements uranium and plutonium are split into
smaller atoms, releasing a large amount of energy proportional to the amount of material used.
In a fusion reaction, two atoms of the lightest element, hydrogen, fuse to create one atom of helium,
the next-lightest element — and release much more energy.
Since a nuclear explosion is one of the few proven methods for creating temperatures high enough for
hydrogen nuclei to overcome their natural repulsion and fuse — about 50 million degrees — the
detonation of regular plutonium- or uranium-based fission bombs is essential to ignite the process.
Hence, a hydrogen bomb is really a composite weapon.
In a typical hydrogen bomb, the detonation of a fission bomb compresses and heats a core of lithium
deuteride, lithium combined with the hydrogen isotope deuterium. The neutrons emitted by the
fission reaction strike the lithium atoms, creating atoms of another hydrogen isotope, tritium. The heat
of the fission reaction begins to fuse the tritium and deuterium atoms, creating helium along with a
large amount of neutrons.
The neutrons created by both the fission and fusion reactions strike a specially shaped uranium casing,
which begins to undergo a fission reaction of its own, creating still more neutrons, accelerating the
fusion reaction until it all culminates in an enormous explosion.
After the Soviet Union and Britain followed the U.S. in developing thermonuclear bombs, there was
worry that conflict involving them would mean the end of the world.
"You can't have this kind of war," President Dwight D. Eisenhower told a committee that urged
preparedness for nuclear conflict during the . "There just aren't enough bulldozers to scrape the
bodies off the streets."
Mr. Noble
Various sources including PBS, Atomic Archive and others
11
History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
How Are They Spread?
Nuclear and thermonuclear weapons kill people not only by their conventional impact and explosion,
but also with the radiation they emit.
External radiation exposure occurs when either part of or all of the human body is exposed to an
external source of radiation, which can be absorbed by the body or can pass completely through it.
Contamination occurs when radioactive materials in the form of solids, liquids, or gases are released
into the air. This happens when body parts such as the skin become contaminated and/or if the
harmful material gets inside the body via the lungs, digestive tract or wounds.
Incorporation of radioactive material occurs when body cells, tissues and organs such as bone, liver,
thyroid or kidney are contaminated.
The most destructive form of radiation, gamma radiation, can travel many meters in the air, and many
centimeters in human tissue, after being emitted from a radioactive source. Dense material, such as
lead, is needed to shield against gamma radiation.
Beta radiation can travel meters in air and will moderately penetrate human skin, but clothing will
provide some protection.
Alpha radiation travels a very short distance through the air and will not penetrate the skin, but can be
harmful if inhaled, swallowed, or absorbed through open wounds.
Radiation within one hour after a nuclear explosion is still about 90 percent of the original level, but
goes down to about 1 percent after two days. Radiation only drops to trace levels after 300 hours.
What Are the Symptoms of Radiation Exposure?
People in the immediate vicinity of a nuclear bomb's detonation would likely die from the force of the
conventional explosion itself. Some survivors of the blast might die of radiation poisoning in the weeks
afterward.
Those farther away from the explosion might suffer radiation sickness in the days and weeks afterward
but recover. Over time, risks of cancer in the affected area would rise, but perhaps only slightly.
The distances for all the effects of a nuclear explosion would vary proportionally with the amount of
fissile material used in a fission bomb, and be exponentially greater in the case of a hydrogen bomb.
A mix of physical symptoms must be used to judge the seriousness of radiation exposure. Impact of
radiation poisoning also changes if the body has experienced burns or physical trauma. In the case of
treatable victims, extensive medical treatment may be needed for more than two months after
exposure.
Some symptoms may include vomiting, headache, fatigue, weakness, diarrhea, thermal burn-like skin
effects, secondary infections, reoccurring bleeding and hair loss.
Mr. Noble
Various sources including PBS, Atomic Archive and others
12
History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
Who Has Thermonuclear Weapons?
The first thermonuclear bomb was exploded in 1952 at Enewetak atomic proving station in the
Marshall Islands by the United States, the second in 1953 by Russia. Great Britain, France and China
have also exploded thermonuclear bombs. These five nations comprise the so-called "nuclear club,"
nations that have the capability to produce nuclear weapons, both fission and fusion, and admit to
maintaining an inventory of them.
Several other nations either have tested fission nuclear devices or claim to have the capability to
produce them, but officially state that they do not maintain a stockpile of such weapons; among these
are India, Israel, and Pakistan. South Africa's apartheid regime built six nuclear bombs but dismantled
them later.
The United Nations International Atomic Energy Agency, based in Vienna, Austria, is responsible for
overseeing 900 of the world's nuclear facilities.
The former Soviet republics of Ukraine, Belarus, and Kazakhstan — where the Soviets based many of
their nuclear warheads — safely returned their weapons to post-communist Russia in the 1990s, but all
three countries still have stockpiles of weapons-grade uranium and plutonium.
Ukraine and Kazakhstan also have nuclear power plants whose by-products could not be used to make
a nuclear bomb but might still tempt terrorists trying to make a "dirty," or radioactive, conventional
b o mb .
Experts also worry about Pakistan and its untested security systems, dozens of nuclear weapons, and
many Islamic militants. Pakistan reportedly began quietly accepting American help to improve its
nuclear security measures in early November 2001.
During the 1990s, U.S. authorities discovered several Al Qaeda plots to obtain nuclear materials, and
the CIA recently told Congress that Osama bin Laden tried to "acquire or develop a nuclear device."
"LOOSE NUKES"
These are mainly a concern in Russia. Before the collapse of the Soviet Union, the country had in its
possession more than 27,000 nuclear weapons and enough weapons-grade plutonium and uranium on
hand to triple that number. Since then, economic distress, crime and corruption in Russia and other
former Soviet countries have fueled concerns in the West about loose nukes, underpaid nuclear
scientists and the smuggling of nuclear materials. Also, officials believe that only 40 percent of that
country's nuclear facilities are up to U.S. security standards.
The former Soviet republics of Ukraine, Belarus, and Kazakhstan - where the Soviets based many of
their nuclear warheads - safely returned their weapons to post-communist Russia in the 1990s, but all
three countries continue to have stockpiles of weapons-grade uranium and plutonium. Ukraine and
Kazakhstan have nuclear power plants whose byproducts could not be used to make a nuclear bomb
but might still tempt terrorists trying to make a "dirty bomb."
Some experts also worry about Pakistan and its untested security systems, dozens of nuclear weapons,
and many Islamic militants who also are Osama bin Laden sympathizers. Pakistan reportedly began
quietly accepting American help to improve its nuclear security measures in early November 2001.
Mr. Noble
Various sources including PBS, Atomic Archive and others
13
History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
"SUITCASE" BOMBS
What Is It?
A "suitcase" bomb is a very compact and portable nuclear weapon and could have the dimensions of
60 x 40 x 20 centimeters or 24 x 16 x 8 inches. The smallest possible bomb-like object would be a single
critical mass of plutonium (or U-233) at maximum density under normal conditions. The Pu-239 weighs
10.5 kg and is 10.1 cm across. It doesn't take much more than a single critical mass to cause significant
explosions ranging from 10-20 tons. These types of weapons can also be as big as two footlockers. The
warhead consists of a tube with two pieces of uranium, which, when rammed together, would cause a
blast. Some sort of firing unit and a device that would need to be decoded to cause detonation may be
included in the "suitcase."
Another portable weapon is a "backpack" bomb. The Soviet nuclear backpack system was made in the
1960s for use against NATO targets in time of war and consists of three "coffee can-sized" aluminum
canisters in a bag. All three must be connected to make a single unit in order to explode. The detonator
is about 6 inches long. It has a 3-to-5 kiloton yield, depending on the efficiency of the explosion. It's
kept powered during storage by a battery line connected to the canisters.
Who Has Them?
The late Osama Bin Laden allegedly purchased a number of nuclear suitcase bombs from Chechen
organized crime groups and there have been reports that they acquired backpack bombs.
Some nuclear suitcase bombs may have been developed by the Soviet Union during the Cold War.
There is a fear that some of the devices may be sold to terrorists. Russian scientists have testified they
are "absolutely sure" suitcase bombs were created, though the Russian government has steadfastly
denied their existence.
Former Russian National Security Adviser Alexandr Lebed in 1997 alleged that up to 100 portable
bombs that looked like suitcases were unaccounted for since the 1991 breakup of the Soviet Union. He
said the devices have an explosive capacity of one kiloton — the equivalent of 1,000 tons of TNT — and
could be activated by a single person, killing as many as 100,000 people.
U.S. officials have not denied the existence of such weapons, but have cast doubt on claims that some
may have gone missing since the end of the Cold War.
"We have not seen any hard evidence of suitcase-sized nuclear devices unaccounted for or falling into
the hands of terrorists or rogue states," former FBI Director Louis Freeh told Congress ten years ago.
Mr. Noble
Various sources including PBS, Atomic Archive and others
14
History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
“DIRTY” BOMB
Delivery Systems:
Methods of detonating a dirty bomb include devices — such as bombs or artillery shells — used to
disperse harmful radioactive material. This weapon can be used to contaminate livestock, fish and food
crops. Most radioactive material isn't soluble in water, so that virtually rules it out as a way for
terrorists to contaminate reservoirs or other water supplies.
Terrorists could launch a systemic attack on a nuclear power plant by venting or overloading a reactor
so it acts as a radiological weapon.
Suspicious containers may display a radiation symbol.
Symptoms:
Symptoms can range from mild effects, such as skin reddening, to cancer and death.
Acute radiation syndrome — radiation sickness — is usually caused when a person gets a high dose of
radiation in mere minutes and can cause nausea, vomiting and diarrhea; later, bone marrow depletion
may lead to weight loss, loss of appetite, flu-like symptoms, infection and bleeding.
People should be suspicious of material that seems to emit heat without any sign of external heating
source, as well as any glowing materials or particles. The glowing indicates a strongly radioactive
substance.
Who Has It:
Al Qaeda is believed to have dirty bombs. Virtually every country, however, has the materials to make
them. Insecure nuclear facilities throughout the world compound the problem.
TIMELINE FOLLOWS ON NEXT PAGE…
Mr. Noble
Various sources including PBS, Atomic Archive and others
15
History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
TIMELINE
1895 Wilhelm Roentgen of Germany, while conducting experiments with cathode rays, accidentally
discovers of a new and different kind of ray. These rays were so mysterious that Roentgen named
them "x-rays". He received the first Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901 for this discovery.
1896 French physicist Antoine Henri Becquerel's experiments led to the discovery of radioactivity.
1899 Ernest Rutherford discovers two kinds of rays emitting from radium. The first he calls alpha rays;
the more penetrating rays he calls beta rays.
1900 Frederick Soddy observes spontaneous disintegration of radioactive elements into variants he
calls "isotopes".
1902 Rutherford and Soddy publish theory of radioactive decay.
1903 Becquerel shares Nobel Prize for Physics with Pierre and Marie Curie for 1898 discovery of
natural radioactivity.
1904 Rutherford discovers that alpha rays are heavy positively charged particles. In 1908 he is
awarded a Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work.
1905 Albert Einstein publishes the special theory of relativity regarding convertibility of matter and
energy (E=mc2).
1911 Rutherford develops the "plum-pudding" model of the atom.
1913 Niels Bohr publishes theory of atomic structure combining nuclear theory with quantum theory.
1915 Albert Einstein publishes the general theory of relativity. The theory proposed that gravity, as
well as motion, can affect the intervals of time and of space.
1919 June - Rutherford bombards nitrogen gas with alpha particles and obtained atoms of an oxygen
isotope and protons. This transmutation of nitrogen into oxygen was the first artificially induced
nuclear reaction.
1920 June - Rutherford speculates on the existence of the neutron at a lecture to the Royal Society of
London.
1921 Rutherford and James Chadwick achieve transmutation of all known elements except carbon,
oxygen, lithium and beryllium.
1929 Ernest O. Lawrence conceives idea for the first cyclotron, a device that greatly increased the
speed with which protons could be hurled at atomic nuclei.
1931 November - Harold Urey discovers deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen that contains one proton
and one neutron.
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Various sources including PBS, Atomic Archive and others
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History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
1932 February - James Chadwick discovers the neutron.
19 33
April - Max Born, James Franck and many other scientists are compelled to leave their posts at German
universities because of their "Jewish physics".
1934 Enrico Fermi irradiates uranium with neutrons. He believes he has produced the first transuranic
element, but unknowingly achieves the world's first nuclear fission.
19 38
December - Fermi receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of transuranic elements
(actually fission of uranium) and departs for the United States.
December 22 - Otto Hahn sends a paper to Lise Meitner containing experimental results that are
interpreted by Meitner and nephew Otto Frisch as nuclear fission.
19 39
January to May - Many experiments on uranium fission are conducted by scientists in laboratories
around the world.
August 2 - Szilard, Eugene Wigner, and Edward Teller obtain a letter from Einstein on the possibility of
a uranium weapon;
19 40
May 19 - Frisch and Rudolf Peierls submit a memorandum to the British government estimating the
critical mass of 235 U needed for an atomic bomb and urging a bomb research project.
June 3 - German scientists fail to observe neutron multiplication in the reactor in Hamburg.
June 15 - Using the Berkeley cyclotron, Philip Abelson and Edwin McMillan demonstrate that neutrons
captured by 238U lead to the creation of elements 93 and 94, neptunium and plutonium.
19 41
February 23 - Glenn Seaborg discovers new element (atomic number 94) which they call plutonium.
March 28 - American physicists confirm that plutonium is fissionable, thus usable for a bomb.
December 6 - President Roosevelt authorizes the Manhattan Engineering District…a secret U.S. project
to build an atomic bomb, later called the Manhattan Project, put under the direction of the Office of
Scientific Research and Development.
19 42
September 23 - Brigadier General Leslie Groves is put in charge of the Manhattan Project. He recruits J.
Robert Oppenheimer as Scientific Director.
19 43
January - Planning begins for construction of reactors at Hanford, Washington to breed plutonium for a
b o mb .
March 15 - Oppenheimer moves the bomb development to a secret laboratory located at Los Alamos,
New Mexico.
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Various sources including PBS, Atomic Archive and others
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History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
19 44
August 26 - Bohr presents his memorandum on intentional control of nuclear weapons to Roosevelt.
November - The ALSOS mission obtains documents which imply that the German's rate of progress
toward a bomb had diminished.
19 45
January - First plutonium reprocessing begins at Hanford.
January 20 - First uranium 235 separated at Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
July 16 - U.S. explodes the world's first atomic bomb, the Trinity test, at Alamogordo, New Mexico.
August 6 - Little Boy, an uranium bomb, was dropped on Hiroshima, Japan. Between 80,000 - 140,000
people are killed.
August 9 - Fat Man, a plutonium bomb, was dropped on Nagasaki, Japan. About 74,000 people are
killed.
19 46
June 14 - Bernard Baruch presents the Acheson-Lilienthal plan to internationalize the atomic energy. It
is rejected by the U.S.S.R.
June 30 - First subsurface detonation by U.S. at Bikini Atoll.
July - Demonstrations in Times Square, New York, against nuclear testing.
August 1 - President Harry S. Truman signs the Atomic Energy Act. It purpose is to control the
development and production of nuclear weapons and to direct the research and development of
peaceful uses of nuclear energy.
December 25 - The Soviet Union achieves its first nuclear chain reaction in Moscow.
December 31 - Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) takes over nuclear weapons program from the Army.
19 47
January - The United Kingdom authorizes the development of nuclear weapons.
June - Under the direction of William Penney, the UK begins design of its plutonium bomb.
August - The United Kingdom builds its first atomic reactor.
19 48
April, May - U.S. conducts atomic tests, Eniwetok Atoll.
19 49
April 4 - NATO established.
August 29 - Soviet Union detonates its first atomic bomb, Joe 1, at Semipalatinsk in Kazakhstan. It a
copy of the Fat Man bomb and had a yield of 21 kilotons.
October 30 - General Advisory Committee of the AEC recommends that the more powerful atomic
bombs should be built rather than hydrogen bombs.
19 50
January 27 - Klaus Fuchs confesses that he gave atomic secrets to the Soviets while working at the
Manhattan Project.
January 31 - President Truman announces the decision to proceed with development of the Hydrogen
bomb.
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Various sources including PBS, Atomic Archive and others
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History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
19 51
January 27 - The first nuclear test occurs at the Nevada Test Site.
June - First British nuclear reactor goes critical.
Julius and Ethel Rosenberg are convicted and sentenced to death for passing information on atomic
weapons to the U.S.S.R.
19 52
September - A second U.S. nuclear weapons laboratory is established in Livermore, California.
October 3 - First British atomic bomb, "Hurricane", was tested at Monte Bello Islands, Australia, with
a yield of 25 kilotons.
October 31 - U.S. explodes first thermonuclear or fusion device, "Mike", at Eniwetok Atoll. It had a
yield of 10.4 megatons.
19 53
August 12 - First Soviet “layercake” design bomb exploded on a tower in Siberia. It was not a "true"
hydrogen bomb.
19 54
March 1 - The first deliverable hydrogen bomb design is tested at Bikini Atoll. "BRAVO" had a yield of
14.8 megatons. Radioactive fallout affects local islanders and a nearby fishing boat.
April 12 to May 6 - Hearings regarding Oppenheimer's loyalty cause him to lose his security
clearance.
September 30 - The USS Nautilus, the first American nuclear powered submarine, is launched.
19 55
The U.S.S.R. deploys two strategic bombers, Bear and Bison.
The United Kingdom announces the decision to develop thermonuclear weapons.
November 22 - First true fusion device test by the Soviet Union, it had a yield of 1.6 megatons. The
development was lead by Andrei Sakharov
19 57
May 15 - First British H-bomb exploded at Christmas Island. The yield was between 200 - 300 kilotons.
It was less than expected.
July 29 - The United Nations International Atomic Energy Agency is created. The agency inspects
nuclear reactors and plants to ensure they are being run for peaceful purposes.
August 26 - The Soviet Union announces the successful launch of an intercontinental ballistic missile.
September 19 - First underground nuclear test, "Rainier", occurs at the Nevada Test Site. It had a yield
of 1.7 kilotons.
November 8 - Britain's first truly successful thermonuclear bomb test. The bomb had a yield of 1.8
megatons.
October - Fire destroyed the core of a reactor at Britain's Windscale nuclear complex, sending clouds of
radioactivity into the atmosphere.
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Various sources including PBS, Atomic Archive and others
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History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
19 58
July 2 - President Eisenhower signed amendments to the 1954 U.S. Atomic Energy Act which opened
the way to a bilateral agreement between Britain and America on nuclear weapon design information.
November, 1958 to September, 1961 - U.S., U.K., and U.S.S.R. observe an informal moratorium on
nuclear tests.
19 59
June 9 - The first U.S. Polaris nuclear missile capable submarine enters into service.
October 31 - The U.S. deploys the first operational intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), the Atlas
D.
19 60
February 13 - First French nuclear test occurs at Reganne, Algeria, in the Sahara Desert. It had a yield of
60-70 kilotons.
July 20 - The United States submarine USS George Washington successfully launches a Polaris missile
from under water.
November 15 - USS George Washington and its 16 Polaris A1s begin their first patrol.
U.S. deploys the Atlas and Titan ICBMs.
19 61
February 1 - U.S. launches the Minuteman I missile.
September 1 - U.S.S.R. resumes nuclear testing.
September 15 - U.S. resumes nuclear testing.
October 31 - U.S.S.R. explodes the world's largest nuclear bomb, with a yield of a 58 megatons.
19 62
July 8 - Electromagnetic pulse from high-altitude nuclear test turns off street lights in Oahu, Hawaii.
October 16-28 - The Cuban Missile Crisis occurs. The closest the world has ever come to nuclear war.
19 63
June 20 - The U.S. and U.S.S.R. sign the ‘hot line' agreement.
August 5 - Limited Test Ban Treaty signed by the U.S., U.S.S.R. and the U.K., prohibiting tests of nuclear
devices in the atmosphere, in outer space, and underwater.
1964 October 16 - China explodes its first atomic bomb at the Lop Nor test site. It was an uranium 235
implosion fission device named "596" and had a yield of 22 kilotons.
19 66
January 17 - U.S. B-52 bomber crashes near Palomares, Spain with 4 unarmed hydrogen bombs. All
four bombs are recovered.
September 24 - First French atomic bomb tested at Muruoa Atoll.
U.S. Minuteman ICBM enters service.
Mr. Noble
Various sources including PBS, Atomic Archive and others
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History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
19 67
January 27 - Outer Space Treaty bans nuclear weapons being placed on any celestial body, or in orbit
around the Earth.
February 14 - Treaty of Tlatelolco signed and creates a Latin America nuclear-weapons-free zone.
June 17 - First hydrogen bomb test by the Chinese, with a yield of 3.3 megatons.
19 68
July 1 - Non-Proliferation Treaty opened for additional signatures.
August 24 - France tests its first hydrogen bomb at Fangataufa Atoll in the South Pacific. It has a yield
of 2.6 megatons.
19 69
March 14 - President Richard M. Nixon announces the decision to deploy a missile defense system
called "Safeguard" to protect U.S. ICBM fields from attack.
November to December - Preliminary Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT) talks take place in
Helsinki, Finland.
19 70
March 5 - Non-Proliferation Treaty enters into force; 100 nations ratify it by 1980.
August 19 - U.S. deploys the first missile with multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles
(MIRVs).
1971 March 30 - The first Poseidon submarine-launched ballistic missiles are introduced by the U.S.
19 72
May 26 - President Nixon and General Secretary Brezhnev sign the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty,
the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT) and the Interim Agreement on Strategic Offensive Arms,
in Moscow.
November - SALT II treaty negotiations begin.
19 74
May 18 - India sets off a low-yield device (8 kilotons) under Rajasthan desert.
July 3 - The Threshold Test Ban Treaty (TTBT) is signed in Moscow. It limits nuclear test explosions to
under 150 kilotons.
November 24 - President Ford and General Secretary Brezhnev sign the Vladivostok Accord, agreeing
to limit the number of strategic launchers (2400) and MIRV launchers (1320).
19 76
March 31 - Threshold Test Ban Treaty enters into force.
May 28 - President Gerald Ford and General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev sign the Underground Nuclear
Explosions for Peaceful Purposes (PNE) Treaty.
1977 July 7 - United States successfully tests a neutron bomb. The primary lethal effects of a neutron
bomb, also known as an enhanced-radiation weapon, come from the radiation damage caused by the
neutrons it emits.
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Various sources including PBS, Atomic Archive and others
21
History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
1978 April - United States cancels development of the neutron bomb.
19 79
March 28 - Three Mile Island Nuclear Power plant near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania suffers a partial core
meltdown. Minimal radioactive material is released.
June 18 - SALT II Treaty is signed in Vienna, Austria, by Brezhnev and President Carter.
September 22 - A mysterious flash detected by a U.S. VELA satellite (that were deployed in support of
the Limited Test Ban Treaty of 1963) was from a clandestine nuclear explosion. Originally, the Carter
administration claimed that the event was not the result of a nuclear test. However, it was revealed in
1993 that this event was from a South African nuclear test.
December 26 - U.S.S.R. invades Afghanistan; SALT II Treaty removed from consideration from the U.S.
Senate.
1980 July 15 - The U.S. reports that the light signals recorded over the South Atlantic on September 22,
1979 were probably not from a nuclear explosion. However, information later would indicate that a
low yield nuclear test did occur.
1981 June 7 - Israeli aircraft destroys Iraq's Osirak reactor. It was thought that it was producing
materials for an Iraqi nuclear device.
1982 June 29 - Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START) begin in Geneva, Switzerland.
1983 March 23 - President Ronald Reagan announces the United States will embark on an extensive
research and development program to examine the feasibility of a missile defense program. The
Strategic Defense Initiative is later dubbed "Star Wars."
1985 The South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty - Multilateral agreement among the nations of the
South Pacific is signed.
August -The Soviet Union announces a nuclear testing moratorium.
19 86
April - Chernobyl nuclear reactor meltdown occurs in the Soviet Union. Massive amounts of
radioactive material are released.
November 28 - The 131st U.S. B-52 bomber is deployed, exceeding the 130 limit, thus negating the
SALT II Treaty.
December - First 10 U.S. ‘Peacekeeper' or MX ICBM become operational.
1987 December 8 - President Reagan and General Secretary Gorbachev sign the Intermediate-Range
Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty. It eliminates all land-based missiles with ranges between 300-3,400 miles.
1988 The U.S. and U.S.S.R. sign the Agreement on Notification of Missile Launches.
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Various sources including PBS, Atomic Archive and others
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History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
19 89
The first Trident SLBM is introduced into service.
October 19 - The final Soviet underground nuclear test occurs at the Semipalatinsk testing site in
Kazakhstan.
November 9 - The Berlin Wall falls, as East Germany opens its borders with West Germany.
19 91
July 31 - President Bush and President Gorbachev sign the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START).
The Treaty calls for the elimination of almost 50 percent of the nuclear warheads carried by ballistic
missiles.
December 5 - Bush signs the Missile Defense Act of 1991, which mandates the Department of Defense
develop a missile defense system.
Communism falls across Eastern Europe, the Soviet Union is replaced by the Commonwealth of
Independent States (C.I.S.).
19 92
The START treaty is ratified by the U.S. Senate.
Kazakhstan, Ukraine, and Belarus agree in principle to the START treaty.
August 3 - France officially signs the Non-Proliferation Treaty.
19 93
January 3 - Bush and President Yeltsin sign the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START II), which
reduces their nations' arsenals of long-range nuclear weapons to 3000-3500 and eliminates all MIRV'd
land-based missiles over the next 10 years.
March - Prime Minister F.W. de Klerk announced that South Africa had successfully developed nuclear
weapons, and then voluntarily destroyed them before signing the NPT in 1991.
19 94
Attempts to smuggle nuclear material from C.I.S. are stopped.
Secret nuclear testing on humans is revealed by both the U.S. and C.I.S.
North Korea is suspected to be building nuclear weapons, they threaten to withdraw from the IAEA.
19 95
May 11 - 178 nations renew the Non-Proliferation Treaty.
May 15 - China conducts an underground nuclear test.
August - President Clinton announces a total ban on all U.S. nuclear weapon testing.
September 5 - France resumes nuclear testing in the South Pacific. A total of six nuclear tests are
conducted.
19 96
January 29 - French President Chirac announces an end to French nuclear tests.
April 11 - The Treaty of Pelindaba is signed by 49 of the 53 members of the Organization of African
Unity. It creates an African nuclear-weapons-free zone.
June 8 - China conducts a nuclear test at the Lop Nor test site.
September 11 - United Nations approves the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT).
November 26 -The last of the nuclear warheads stationed in Belarus were finally removed to Russia.
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Various sources including PBS, Atomic Archive and others
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History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
19 97
December 22 - U.S. implodes the last Minuteman II missile silo.
19 98
February 24 - France's National Assembly votes unanimously to ratify the CTBT.
May 11 - India conducts three underground nuclear tests, its first in 24 years. One of the tests is a
thermonuclear weapon.
May 13 - India conducts two more nuclear tests.
May 28 - Pakistan conducts five nuclear tests in response to India's nuclear tests.
May 30 - Pakistan conducts its sixth nuclear weapons test. The explosion is in the 1 to 5 kiloton
range.
19 99
July 23 - President Bill Clinton signs the National Missile Defense act and says threat, cost,
technological status of national missile defense and adherence to a renegotiated ABM treaty are the
four criteria in making his decision to deploy such a system.
September 30 - An accident at the uranium processing plant at Tokaimura, Japan exposes fifty-five
workers to radiation.
October 13 - U.S. Senate fails to ratify the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty.
October 15 - First of 150 Minuteman III Missile silos destroyed.
20 00
March 14 - Russia and the Netherlands sign a cooperative agreement for the dismantling of old Russian
nuclear warheads and nuclear submarines.
April -The Russian Federation ratifies the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START II).
August 12 - The Russian submarine Kursk sinks in the Barent Sea. All 118 crew members are killed.
Several bodies are recovered, the exact cause of the sinking is unknown.
December - The last of the reactors at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant are shut down.
20 01
President George W. Bush moves forward in developing a National Missile Defense system. Russia and
China oppose its development.
June 29 - Efforts to raise the Russian submarine Kursk begin.
August - Yucca Mountain in Nevada is initially approved to become a storage facility for high level
nuclear waste.
October - The Kursk is raised and brought to port.
December 13 - The United States announces that it will withdraw from the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile
treaty.
20 02
May 24 - Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty is signed between the U.S. and Russia. Each nation
would limited to 1,700 to 2,200 strategic nuclear warheads apiece.
October 16 - North Korea tells U.S. officials it has developed a secret nuclear weapons program in
violation of the 1994 agreement.
December 21 - The IAEA says North Korea has disabled surveillance devices the agency had placed at
the five-megawatt Yongbyon research reactor.
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Various sources including PBS, Atomic Archive and others
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History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
20 03
January 10 - North Korea announces it will withdraw from the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.
February 5 - North Korea announces that it had reactivated its nuclear facilities and is going ahead with
their operation “on a normal footing.”
February 9 - Iran acknowledged for the first time that it had uranium ore reserves and that it would
reprocess the spent fuel. But it insisted the nuclear program was designed solely for civilian use.
February 27 - The United States says North Korea has reactivated its five-megawatt nuclear reactor at
Yongbyon.
May 12 - North Korea backs out of the only remaining legal obligation blocking its nuclear ambitions, a
1992 pact with South
Korea to keep the peninsula free of nuclear weapons.
May 14 - Russia's lower house of parliament voted to ratify the Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty.
20 04
January 22 US nuclear scientist Siegfried Hecker tells Congress that the delegates visiting Yongbyon
were shown what appeared to be weapons-grade plutonium, but he did not see any evidence of a
nuclear bomb.
February 25 Second round of six nation talks end without breakthrough in Beijing.
May 23 The UN atomic agency is reported to be investigating allegations that North Korea secretly
sent uranium to Libya when Tripoli was trying to develop nuclear weapons.
June 23 Third round of six nation talks held in Beijing, with the US making a new offer to allow North
Korea fuel aid if it freezes then dismantles its nuclear program.
July 24 North Korea rejects US suggestions that it follow Libya's lead and give up its nuclear ambitions,
calling the US proposal a "daydream".
August 16 North Korea says it will not attend a working meeting ahead of the next round of six-party
talks on its controversial nuclear program, saying the US was "not interested in making the dialogue
fruitful".
September 28 North Korea says it has turned plutonium from 8,000 spent fuel rods into nuclear
weapons. Speaking at the UN General Assembly, Vice Foreign Minister Choe Su-hon said the weapons
were needed for "self-defense" against "US nuclear threat."
20 05
February 10-Pyongyang officially said for the first time that it possesses nuclear weapons and suspends
any further six-party talks.
April 18-South Korea says North Korea has shut down its Yongbyon reactor, a move which could allow
it to extract more fuel for nuclear weapons.
May 1-North Korea fires a short-range missile into the Sea of Japan, on the eve of a meeting of
members of the international Non-Proliferation Treaty.
July 25-Fourth round of six-nation talks begins in Beijing.
Mr. Noble
Various sources including PBS, Atomic Archive and others
25
History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
2005 cont.
August 7-After meeting for 13 straight days, diplomats from the U.S., the two Koreas, China, Japan and
Russia decide to take a recess from talks. Prospects for a deal on scrapping North Korea's nuclear
program are uncertain. Pyongyang hints at compromise after saying it may be willing to offer proof
that it does not have a uranium-based weapons program. Talks are put on hold until September.
September 13-North Korea and the U.S. remain at odds as talks resume, after Pyongyang reiterates its
demands to maintain a civilian nuclear program. North Korea agrees to give up its entire nuclear
program, including weapons, in return for aid and security guarantees. Later, North Korea says it will
only do so if the U.S. provides a light-water reactor for civilian power. The U.S. and Russia reject
Pyongyang's demand.
September 19-North Korea pledges to dismantle nuclear programs in exchange for pledges of energy
assistance; U.S. pledges not to invade and to respect North's sovereignty in an agreement ending talks.
September 20-North Korea says it will not scrap its nuclear program until it is given a civilian nuclear
reactor, undermining the joint statement and throwing further talks in doubt.
November 9-11-Fifth round of six-nation talks.
November-The talks hit an impasse after North Korea is angered by U.S. financial restrictions against
banks and North Korean companies for their alleged involvement in currency counterfeiting and other
illicit activities.
20 06
January 3-North Korea says it won’t return to talks unless the U.S. lifts financial restrictions imposed for
its alleged currency counterfeiting and other illegal activities.
July 5-North Korea test-fires six missiles, including a long-range Taepodong-2 rocket believed capable
of reaching western United States. Taepodong rocket fails after 40 seconds, but U.S. denounces tests
as "provocative."
October 3-North Korea says it will conduct a nuclear test in the face of what it claimed was "the U.S.
extreme threat of a nuclear war."
October 9-North Korea's official Korean Central News Agency (KCNA) reports the country has
performed a successful underground nuclear test.
20 08
May 25-Russia's Defense Ministry confirmed an atomic explosion at 9:54 a.m. (0054 GMT) in
northeastern North Korea, estimating the blast's yield at 10 to 20 kilotons - comparable to the bombs
that destroyed Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
Mr. Noble
Various sources including PBS, Atomic Archive and others
26
History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
GLOSSARY
A-Bomb
An abbreviation for atomic bomb.
Afterwinds
Wind currents set up in the vicinity of a nuclear explosion directed toward the burst center, resulting
from the updraft accompanying the rise of the fireball.
Air Burst
The explosion of a nuclear weapon at such a height that the expanding fireball does not touch the
earth's surface when the luminosity is a maximum.
Air Launched Cruise Missile (ALCM)
Anti-Satellite Weapon (ASAT)
A system designed to destroy or disable an enemy satellite in orbit.
Arms Control
Arms control, a term popularized in the early 1960s, refers to the voluntary limitation or reduction of
weapons and their means of delivery, between and among countries, through negotiation. It is distinct
from disarmament, which seeks to eliminate, also by international agreement, the means by which
countries wage war. While arms control compiled a mixed record during the post-World War II era,
revolutionary changes in international politics during the early 1990s–most especially the collapse of
the USSR and the end of the Cold War–have opened up promising new opportunities for radical
reductions in the nuclear and conventional weapons arsenals of the major powers.
A t om
The smallest particle of an element that still retains the characteristics of that element. Every atom
consists of a positively charged central nucleus, which carries nearly all the mass of the atom, surround
by a number of negatively charged electrons.
Atomic Bomb
A term sometimes applied to a nuclear weapon utilizing fission energy only. The atomic bomb is an
explosive device that depends upon the release of energy in a nuclear reaction known as fission, which
is the splitting of atomic nuclei. With a release of energy on the order of a million times greater than an
equal weight of chemical high-explosive
Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS)
A flying command post. AWACS has the capacity to detect hostile radar systems and aircraft and
control friendly air forces.
Ballistic Missile
A missile that is lifted into space by a booster rocket and then descends toward its target in a free
falling ballistic trajectory.
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Various sources including PBS, Atomic Archive and others
27
History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
Bikini Atoll
On March 1, 1954, a deliverable H-bomb using solid lithium deuteride was tested by the United States
on Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands. Between 1946 and 1958, 23 nuclear devices were exploded at
Bikini Atoll. It left a crater more than 1/2 mile wide and several hundred feet deep and ejected several
million tons of radioactive debris into the air. This fallout forced the evacuation of the surrounding
islands. To this day, radiation levels on Bikini remain high enough to make the island uninhabitable.
Blast Wave
A pulse of air in which the pressure increases sharply at the front, accompanied by winds, propagated
from an explosion.
The BRAVO test
On March 1, 1954, a deliverable H-bomb using solid lithium deuteride was tested by the United States
on Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands. Operation BRAVO had a yield of 14.8 megatons of TNT - over
double its expected yield. It was the largest American nuclear test.
The fallout forced the evacuation of the surrounding islands. To this day, radiation levels on Bikini
remain high enough to make the island uninhabitable. This test was a key factor in creating the
Atmospheric Test Ban Treaty (1963).
Chain Reaction
A process taking place in an atomic bomb or nuclear reactor in which one fission event releases
neutrons and energy. The neutrons in turn produce more fissions releasing more energy and forming a
chain of nuclear fissions.
Contamination
The deposit of radioactive material on the surface of structures, areas, objects, or personnel, following
a nuclear explosion. This material generally consists of weapon debris becoming incorporated with
particles of dirt, etc. Contamination can also arise from radioactivity induced in certain substances by
the action of neutrons from a nuclear explosion.
Counterforce
Military strategies, attacks, or weapons directed against an opponent's military forces, command
posts, and war-fighting targets.
Countervailing
Nuclear strategy, adopted under the Carter administration, which stressed counterforce targeting,
greater flexibility in a protracted nuclear war, and survivable command and control centers to conduct
such a war.
Countervalue
Military strategies, attacks, or weapons directed against an opponent's population, society and
economy.
Critical Mass
The minimum mass of a fissionable material that will just maintain a fission chain reaction under
precisely specified conditions, such as the nature of the material and its purity, the nature and
thickness of the tamper (or neutron reflector), the density, and the physical shape. For an explosion to
occur, the system must be supercritical (i.e., the mass of the material must exceed the critical mass
under the existing conditions).
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Various sources including PBS, Atomic Archive and others
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History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
Cruise Missile
A pilotless, jet propelled guided missile. Cruise missiles may be armed with conventional or nuclear
warheads and launched from either aircraft, submarines, or land-based platforms.
Decontamination
The reduction or removal of contaminating radioactive material from a structure, area, object or
person.
Deterrence
Dissuasion of a potential adversary from initiating an attack or conflict by the threat of retaliation.
Deuterium
An isotope of hydrogen of mass 2 units; it is sometimes referred to as heavy hydrogen. It can be used
in thermonuclear fusion reactions for the release of energy. Deuterium is extracted from water which
always contains 1 atom of deuterium to about 6,500 atoms of ordinary hydrogen.
Dirty Bomb
A dirty bomb is a conventional explosive such as dynamite, filled with deadly radioactive particles
which scatter when the bomb goes off. Known as a radiological weapon, a dirty bomb's initial
conventional explosion kills or injures people, and then spreads radiation -- hence the term "dirty. Such
bombs could be miniature devices or be as big as a truck.
Disassembly
Process of taking apart a nuclear warhead and removing the subassemblies, components and
individual parts.
Dose
A (total or accumulated) quantity of radiation. The absorbed dose in rads represents the amount of
energy absorbed from radiation per gram of specified absorbed material.
E = mc2
Albert Einstein's equation E = mc2 is the most famous in the history of science. It states that energy and
mass are equivalent, a concept that enabled scientists to understand the energy source of the sun and
other stars and led to the development of nuclear energy. Specifically, the equation states that a mass
m can theoretically be transformed into an amount of energy, E, equal to m multiplied by the square of
the speed of light (3 X 10 to the 10th power cm/sec). Einstein deduced this concept from his theory of
special relativity. The equation first appeared in a paper he published in 1907.
Electromagnetic Pulse
A sharp pulse of radio-frequency (long wavelength) radiation produced when an explosion occurs in an
asymmetrical environment, especially at or near the earth's surface or at high altitudes. The intense
electric and magnetic fields can damage unprotected electrical and electronic equipment over a large
area. It is now thought that a single high-altitude blast over the U. S. could seriously disrupt the
nation's communications system, and perhaps shut down the entire power grid. At present, however,
there is no known way of providing complete protection against the effect.
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Nuclear Weapon Development
Electromagnetic Radiation
A traveling wave motion resulting from oscillating magnetic and electric fields. Familiar
electromagnetic radiations range from X rays, through the ultraviolet, visible, and infrared regions, to
radar and radio waves. All electromagnetic radiations travel, in a vacuum, with the velocity of light.
Electron
A particle of very small mass, carrying a unit negative charge. Electrons, surrounding the nucleus, are
present in all atoms; their number is equal to the number of positive charges (or protons) in the
particular nucleus.
Eniwetok Atoll
On November 1, 1952 a 10.4 megaton thermonuclear explosion code-named "Mike", at Eniwetok Atoll,
demonstrated the release of energy from nuclear fusion. The island of Elugelab in the Eniwetok Atoll
on which the test was conducted, was completely vaporized. It left a crater deeper than the height of
the Empire State Building and large enough to house several Pentagons.
Equivalent Megatons (EMT)
In evaluating the destructive power of a weapons system it is usual to use the concept of equivalent
megatons (EMT). Equivalent mega-tonnage is defined as the actual mega-tonnage raised to the twothirds power.
Fallout
The process of the descent to the earth's surface of particles contaminated with radioactive material
from a radioactive cloud. The term is also applied in a collective sense to the contaminated particulate
matter itself. The early (or local) fallout is defined, somewhat arbitrarily, as those particles which reach
the earth within 24 hours after a nuclear explosion. The delayed (or worldwide) fallout consists of the
smaller particles which ascend into the upper troposphere and stratosphere, to be carried by winds to
all parts of the earth. The delayed fallout is brought to earth, mainly by rain and snow, over extended
periods ranging from months to years.
Fat Man
The implosion bomb dropped on Nagasaki, Japan at 11:02 am on August 9, 1945. The bomb was
dropped 2 miles off target. 74,000 people were killed and another 75.000 sustained serious injuries.
Fireball
The luminous sphere of hot gases which form a few millionths of a second after a nuclear explosion. It
is the result of the absorption by the surrounding medium of the thermal X-rays emitted by the
extremely hot (several tens of millions degrees) weapon residues. The exterior of the fireball in air is
initially sharply defined by the luminous shock front and later by the limits of the hot gases themselves.
Firestorm
Stationary mass fire, generally in built-up urban areas, causing strong, inrushing winds from all sides;
the winds keep the fires from spreading while adding fresh oxygen to increase their intensity.
Fissile Material
Any element capable of nuclear fission, e.g., uranium or plutonium.
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Nuclear Weapon Development
Fission
The process whereby the nucleus of a particular heavy element splits into (generally) two nuclei of
lighter elements, with the release of substantial amounts of energy. The most important fissionable
materials are uranium-235 and plutonium-239; fission is caused by the absorption of neutrons.
Fission Bomb
A nuclear bomb based on the concept of releasing energy through the fission (splitting) of heavy
elements such as U 235 or Pu 239.
Flashblindness
Caused by the reflex glance toward the intense light given off by a nuclear explosion. Its effects can
range from permanent blindness to retinal burns to temporary visual loss.
Flash Burn
A burn caused by excessive exposure (of bare skin) to thermal radiation.
Fusion
Nuclear fusion is a type of nuclear reaction in which two atomic nuclei combine to form a heavier
nucleus, releasing energy. For a fusion reaction to take place, the nuclei, which are positively charged,
must have enough kinetic energy to overcome their electrostatic force of repulsion. Thermonuclear
fusion of deuterium and tritium will produce a helium nucleus and an energetic neutron. This is one
basis of the Hydrogen Bomb, which employs a brief, uncontrolled thermonuclear fusion reaction. A
great effort is now under way to harness thermonuclear fusion as a source of power.
Fusion Bomb
A nuclear bomb based on the fusing or burning of light elements. Fusion bombs use fission bombs for
ignition
The Gadget
The Gadget was built to test the implosion design. It was placed atop a 100 foot tower and detonated
at 5:29:45 am on July 15, 1945. It had a yield of 19 kilotons
Gamma Rays
Electromagnetic radiations of high energy photons, originating in atomic nuclei and accompanying
many nuclear reactions. They can penetrate deeply into body tissue and many materials. Shielding
against gamma radiation requires thick layers of dense materials, such as lead. Gamma rays are
potentially lethal to humans.
Ground Launched Cruise Missile (GLCM)
Ground Zero
The point on the surface of land vertically below or above the center of a burst of a nuclear weapon;
frequently abbreviated to GZ.
Gun-Type Weapon
A device in which two or more pieces of fissionable material, each less than a critical mass, are brought
together very rapidly so as to form a supercritical mass which can explode as the result of a rapidly
expanding fission chain reaction.
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History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
H-Bomb
An abbreviation for hydrogen bomb.
Half Life
The time required for the activity of a given radioactive substance to decrease to half of its initial value
due to radioactive decay. The half-life is a characteristic property of each radioactive element and is
independent of its amount or condition.
Hardened Target
A target protected against the blast, heat, and radiation effects of nuclear weapons of specific yields.
Hardening is usually measured by the number of psi of blast overpressure which a target can
withstand.
Heavy water
Water in which the hydrogen is composed of over 99 percent deuterium atoms. The neutron in the
deuterium nucleus allows this type of water to slow, or moderate, neutrons from creating fission with
uranium, permitting a sustained chain-reaction in reactors using natural uranium as fuel.
Height of Burst
The height above the earth's surface at which a bomb is detonated in the air. The optimum height of
burst for a particular target is that at which it is estimated a weapon of a specified energy yield will
produce a certain desired effect over the maximum possible area.
High Altitude Burst
This is defined as a detonation at an altitude over 100,000 feet.
Highly enriched uranium (HEU)
Uranium in which the naturally occurring U235 isotope - 0.7 percent in natural uranium, 99.3 percent
U238 - is increased to 20 percent U235 or above, but usually to 90 percent or more. HEU is used in
nuclear weapons, and in some types of research and submarine propulsion reactors.
Hiroshima
The first use in warfare of a nuclear weapon occurred on August 6, 1945, at 8:16:02 a.m. over
Hiroshima, Japan. In an instant 80,000 to 140,000 people were killed and 100,000 more were seriously
injured. Hiroshima ceased to exist as a functioning city. The bomb exploded almost directly over the
center of the city. Two square miles of the city were completely leveled by the bomb.
Hydrogen Bomb
The hydrogen bomb, or H-bomb, is a nuclear weapon in which light atomic nuclei of hydrogen are
joined together in an uncontrolled nuclear fusion reaction to release tremendous amounts of energy.
The hydrogen bomb is about a thousand times as powerful as the atomic bomb, or A-bomb, which
produces a nuclear fission explosion about a million times more powerful than comparably sized
bombs using conventional high explosives such as TNT.
Implosion Weapon
A device in which a quantity of fissionable material, less than a critical mass, has its volume suddenly
decreased by compression, so that it becomes supercritical and an explosion can take place.
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History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
Initial Nuclear Radiation
Nuclear radiation (essentially neutrons and gamma rays) emitted from the fireball and the cloud
column during the first minute after a nuclear explosion.
Intercontinental Ballistic Missile
A ballistic missile with a range of 3,400 miles or more. Conventionally, the term ICBM is used only for
land-based systems, in order to differentiate them from submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs),
which can also be intercontinental range.
Kiloton
This is approximately the amount of energy that would be released by the explosion of 1,000 tons of
TN T.
Lethal Dose (50/30)
The dose of radiation expected to cause death within 30 days to 50% of those exposed without medical
treatment. The generally accepted range from 400-500 REM received over a short period of time.
Lithium Deuteride
Used as the fuel for the fusion bomb. A neutron is added to the lithium, producing tritium which is in
turn fused with the deuteride.
Little Boy
A 12.5 kiloton fission bomb dropped on Hiroshima, Japan on August 6, 1945. It killed 80,000 people
and injured over 120,000 more.
Lop Nor
The People's Republic of China tests its nuclear weapons at Lop Nor. The first Chinese-made atom
bomb (a fission device) was tested there on Oct. 16, 1964; the first guided missile on Oct. 27, 1966; and
the first thermonuclear (fusion) device on Dec. 28, 1966.
Los Alamos National Scientific Laboratory
Los Alamos National Scientific Laboratory, a research center devoted to the applications of
nuclear energy and to national defense, occupies a 199 sq km (77 sq mi) site in the Jemez
Mountains in north central New Mexico. The laboratory, founded in 1943 as the Atomic
Research Laboratory, is operated by the University of California and funded by the U.S.
Department of Energy. Scientists at Los Alamos developed the first atomic bomb and the
first U.S. hydrogen bomb. The laboratory program has now extended to the peaceful uses of
atomic energy and basic research in such fields as physics, biology, chemistry, geothermal
energy, and medicine.
Low-level waste
Radioactive waste not classified as high-level waste, transuranic waste, spent nuclear fuel or
byproduct material.
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History of Warfare
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Lucky Dragon
The Fukuryu Maru (Lucky Dragon) was a small Japanese tuna boat, fishing about 90 miles
east of Bikini at the time of the BRAVO test. About two hours after the explosion a 'snow' of
radioactive ash composed of vaporized coral began to fall on the ship. Within hours, the
crew members began to experience burning and nausea. Upon returning to Japan, many
were hospitalized and one eventually went into a coma and died. Though the U.S. denied
responsibility, it sent the widow a check for 2.5 million yen "as a token of sympathy."
Mach Stem
The shock front formed by the merging of the incident and reflected shock fronts from an
explosion.
Manhattan Project
The Manhattan Project was the code name for the U.S. effort during World War II to
produce the atomic bomb. The program was under the leadership of Gen. Leslie Groves, and
theoretical physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer. The main laboratory was built on an isolated
mesa at Los Alamos, New Mexico. The first atomic bomb was tested at Alamogordo, New
Mexico, on July 16, 1945.
MARV
The maneuvering reentry vehicle (MARV) is one of the latest developments in nuclear
weapons delivery systems. MARVs are designed either to deliver a nuclear warhead with
pinpoint accuracy, or to enable the warhead to avoid enemy detection and destruction
through evasive maneuvers. MARVs are expected to have an accuracy of 36.6 m (120 ft)
after a flight of 1,609 km (1,000 mi). MARVs designed for evasive maneuvers employ such
techniques as small steering rockets, internal weight shifting, and movable flaps or fins.
Megaton
This is approximately the amount of energy that would be released by the explosion of
1,000 kilotons (1,000,000 tons) of TNT.
Metallurgical Laboratory (Met. Lab)
Located at the University of Chicago, and led by Enrico Fermi, began work towards a
controlled chain reaction.
Chicago Pile Number One or CP-1 went critical on December 2, 1942. They continued to
work on further investigation of nuclear reactions. The most vocal protest over the bomb's
use came from the Met. Lab and was led by Leo Szilard.
Micron
One-millionth of a meter.
Microsecond
One-millionth of a second.
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History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
Midgetman
Recommended for development by the bipartisan Presidential Commission on Strategic Forces,
Midgetman is a new, small, highly mobile, single-warhead intercontinental ballistic missile. While the
development and eventual deployment of Midgetman is expected to strengthen the land-based
segment of the U.S. nuclear defense triad, it is also expected to influence or alter arms control
negotiations. The single-warhead Midgetman would be fully effective only if limitations were set on
the total number of warheads.
MIKE Test
On November 1, 1952 a 10.4 megaton thermonuclear explosion, code-named MIKE, at Eniwetok Atoll
demonstrated the release of energy from nuclear fusion. The apparatus was an experimental device,
not a weapon, that had been constructed on the basis of the principles developed by Edward Teller
and Stanislaw Ulam. The island of Elugelab in the Eniwetok Atoll on which the test was conducted, was
completely vaporized.
Minuteman Missile
Minuteman was one of the earliest intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) developed by the United
States. Of the three versions of Minuteman that have been deployed, only Minuteman III is still in
service. The Minuteman III is susceptible to reduction under the terms of the 1991 START treaty,
although the treaty does not specify the actual weapons by name. Cuts in the number of Minuteman III
warheads are, therefore, anticipated.
Multiple Independently Targetable Reentry Vehicle (MIRV)
A package of two or more warheads which can be carried by a single ballistic missile but are deliverable
to separate targets.
Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD)
The present situation in which the superpowers have the ability to inflict an unacceptable degree of
damage upon each other even after absorbing a first strike; a condition which deters both sides from
initiating hostilities.
MX Missile
The United States MX (MX–missile experimental) program has had a long and controversial history.
Beginning in the 1960s, U.S. military experts anticipated growing improvement in the accuracy and
number of Soviet missile systems, to the point where they would be able to attack and destroy the
concrete underground silos within which the land-based U. S. intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs)
were housed. Therefore, it seemed necessary that new missiles should be deployed in such a way that
they would be invulnerable to Soviet attack.
Nagasaki
At 11:02 a.m. on August 9, 1945 a plutonium implosion bomb, Fat Man, was dropped on Nagasaki. The
yield was 22 kilotons. The damage was less extensive, due partly to the geography of the Nagasaki area
and partly to the fact that the bomb was dropped about 2 miles off target. Of the 286,000 people living
in Nagasaki at the time of the blast, 74,000 were killed and another 75,000 sustained injuries.
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History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
National Technical Means (NTM)
Intelligence gathering systems under national control, such as photo-reconnaissance satellites and
ground based radars, used to monitor compliance with agreed arms limitations
Neutron
A neutral particle of approximately unit mass, present in all atomic nuclei, except those of ordinary
hydrogen. Neutrons are required to initiate the fission process, and large numbers of neutrons are
produced by both fission and fusion reactions.
Neutron Bomb
The neutron bomb differs from standard nuclear weapons insofar as its primary lethal effects come
from the radiation damage caused by the neutrons it emits. It is also known as an enhanced-radiation
weapon (ERW). The augmented radiation effects mean that blast and heat effects are reduced so that
physical structures, including houses and industrial installations, are less affected. Because neutron
radiation effects drop off very rapidly with distance, there is a sharper distinction between areas of
high lethality and areas with minimal radiation doses.
Neutron Radiation
In fission bombs the neutrons are produced in the fission process. They are emitted from the highly
excited fission products. The way that neutrons interact with matter is quite different from the way
that gamma rays interact. Neutrons have negligible interaction with atomic electrons. Their only direct
interaction is with nuclei. Neutron interaction in the human body can produce ionizing radiation and
subsequent doses of radiation.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was established on Apr. 4, 1949, by representatives
from 12 nations (Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands,
Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States; Greece and Turkey joined in 1952, the
Federal Republic of Germany in 1955, and Spain in 1982) who gathered in Washington, D.C., to sign the
North Atlantic Treaty, which had as its purpose the deterring of potential Soviet aggression in Europe.
The signing of the treaty paved the way for the first peacetime alliance participated in by the United
States.
Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy refers to the energy consumed or produced in modifying the composition of the atomic
nucleus. Nuclear energy also powers electricity-generating plants in countries throughout the world. It
is seen by many as the source of inexpensive, clean power; but, because of the hazardous radiation
emitted in producing that power and the radioactivity of the materials used, others feel that it may not
be a viable energy alternative to the use of fossil fuels or solar energy.
Nuclear Freeze Movement
The nuclear freeze movement advocates an agreement between the United States and the USSR to
halt (freeze) the production and deployment of nuclear weapons and delivery systems. First
formulated in 1980 by Randall Forsberg, director of the Institute for Defense and Disarmament Studies
in Brookline, Mass., the freeze proposal attracted growing support in the United States during the next
two years, when the administration of President Reagan was increasing military spending and
preparing to deploy more nuclear missiles in Europe. A series of antinuclear protests culminated in a
vast demonstration by nearly half a million people from the United States and other countries in New
York City on June 12, 1982.
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Various sources including PBS, Atomic Archive and others
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History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
Nuclear Regulatory Commission
The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) is an independent U.S. government agency. The NRC came
into existence in 1975 under the provisions of the 1974 Energy Reorganization Act.
The major concern of the NRC is the use of nuclear energy to generate electric power. It licenses the
construction and operation of nuclear reactors and other nuclear facilities as well as the possession,
use, processing, transport, handling, and disposal of nuclear materials. (The U.S. Department of Energy
has authority over U.S. nuclear weapons plants).
Nuclear Waste
Nuclear waste refers to the entire array of radioactive materials created by all aspects of nuclear
technology. The most widely known wastes are those produced by the civilian nuclear industry and the
nuclear weapons program. Other sources of nuclear waste include radioactive materials produced for
medical, research, and industrial applications, and the contaminated sections of dismantled nuclear
facilities.
Nuclear Weapon (or Bomb)
A general name given to any weapon in which the explosion results from the energy released by
reactions involving atomic nuclei, either fission, fusion or both. Thus, the A- (or atomic) bomb and the
H- (or hydrogen) bomb are both nuclear weapons.
Nuclear Winter
A potential consequence of nuclear war, where smoke from burning cities would cause a severe
worldwide drop in temperatures, lasting for weeks or months with large scale ecological impacts.
Overpressure
The transient pressure, usually expressed in pound per square inch, exceeding the ambient pressure,
manifested in the shock wave from an explosion. The peak overpressure is the maximum value of the
overpressure at a given location and is generally experienced at the instant the shock wave reaches
that location.
Photon
A unit or 'particle' of electromagnetic radiation, carrying a quantum of energy which is characteristic of
that particular radiation. Pounds per Square Inch (psi). A measure of nuclear blast overpressure or
dynamic pressure, used to calculate the effects of a nuclear detonation or the ability of a structure to
withstand a nuclear blast.
Plutonium-239 (Pu-239)
A metallic element used for nuclear weapons. The half-life is 24,110 years.
Primary
The fission part of a fusion bomb. The 'match' which ignites the fusion reaction.
Proliferation
The process by which nations acquire nuclear weapons.
Proton
A particle of mass unity (approximately) carrying a unit positive charge; it is identical physically with
the nucleus of the ordinary hydrogen atom. All atomic nuclei contain protons.
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Nuclear Weapon Development
RAD
A unit of absorbed dose of radiation; it represents the absorption of 100 ergs of nuclear radiation per
gram of absorbing material.
Radiation
Usually refers to the radiant energy emitted by certain elements (such as radium, uranium, plutonium,
thorium, and their products). Radiation is often in the form of alpha particles, beta particles, or gamma
rays.
Radiation Sickness
Symptoms resulting from excessive exposure to radiation of the body.
Radioactive
Certain elements (radium, uranium, thorium, and their products), emit radiant energy by
spontaneously emitting alpha, beta, or gamma particles.
Radioactive Cloud
An all-inclusive term for the cloud of hot gases, smoke, dust, and other particulate matter from the
weapon itself and from the environment. It is carried aloft in conjunction with the rising fireball
produced by the detonation of a nuclear weapon.
Radioactivity
The spontaneous emission of radiation, generally alpha or beta particles, often accompanied by
gamma rays, from the nuclei of an unstable isotope. As a result of this emission the radioactive isotope
is converted (or decays) into the isotope of a different (daughter) element which may or may not be
unstable. Ultimately, as a result of one or more stages of radioactive decay, a stable (nonradioactive)
end product is formed.
Reactor
A facility in which fissile material is used in self-sustaining chain reactions (nuclear fission) to produce
heat and/or radiation for both practical application and research and development. A reactor includes
fissionable material (fuel) such as uranium or plutonium, and a moderating material and usually
includes a reflector to conserve escaping neutrons, provisions for heat removal, and measuring and
control elements.
REM
A unit of biological dose of radiation; the name is derived from the initial letters of the term "roentgen
equivalent mammal (or man)".
Roentgen
A unit of exposure to gamma (or X) radiation.
The Rosenberg Case
The most infamous espionage case at Los Alamos involved David Greenglass. Greenglass gave details
on how to obtain the critical mass for a plutonium bomb. Also involved were his sister Ethel Rosenberg
and her husband Julius, both of whom were executed in June 1953. The Rosenberg affair stimulated
worldwide protest and much anti-American propaganda. The case remains controversial to this day.
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History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
Sea Launched Cruise Missile (SLCM)
Secondary
The component of a nuclear weapon that contains elements needed to initiate the fusion reaction in a
thermonuclear explosion.
Seismic Monitoring
Seismic monitoring offers virtually the only technique for determining occurrence and magnitude of
underground tests. Seismic techniques have been extensively developed, and all treaties rely heavily
on an array of detection stations.
Shock Wave
A continuously propagated pressure wave in the surrounding medium which may be air, water, or
earth, initiated by the expansion of hot gases produced by a nuclear explosion.
Site W: Hanford
To produce the needed plutonium, three reactors were constructed at Hanford, Washington. The
reactors eventually produced several hundred grams of plutonium a day. The plutonium for the Trinity
and Fat Man bombs were produced here. Hanford continues to produce plutonium for the United
States nuclear weapons.
Site X: Oakridge
Oakridge was designed specifically for the separation of uranium. The separation was pursued in two
methods; electromagnetic and gas diffusion. The uranium used in the Hiroshima bomb came from the
Oak Ridge plant.
Site Y: Los Alamos
Built atop a mesa in northern New Mexico, this was where the atomic bombs were designed and
tested. Los Alamos continues to develop nuclear weapons.
Slant Range
The distance from an explosion to an observer is called the slant range. For a burst height, h, and a
distance, d, from ground zero to a given point, the slant range, D, is from the Pythagorean theorem.
Spontaneous Fission
The natural decay of a nucleus by splitting apart (fission).
Strategic Air Command
The Strategic Air Command (SAC), was formed in 1946 as the arm of the U.S. Air Force that controls its
long-range nuclear strike force. SAC headquarters are at Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska.
Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI)
The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) is a U.S. research and development program designed to create
an effective defense against nuclear-missile attack, initiated by President Reagan in 1983. As
envisioned, the system uses a "layered" defense in which enemy missiles would come under
continuous attack from the time they are launched to just before they reach their targets, a total of
about 30 minutes.
Submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM)
A ballistic missile deployed on a submarine.
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History of Warfare
Nuclear Weapon Development
Subsidence Crater
Underground nuclear explosions too close to the earth's surface may leave a subsidence crater.
Supercritical
A term used to describe the state of a given fission system when the quantity of fissionable material is
greater than the critical mass under existing conditions. A highly supercritical system is essential for the
production of energy at a very rapid rate so that an explosion may occur.
Thermal Energy
The energy emitted from the fireball as thermal radiation. The total amount of thermal energy
received per unit area at a specified distance from a nuclear explosion is generally expressed in terms
of calories per square centimeter.
Thermal Radiation
Electromagnetic radiation emitted (in two pulses from an air burst) from the fireball as a consequence
of its very high temperature; it consists essentially of ultraviolet, visible, and infrared radiations. In the
early stages (first pulse of an air burst), when the temperature of the fireball is very high, the
ultraviolet predominates; in the second pulse, the temperatures are lower and most of it is in the
visible and infrared regions of the spectrum.
Thermonuclear
An adjective referring to the process in which very high temperatures are used to bring about the
fusion of light nuclei (hydrogen), with the accompanying liberation of energy. A thermonuclear bomb is
a weapon in which part of the explosion energy results from thermonuclear fusion reactions. The high
temperatures required are obtained by means of a fission explosion.
Transmutation
A process of converting one element to another by irradiating or bombarding it with radioactive
particles.
Transuranic
Any element whose atomic number is higher than that of uranium. All transuranic elements are
produced artificially and are radioactive.
Triad
The traditional nomenclature for the three components of U.S. and Soviet strategic nuclear forcesland-based intercontinental ballistic missiles; submarines-launched ballistic missiles; and strategic
bombers.
The Trinity Test
In July of 1945, a test was needed of the implosion design. The test was located in an area known as
the Jornada del Muerto (Journey of Death) in southern New Mexico. At 5:29:45 am mountain war time,
a light described as "brighter than a thousand suns" filled the valley.
Tritium
A radioactive isotope of hydrogen having a mass of 3 units; it is produced in nuclear reactors by the
action of neutrons on lithium nuclei.
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Nuclear Weapon Development
Uranium 235 (U-235)
Naturally occurring uranium U-235 is found at 0.72% enrichment. U-235 is used as an reactor fuel or
for weapons; however, weapons typically use U-235 enriched to 90%. The half-life is 7.04 x 108years.
Uranium enrichment
The process of increasing the percentage of Uranium 235 isotopes so that the uranium can be used as
reactor fuel or in nuclear weapons.
Vela Satellites
Vela was a series of 12 satellites developed for the U.S. Defense Advanced Projects Agency to detect
nuclear detonations in the Earth's atmosphere. The satellites were launched (1963-70) in pairs from a
single vehicle and placed 180 degrees apart, in circular orbits of about 111,000 km (69,000 mi) altitude.
On Sept. 22, 1979, a Vela reported a brilliant flash between Africa and Antarctica. Some analysts have
suggested the possibility of a clandestine nuclear test by South Africa or some other country; the
satellite may have been hit by a micrometeoroid, however.
Warhead
The explosive part of a nuclear weapons system. Warheads consist of nuclear materials, conventional
high explosives and related firing mechanisms.
Weaponization
The process of constructing a nuclear device, or testing its component parts separately or in a weapon
model, to validate its design.
Weapons retirement
The process by which nuclear weapons are determined to be obsolete or unnecessary for national
defense. A retired weapon or weapon system is no longer in an active status or deliverable, but may
still be a fully functioning nuclear device.
Yield
The total effective energy released in a nuclear explosion. It is usually expressed in terms of the
equivalent tonnage of TNT required to produce the same energy release.
Mr. Noble
Various sources including PBS, Atomic Archive and others
41