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GCSE GEOGRAPHY
REVISION GUIDE
EDEXCEL B
2
Contents Page
Compulsory Units
Topic 1: Population Dynamics
Pages 3-14
Topic 2: Consuming Resources
Pages 15-21
Topic 3: Living Spaces
Pages 22-31
Topic 4: Making a Living
Pages 32-39
Optional Units
Topic 5: Changing Cities
Pages 40-48
Topic 6: Changing Countryside
Pages 49-55
Topic 7: Development Dilemmas
Pages 56-62
Topic 8: World of Work
Pages 63-70
Practice Exam Questions
Pages 72-73
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Topic 1: Population Dynamics
What you need to know:
-
What has happened to the global population – historical, current and future
trends?
-
Role of socio-cultural and economic factors affecting birth and death rates
-
Factors driving recent changes in fertility and mortality rates
-
How and why population change varies
-
How and why population structures change
-
Issues relating to youthful and ageing populations
-
Why some countries wish to control their population?
-
The impact and effectiveness or polices to control population
-
Differing policies that exist to mange migration
-
Why countries adopt different migration policies
-
Tensions that arise as a result of migrations
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Key terms
Birth rate
Death rate
Population balance
Natural
Increase/decrease
Fertility rate
the amount of babies born per 1000 of the population
per year
the amount of deaths per 1000 of the population per
year
birth and death rates are almost equal and the
population remains level
the difference between birth and death rates
the average number of children born to a women
Immigrants
people moving into a country
Emigrants
people moving out of a country
Migration
movement of people into and out of an area or country
Migration balance:
Positive more immigrants than emigrants – increase
population
• Negative decrease population – less immigrants
than emigrants – decrease population
the amount of babies needed to be born for the
population to remain the same
A population policy that encourages births to increase
the population
A population policy that tries to reduce the birth rate
and therefore reduce population growth
A population policy that encourages international
migration
A population policy that only allows skilled people to
migrate to that country.
Replacement Level
Pro- natalist policy
Anti-natalist policy
Open door migration
policy
Points based migration
policy
•
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What has happened to the global population – historical,
current and future trends?
•
•
•
The world population is growing at an alarming rate in 2008 at least another 65
million people were added to the global total of 6.6 billion.
Since 2000 the rate of growth has begun to slow down
Exponential Growth has been occurring (the amount of time take n for the
population to double e.g. in 1804 it had taken the population 300 years to double
from ½ billion to 1 billion. In 1999 the doubling time had fallen to 39 years)
Role of socio-cultural and economic factors affecting birth
and death rates
Why has population been increasing?
Mainly due to a decline in death rates and infant mortality rates:
1)
Development of modern medicines. This has meant that more and more people
are kept alive due to modern practices.
2)
Introduction of vaccination and immunisation programmes e.g. smallpox
vaccination that helps people to live longer.
3)
Cleaner drinking water and better sewage disposal, a lot more people have
access to clean drinking water than before.
4)
Better healthcare – more doctors, nurses and hospitals, means that people can
be treated and not die.
5)
More hygienic housing.
6) Better diets, e.g. promoting eating ‘5 a day’
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BUT in some developing countries Life expectancy has
declined
In Botswana 30% of adults have HIV/AIDS and life expectancy has decreased.
In Sudan CONFLICT has led to a lower life expectancy.
Why are birth rates high in some countries?
- In some developing countries a large % of people work in agriculture and children are
seen as an economic benefit to work on the land
- Women may not have a choice as their religion may be against birth control
- It may be the culture to marry very young so women are more likely to have more
children
Named Example: Why will Russia’s population decline:
(Developed Country?)
- Falling life expectancy caused by industrial disease and alcoholism
- Outward migration of younger fertile men and women
- A low fertility rate of 1.2 children per women.
SO BIRTH RATES ARE DECLINING BECAUSE:
- Women have access to birth control methods.
- They may also choose to have few children as they are seen as an economic cost.
- Also more educated women chose to start a career before having children.
Named Example: Yemen’s population will grow quickly
(Developing country)
- Women marry very young and have a large number of children (fertility rate 6.7)
- Increased life expectancy partly due to improved child vaccinations
- High birth rate as the Islamic religion is against birth control
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How and why population change varies
Demographic Transition Model
Stage 1: High fluctuating
- High birth rate due to no birth control and high infant mortality
- High death rate due to disease and famine
Stage 2: Early expanding e.g. Yemen
- High birth rate
- Falling death rates due to improved health care and nutrition
Stage 3: late expanding e.g. China
- Falling birth rates due to birth control and wanting smaller families
- Falling death rates
Stage 4: low fluctuating e.g. Japan
- Low birth and death rates due to working women delaying age to start their families
Stage 5: Decline e.g. Germany
- Death rate higher than birth rate due to a ‘grey’ population
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Factors driving recent changes in fertility and mortality
rates
Population pyramids show important features of a population – age and gender. The
diagram below shows how to read one:
Population pyramids can be seen to link to the DTM
Population pyramids can be also used to work out the dependency ratio (is a relationship
between those who are and are not working in an area (usually a country).
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Issues relating to youthful and ageing populations
Countries often suffer from problems due to the structure of their population.
Youthful population - This is when there are a very high percentage of people under
the age of 15.
Disadvantages of a Youthful population
• Pressure on housing – not enough housing, people living in slums. This is very
common around the big cities (New Delhi), where millions of people live in shanty
towns with no running water, roads, sewage of any kind.
• Pressure on schooling – illiterate population. India’s literacy rate is 60%,
Cambodia’s literacy rate is 69%
• Pressure on food supplies - famine, food distribution difficulties. Natural
disasters accentuate this problem e.g. droughts.
• Pressure on health services – high levels of education provision and health care
are needed for children and babies and this is expensive.
• The rapidly growing population need housing and will need employment
• More difficult for women to work as they have to spend time caring for large
numbers of children, so they are not earning an income.
•
The Advantages of a Youthful Population:
•
•
Provides a steady supply of workers and can encourage economies to grow.
Children provide security and support for old age.
•
Children are a valuable source of income for a family as they can work on the land
from quite a young age. As children get older they may be able to earn money in
•
other ways. For example, selling snacks to tourists on the beach in a holiday resort.
As children get older they can help to care for younger children in the family.
Ageing population - This is when a country has a large number of people over the age of
65 in their country.
Problems:
The Advantages of an Ageing Population:
•
•
•
•
The tourist industry in countries like the UK has benefited with more retired
people going on several holidays a year.
More elderly people in MEDC’s (more economically developed countries) have money
to spend which helps the local economy.
They can support their grown-up children as they raise their young families.
They undertake many worthwhile tasks, many of them voluntary.
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The Disadvantages of an Ageing Population:
Old people cost a lot to support and taxes may rise to pay for extra health and
care.
• Health care – There will be a shortage of retirement homes and hospital care for
the elderly, so more will have to be built.
• The need for specially designed houses and serviced blocked of flats. For example,
hand rails, nonslip floors and emergency buttons.
• An increase in the cost of pensions. More elderly people, living longer, will require
pensions for longer. With the falling birth rate, there will be fewer workers in the
economy, so higher taxes will be needed to fund those pensions. In Japan, the
Government has already raised the pension age from 60 to 65.
• Shortages of labour, recruiting overseas workers. For example, nurses and doctors.
• Provision of leisure activities for the elderly.
There are decreasing numbers of economically active people in the population
•
Solutions to the Problem of an Ageing Population
Health care
– Provide more health care e.g. retirement homes, hospital beds, more
undertakers, etc.
– Skilled health care workers, e.g. nurses, doctors, etc.
Pensions
– 3 solutions
• Increase tax – not popular
• Raise retirement age – not popular
• Abolish state pensions – not popular
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Named Examples: Contrasting countries Japan vs. Mexico
Ageing Population – Japan
Facts
- 20.8% of population
aged +65
- 26.8 million pensioners
- Birth rate below
replacement level
Causes
- People living longer (79
for men & 85 for women).
Due to healthy diet and
high GDP
- Birth rate declining due
to increase age of first
child (2006 29.2 years)
and number of marriages
has decreased
Youthful population: Mexico
Facts
Causes
- 31% of population under - Low death rate at 4.78
deaths per 1000. due to
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vaccinations and doctors
- Population grew 50
- falling birth rate but
million in 40 years
large % of young people
- Average age in 26
- Will take 50 years for
Mexico to loose it’s
youthful population
Effects
- Increase cost of
pensions as fewer
workers
- Government raised
retirement age from 60
to 65
- Increase in numbers in
nursing homes
- Increase cost of
medical care
Effects
- Increase need for
school places
- Young people unable to
find work so emigrate to
USA
- Growing manufacturing
industry
- Strongly catholic but
abortion has been
legalised to reduce
number of children
Why some countries wish to control their population?
Countries often need to manage their population to gain an optimum population (when
resources and population equally balance = sustainable). Governments often step into
manage their populations to stop them passing the tipping point that leads to
overpopulation.
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Named Example Anti-Natalist – China’s one child Policy
What?
Introduced in 1970s –
couples not allowed to
have more than one child.
Couples with one child
were given benefits e.g.
cash bonuses, better
childcare and improved
housing.
Unauthorised
pregnancies pressured to
have abortions
Why?
-High growth rate of
population
- Pressure on land and
food supplies due to
large population
Effects
-Birth rate fell from 34
per 1000 in 1970 to 13
per 1000 in 2008
- Annual population
growth rate fell from
2.4% to 0.6%
-Total population grown
from 996 million in 1980
to 1,320 million today
-Chinese tradition to
prefer sons so sex
selective abortions
occurred (120 males to
100 females
- Shortage of women at
marrying age
Named Example: Pro-Natalist: Estonia
What?
Introduce ‘mother’s
salary’ where women
were paid to have
children
- 15 months fully paid
maternity leave
Why?
-Estonia became
independent from Russia
in 1992
- Falling population due
to fertility rate declining
from 2.2 in 1988 to 1.4 in
1998
- People planning fewer
children due to increase
poverty, single lifestyles
and young people
migrating overseas
Effects
-By 2006 fertility rate
rose to 1.5 (still below
replacement level)
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Differing policies that exist to mange migration
Open Door
Named Example: UK
- Post War immigrants came to UK from colonies in the Caribbean due to an Act of
Parliament giving all Commonwealth (ex-colonial) citizens free entry into the UK. (19501960s ¼ million people came from the Caribbean).
+ve = Met shortage of unskilled and semi-skilled labour
= Helped with the reconstruction of the country post war
-ve = public money spent on meeting needs of the immigrants e.g. housing etc
= 1970s recession, the immigrants lead to increased unemployment
Point Based system
If you wish to come and work to settle down you need to gain a certain amount of
points. This was established 2008 and contains 5 tiers of migrants. Tier one has highly
skilled workers such as scientists, down to Tier five who are temporary workers e.g.
musicians playing in a concert. SO scientists and highly skilled people eg doctors are
more likely to be allowed into the UK where there is a skills shortage.
In 2004 eastern European countries of Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Poland,
Latvia, Lithuania, Slovakia and Slovenia joined the EU (A8 – Accession countries). This
meant that citizens of these countries are free to move and work in other EU member
countries. In most cases these economic migrants stay only until they feel they have
made enough money to take home
Source advantages
Host Advantages
- Immigrants send money/remittances
home to their families
- Less pressure on resources and jobs in
places like Poland etc
- Immigrants bring skills back to their
country
- meets need of shortage of unskilled and
semi-skilled labour
- helped to reconstruct UK after the war
- Increases culture in the UK
- Immigrants contribute to the UK economy by
the taxes they pay
- Immigrants often take mainly low paid jobs
- Less than 5% claim any sort of state benefit
Source disadvantages
Host disadvantages
- Loss of working population from Poland
- public money spent on immigrants e.g.
for example
housing and healthcare
- Decline in birth rate as most migrants are - during the 1970s recession the immigrants
added to the number of unemployed
young men
- Increased hostility towards the immigrants
-
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Tensions that arise as a result of migrations
The UK immigration of ethnic groups lead to conflict as there was hostility towards
them. These ethnic groups banded together into particular areas to reduce the risk of
being victimised. The UK government stepped in and stated that all citizens regardless
of ethnicity should enjoy equal opportunities. Today much more harmonious as people
have begun to realise the positives of having them; they add to country’s skill base and
culture.
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Topic 2: Consuming Resources
What you need to know:
-
How resources can be defined and classified
-
The impacts of obtaining and consuming one renewable, sustainable and nonrenewable resources
-
Inequalities in supply and consumption of one global resource
-
Future pressures on both supply and consumption of this resource in view of
recent global economic growth
-
Theories about the population-resource equation
-
How well these theories stand up to current global resource supply and
demand
-
How resource demand might be reduced
-
The potential for alternative and renewable resources
-
Whether technology can ‘fix’ the problem
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Key Terms
Alternative energy
Boserupian theory
Carbon footprint
Human resource
Malthusian theory
Material resource
Natural resource
Non-renewable
resource
Renewable resource
Sustainable
development
Sustainable resource
Energy sources that provide an alternative to fossil
fuels
The view that when population grows it stimulates
technological changes that produce increases in
output, ensuring that living standards can be
maintained for the growing population
A measurement of all the greenhouse gases we
individually produce, through burning fossil fuels for
electricity, transport etc.
The skills and abilities of the population
The view that population growth is the main reason
why a society would collapse
A natural substance that humans choose to use
Those materials found in the natural world that are
useful to man, and that we have the technology and
willingness to use
Those resource – like coal or oil- that cannot be
remade, because it would take millions of years for
them to form again
Resources, such as forests, that can be maintained by
management
Development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs
Resources – such as wood –that can be renewed if we
act to replace them as we use them
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How resources can be defined and classified
There are three main types:
1) Natural resources e.g. wood
2) Human resources e.g. skills of a population e.g. Doctors
3) Material or capital resources e.g. good and equipment already in society)
You can also define resources via their availability
- Non-renewable resources – cannot be remade because they take millions of years to
form again e.g. coal or oil
- Sustainable resources – Can be deliberately be renewed so that it can last into the
future e.g. planting trees
- Renewable resources – renew themselves so do not need to be managed e.g. solar and
wind power
The impacts of obtaining and consuming one renewable,
sustainable and non-renewable resources
Resource
Non-renewable e.g. Tar
Sand oil
Sustainable and
renewable e.g. Bio fuels
Sustainable but limited
e.g. Solar energy
Benefits
- Extraction would bring
further money to oil
companies
- could avoid the costs of
switching to other fuels
such as hydrogen
- C02 absorbed when
they are grown
- engines need little
change to cope with bio
fuels
- Unlimited
- Environmentally
friendly so limited
carbon emissions
Costs
- Extraction uses huge
amounts of water
- only 5 year supply
- need removal of forest
to get to the oil
- need huge area of land
to grow the crop
- reduces habitat variety
due to monoculture
- Intermittent as new
ways of storing
electricity are needed
- Current production is
tiny
- Relatively expensive
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Inequalities in supply and consumption of one global
resource
World reserve of oil (%)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Uneven patterns of oil supply and
Saudi Arabia (22.3%)
Iran (11.2%)
Kuwait (9.7%)
UAE (8.3%)
Venezuela (6.5%)
Russia (6.3%)
Kazakhstan (3.4%)
Libya (3.3%)
Nigeria (3.0%)
USA (1.8%)
China (1.4%)
Canada (1.4%)
Qatar (1.3%)
demand
Current production is focused in the Middle East, especially
Saudi Arabia. However many of these countries have reached
‘peak oil’ (production of relatively cheaply obtained oil has
reached its maximum so there is now a fall in production).
Consumption is largely related to the wealth of a country
and its reliance on cars. 70% of the world’s oil is used
transporting goods and people within and between countries.
The USA has less than 5% of the
population but uses 25% of the oil
mainly due to:
- Lack of public transport systems
- Low density urban settlements so
need long journeys to work, school
etc
- History of low petrol prices
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Future pressures on both supply and consumption of this
resource in view of recent global economic growth
China and India are continuing to grow rapidly with a combined population of 1,400
million using 71 million cars. In most cases as the population grows the demand for cars
will increase as the hope to get ‘the American Dream’. To achieve this Tata Motors
based in India has begun production a car priced at £1500, this increasing the demand
for oil and adding to C02 emissions.
Theories about the population-resource equation
Malthus Theory (1 766- 1 834)
- Population increases faster than food
supply so there would come a time when
the world could not cope.
- Population increases geometrically (1, 2,
4, 8, and 16)
- Food supply increases arithmetically (1,
2, 3, 4, and 5)
- Population would outgrow the amount of
food available leading to famine, war and
disease
Malthus argued that there were ways to prevent population from extending beyond the
food supplies necessary to support it (optimum population). This includes a combination
of
1. ‘Negative’: Methods people choose to reduce human fertility e.g. China’s one child
policy, sterilisation
2.’ Positives’: Anything which increases mortality: e.g. low living standards, disease
Malthus argued that this would kept the carrying capacity in check the
Number of plants, animals or human which can be adequately supported (carried) by the
land
Boserup Theory 1 965
- Population growth has a positive impact on people as it forces
them to invent a way out of a problem when resources start to
run out e.g. GM crops
- Overpopulation leads to innovation and higher productivity in
use of land (irrigation, weeding, crop intensification, better
seeds) and labour (tools, better techniques) e.g. GM Crops and
the Green Revolution
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How well these theories stand up to current global resource
supply and demand
BOSERUP
MALTHUS
•
Some people believe in Malthus’s ideas.
He
believed
that
population
grew
exponentially (doubling at each stage –
1:2:4:8:16), but that food production
grew arithmetically (adding one unit at
each stage – 1:2:3:4:5, etc).
•
This
meant
that
population
would
eventually outstrip food supply. At this
point, the population would decrease
through starvation. Malthus called this a
‘natural’ check on population growth.
Other
•
natural
checks
were
famine and food insecurity.
disease,
This can be seen in some countries. For
example, in Ethiopia where there is a
greater population than the resources
available and many Ethiopians rely on
FOOD AID to survive.
•
A preventative check is when the
Government does something to stop
However some people follow Boserup’s
ideas. She argued that food production does
not limit or control population growth.
Instead, she said that population growth
controls farming methods. She believed that
people would try not to give into disease or
famine.
Instead, they would invent solutions to the
problem. She used the term ‘agricultural
intensification’ to explain how farmers can
grow more food from the same price of land
using
better
farming
techniques
and
chemical fertilisers.
This can be seen in Malawi
Food supply has increased using irrigation
and the genetic modification of seeds.
 Irrigation is when you take water
from areas that have it to those that
don’t. In Malawi there are plans for
an irrigation project to create a
‘green belt’ of land using water from
Lake Malawi.
 Malawi is also allowed to genetically
modify
(GM)
seeds
into
the
country. These crops may allow
Malawi
to
grow
more
food
especially in dry areas, creating jobs
and economic growth.
In most countries Malthus’s ideas have not
occurred as people have developed ways to
increase FOOD production.
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How resource demand might be reduced
Reducing the dependence on oil
-
-
Plastic water bottles are made from oil and then oil is used to transport them across
great distances.
Now carrying refillable bottles of water and recycling the bottle
Switch to hydrogen run cars as they release no harmful emissions. E.g.
The Ford Edge car is first alternative fuel car to be able to travel
similar distances to traditional petrol cars.
Individual action
-
-
-
changing habits e.g. using public transport and switching to energy efficient light bulbs et
Recycling and conservation
Buying food from local farm shops to reduce ‘food miles’
Corporate Action:
Example of Interface Carpets based in the USA has identified various goals to improve
its environmental performance e.g. eliminating waste in all areas of the business and using
renewable energy resources such solar and wind power.
Google Headquarters uses hydrogen cars which are renewable and also provides a bus
shuttle to pick up its employers to reduce their car usage
The aim is to achieve ‘SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT’:
‘This is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs’
The potential for alternative and renewable resources
In 1995 the UK generated 2% of its electricity from renewable sources compared with the
EU average of 14%. The government set its target of reaching 10% by 2010. This they
believe is achievable as the average costs for wind, hydro, landfill gas and waste-burning fell
dramatically during the 1990s. However, UK government achieved only 6% by 2010. There is
still however a huge market for the UK to switch towards more renewable resources of
energy.
Whether technology can ‘fix’ the problem
Technological fix is the idea that we can resolve problems we might have by inventing
solutions to them. The problem of finding alternative fuels to replace ‘cheap’ oil would need
high amounts of effort from governments, corporations and researchers to cope with the
issue of ‘peak oil’.
Examples
Genetically modified food
Hydrogen fuel car (alternative to oil)
Wave power machines (alternative to energy- electricity produced by burning fossil
fuels)
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Topic 3: Living Spaces
What you need to know:
-
Defining a ‘good living space’ and how it may vary with age and stage in the
life cycle etc
-
The processes that lead to variations in the quality of living spaces
-
Perceptions of living spaces and how these vary spatially between urban and
rural
-
How personal choices about living spaces are affected by age and life cycle
-
Pressures on rural areas in developed countries to provide more living spaces
-
The pressures on living spaces in urban areas, their impacts, and the
compromises made in creating good quality living space
-
The need for more affordable quality living spaces in urban and rural areas
-
The links between quality of living spaces and economic wealth
-
Attempts to create high-quality living spaces in urban and rural areas for all
urban populations
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Key Terms
Accessible rural areas
Countryside within easy reach of urban areas
Cultural background
The origins of an individual’s or group’s belief system
Economic status
Inner city living space
The position held by an individual, group or country in
terms of their economic power
Overseas communities made up of non-national’s e.g.
the British living in Spain
A major urban area that has a significant role in
controlling the international flows of capital and trade
A major centre of global communications, such as an
international airport
A piece of land that has not been built on before, but
is now being considered for development
Residential areas within city centre areas
Organic agriculture
Farming systems that use no artificial chemicals
Pull factor
Something that attracts people to a location
Push factor
Something that makes people wish to leave a location
Redevelopment
Development which aims to stimulate growth in areas
that have experienced decline
Growth in areas that have experienced decline in the
past
Rural areas that are distant from and thus little
affected by urban areas and their populations
The common perception that rural areas are quiet and
attractive – and therefore good places to live
Living spaces that are designed in such as way to have
a small impact on the environment and thus more
durable than others
Urban growth, usually weakly controlled, into
surrounding rural and semi-rural areas
Expatriate community
Global city
Global hub
Greenfield sites
Regeneration
Remote rural areas
Rural Idyll
Sustainable living space
Urban sprawl
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Defining a ‘good living space’ and how it may vary with
age and stage in the life cycle etc
People’s idea of what makes good living spaces tends to vary due to age and their
economic background. You tend to form a strong bond with a living space if it meets
your needs and it has access to the things you like doing.
Factors affecting how we view places:
Age
Mobility
Cultural background
Knowledge and perception
Economic status
Younger people seek out more variety in their social lives
and this makes cities more attractive. Older people or
those with families tend to find rural areas more
attractive.
Personal mobility will affect how isolation we feel. Rural
areas tend to have more problems with mobility with a
reliance on private cars
This impacts on how we see places and how attractive we
find them
Highlights the ‘idea’ of a place without people actually
knowing the area e.g. crime rates etc
Areas that offer job security are deemed more attractive
The factors that lead to variations in the quality of living
spaces
Social factors: crime rates,
healthcare, education, risk of
disease etc
Economic factors: access to
services, job opportunities,
transport links etc
Political factors: opportunity to
vote, freedom of speech and
movement
Environmental factors:
available water, soil fertility,
likelihood of hazards etc
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Perceptions of living spaces and how these vary spatially between
urban and rural
The rural idyll in DEVELOPED countries is an image that people have of the rural life in
developed countries e.g. less traffic, pollution; more open space for leisure; less crime shops
etc. This rural idyll idea creates high demand for housing.
This has caused problems:

Demand from people has meant housing in attractive areas accessible to cities
has become EXPENSIVE

Some wealthy people have BOUGHT second homes this increases demand and
therefore PRICES. Local people may not AFFORD them.
 Rural areas are often used as weekend retreats for urbanites who venture to the
countryside each weekend. The village’s population also grows during the summer
months due to holiday/ second homes. However during the week and winter the
population declines. This has led to the closure of services like shops and pubs. (Also
people may live in the villages but work in nearby towns and do their shopping there
or in out of town centres)
What causes Counterurbanisation?
Counterurbanisation is the movement of people out of urban areas like towns and cities to
rural areas e.g. villages and small towns.
The main push and pull factors are often a mirror image of each other.
The main push factors (out of the city)
are. . . . . . .
The main pull factors (towards the
countryside) are . . . . . . .
Expensive housing; higher crime rates;
congestion and traffic; higher levels of noise
and air pollution
The perception that the rural ‘idyll’ exists with
more open space; less congestion and traffic;
fresh air and less pollution; more housing for
your money; less crime and a better community
spirit.
The growth of IT –faxes, email, video
conferencing-and broadband connections means
people can work from home
Improvement in transport (high speed trains
and motorways)means people no longer have to
live where they work
However the rural ‘idyll’ may hide problems:
- Closure of services like village shops and pubs
- Secondary school children may have to travel a long way to school
- Public transport links may be poor and this isolates older people and
teenagers
- Young people maybe remote from leisure facilities as well as educational
facilities
- There may be a lack of employment opportunity in the local area and so
people may commute a long way to work. Wages in local employment maybe lower
26
Developing countries: Urbanisation
In many cities in developing countries there has been an increase in the proportion of
people living in urban area due to RURAL to URBAN migration.
The main push and pull factors are often a mirror image of each other.
Pull factors
Push factors
Employment opportunities in service and
manufacturing industry. For example in
Johor Bahru in Malaysia TNC’s have set up
factories e.g. Dyson which creates
employment opportunities.
Lack of paid employment. Often farms are too
small to support a growing population
The main pull factors (towards the city) are The main push factors(out of the countryside)
are
Better Education opportunities especially in Lack of educational opportunities
secondary and tertiary (university)
Better health care with more health centres Lack of health care facilities
and hospitals
(Also electricity; water supply etc)
This has (together with high natural
increase due to young age of migrants so
more births and fewer deaths due to
improved medical care) lead to the
development of Squatter settlements
What is a squatter settlement?
- An area of makeshift housing with poor
living conditions
- Often no running water and people have to
buy from water sellers
- Lack of sanitation (getting rid of sewage and dirty water) so diseases like diarrhoea
develop.
- Due to poverty; lack of street lighting and lack of security often leads to higher
crime levels.
- May lack other services like schools; health centres and public transport
- Houses are often built illegally so people do not feel secure.
However there is a major advantage: housing is cheap and affordable for the
urban poor
27
How personal choices about living spaces are affected by age
and life cycle
20 somethings are moving back to the city in developed countries like the UK:
This process is called ‘re-urbanisation’ where young people (25-35) who are relatively
well off move back into the cities eg London Docklands around Canary Wharf
Regeneration projects have attracted young, often single people back into London. The
jobs that have replaced the old industrial jobs (eg in the docks; food processing) are in
business and financial services.
Attractions: Pull factors
o close to the city centre for work and high quality shopping
o good public transport in the city centres so no need for a car
o culture e.g. theatres and museums and leisure (clubs, restaurants) and a good
night life close by
o modern housing available often built on brownfield sites (or gentrified housing)
Regeneration: development (e.g. employment; housing
leisure) in areas that have experienced decline.
o
Retiring to the sun:
Many older people are choosing to retire to eastern and
southern Spain:
People in the UK have increased income and savings as well
as people reaching retirement age in better health
Attractions of Spain
o warmer climate than the UK
o Modern health facilities
o House prices are lower than the UK
o Lower heating costs and household bills than the UK
Cheap to fly home to see friends and family
BUT there are problems
- Ill health and worries about language problems in foreign hospitals
- Falling value of pensions as the value of the pound declines against the Euro;
- As people get very old they may need more family support which is not available in
Spain
28
Pressures on rural areas in developed countries to provide
more living spaces
Populations in developing countries are growing slowly BUT there is a growing demand
for housing due to :
*People moving from one area to another
*More individual/ smaller households due to single/ divorced/older people living
on their own.
So there are pressures to build more housing on Greenfield sites. (areas which have not
been built on before e.g. countryside)
Consequences of building on Greenfield site

there is a need to find suitable Greenfield sites and there is often pressure by
local people against this

The growth of towns and villages in RURAL areas has an impact both in the rural
settlement (e.g. increased traffic by commuters; more people so there is population
pressure on schools and health centres; loss of AMENITY land)

AND in the surrounding rural area(e.g. loss of biodiversity)

Loss of productive farmland

Increased use of cars for commuting by new residents
There is also a pressure to build new transport developments e.g. roads and
airports.
29
Why are urban areas in demand?
Developed eg London; Tokyo
Developing eg Mumbai (India); Johor
Bahru (Malaysia)
Regeneration projects e.g. London
Docklands have attracted young, often
single people back into London. New,
modern housing / flats have been built.
The jobs that have replaced the old
industrial jobs (e.g. in the docks; food
processing) are in business and financial
services e.g. in Canary Wharf. This has
resulted in REURBANISATION of city
centres.
Cities like Mumbai and Bangalore in India
have attracted new industry e.g.
outsourcing of service functions e.g. call
centres. This has acted as a catalyst for
attracting new migrants to the city in
search of jobs. Mumbai is the financial
capital of India and new jobs have been
created in the financial sector.
In Johor Bahru the Malaysian government
has created a free trade zone. This has
attracted foreign manufacturing TNC’s
e.g. Dyson which in turn has created jobs
and attracted new migrants.
Indian cities have poor public transport
systems so workers need to live in the
city.
(Although Mumbai has developed a metro
and Bangalore is planning one)
Attraction of health; education ‘bright
lights’
Urban areas have a concentration of
services and amenities e.g. Universities;
theatres; high order retail facilities;
hospitals
Household sizes have declined and there
are more actual households in the UK and
this pushes up demand for new housing.
What are the pressures on living spaces in Developed
countries
Housing:
Tokyo: in 2007 the population was 12.8 million (10% of Japan).
High demand pushes up land prices (£1000 per m2) and results in
very small living spaces.
London: housing shortages, especially cheaper, affordable
housing. Outward pressure to build new housing on greenbelt land
(urban sprawl).
Public transport
Overcrowding on public transport systems especially metro/
underground trains and buses.
Solution: In Tokyo they plan to build underground cities e.g. Alice Cities, which are
underground spaces connected by trains and roads under the surface
30
What are the pressures on living spaces?
 In Mumbai huge slums e.g. Dharavi are home to over 600,000 people (see above
the problems of squatter settlements)
 Over 1/3 of the population of nearly 20m do not have access to fresh drinking
water and 2m do not have access to a toilet (poor sanitation)
 The public transport system is poor and commuting takes a long time
Creating Sustainable living Spaces
Developed
Developing
London congestion charging
Recycling and waste reduction
Masdar (United Arab Emirates)
A new settlement for 50,000 people has been built
17km outside the capital. It is claimed to be the
first ‘zero-carbon, zero waste’ city. For example
wind towers are placed on top of buildings to suck
cool air in and warm air out. Rooftops are covered
with solar panels and the city will be car free due to
extensive public transport.
Barcelona (Spain)
Created a scheme called ‘bicing’ where
people buy a year’s membership for £30
which allows them to pick up a bike from one
of the
400 stations that are located around the
city. There are over 6000 bikes and more
than 175000 members.
Urban farms in Havana, Cuba
These are gardens that use every piece of available
ground in the city and in 1995 is was estimated that
there were 26,600 popular gardens in the city that
produce a wide range of products
Rural Sustainable Examples
Developed Countries
Martin (Hampshire)
Looked to control their food system so that it
could become less dependent on supermarkets
etc. Residents have joined Future Farms which
is a community allotment of 3 hectares growing
vegetables and raising animals. It is sold by
the villagers for profit as well as for their own
food.
Developing Countries
Eco-villages in Brazil
Ecoovila is a small eco-village located in the city
of Porto Alegre. The aim was to develop
affordable housing for everyone and use ecofriendly building materials. All houses face the
sun so they soak up its energy, houses are cooled
by underground chambers in the homes, grass
roofs reduce inside temperatures and help to
insulate. They have used local material such as
clay bricks and sewage is treated in a biological
reed-bed system.
31
Urban Sustainable examples
The Future: Sustainable living spaces: Britain’s new ecotowns
What are Compact Communities?
Attempts to reduce the environmental impact of our living spaces by making the best
use of space. Workplaces are located within the housing areas so there is less need to
travel. Housing is dense so it provides enough people to support the local services and
use public transport.
Why build new Eco-towns?
The UK government want at least 10 new eco towns to be built by 2020. NW Bicester is
one of the first wave that could be built.
WHY: There is a shortage of housing especially affordable housing in certain parts
of the UK.
What are they? Eco-towns are described as small new towns of at least 5-20,000
homes designed to achieve zero carbon development and more sustainable living (energy
efficiency; streets with charging points for electric cars;jobs within or close; local
food production; conservation/recycling of water and waste; urban design will allow
childen to walk/cycle to school) using the best new design and architecture.
Some new ecotowns will be built on brownfield sites eg former RAF aerodromes but
many will be built on Greenfield sites.
EG North West Bicester in Oxfordshire.
Plans have been put forward to build 5000 homes and create 5000 jobs for local
people in NW Bicester
If you look at the satellite photo this ecotown will be built on a Greenfield site.
For
 More affordable,
sustainable housing
where the demand is
greatest
 Ecotowns will be a model
(example)for future
sustainable living
developments
 Sustainable living is the
future the world has
changed and we cannot
live in the past
Against
This site is a Greenfield site
Loss of biodiversity in the
area
Loss of amenity land eg
walking in open space
Loss of productive farmland
Increased use of cars for
commuting by new residents
The Campaign to Protect
Rural England argues that
Councils should redevelop
derelict Brownfield sites and
bring back into use 800,000
empty homes in England.
Greenfield site
BICESTER
32
Topic 4: Making a Living
What you need to know:
-
Understand how the balance between employment sectors is changing
-
Process of industrialisation and deindustrialisation and the impacts of these
-
Factors leading to diversification of rural economy in a developed country
-
Understand the environmental impact of employment change in urban areas
of a developing country
-
Understand the environmental impact of de-industrialisation and economic
diversification in one area within a developed country
-
Identify the potential for regeneration and environmental change on
Brownfield sites
-
Identify the potential for greener growth in urban areas.
33
Key Terms
Brownfield site
A piece of land that has been used and abandoned,
and is now awaiting some new use
Clark fisher model
A generalised description of how societies’
employment structures change as they develop
Deprived area
An area in which there is a damaging lack of the
material benefits that are considered to be basic
necessities e.g. employment, housing etc.
Derelict land
Land on which factories or houses have been
demolished
Employment structure
The proportions of people who work in primary,
secondary, tertiary or quaternary jobs
Formal sector
Work where people are formally employed, with
permanent jobs and regular pay
Green sector
The part of economic activity that pays attention to
environmental issues
Industrial Stage
The economic stage when manufacturing industry
develops
Informal sector
Forms of employment that are not officially
recognised e.g. people working for themselves on the
streets of developing cities
Post-industrial stage
Period in the development of a society when
manufacturing industry declines in importance and is
replaced by other forms of employment
Pre-industrial stage
That period in development of a society when
manufacturing industry has yet to develop
Primary employment
Working in the primary sector – extracting and
exploiting raw materials e.g. miner
Quaternary employment Working in jobs that are related to ICT and research
Regeneration
Secondary employment
Sustainable
Telecommuter
Tertiary employment
Growth in areas that have experienced decline in the
past
Working in the secondary sector, making things
Meeting our current needs in a way that does not limit
the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs
Person who works away from the office through the
use of the internet
Working in the service sector, producing ‘intangible
goods’ e.g. teacher
34
Understand how the balance between employment sectors is
changing
Employment can be divided into four main groups or sectors:
• Primary industry – people extract raw material from the land or sea e.g. farming
• Secondary industry – people are involved in manufacturing e.g. house building
• Tertiary industry – provide a services e.g. selling goods or nursing
• Quaternary industry – provide information and expert help e.g. IT
Employment structures: The proportion of people working in each of the primary,
secondary and tertiary sector
These are a method of showing employment structure and should be read in the
direction of the arrows
World Employment Structures
Globally LEDC’s
such as Nigeria
and Kenya have
high amounts of
primary industries
due to the fact
that there is a
lack of education
and they are
mainly subsidence
farmers. MEDC's
such as UK and
USA tend to focus
on Tertiary
activities due to
higher education rates and tertiary jobs are higher paid. Primary is low due to the fact
that most MEDC’s have taken to importing food stuffs etc as it is cheaper.
35
Clarke-Fisher Model
Economies start to develop and
incomes rise = demand for
manufactured goods increase =
secondary industry grows
Tertiary services support
and promote quaternary
services
Incomes continue to rise,
people start to consume more
services = tertiary sector
grows
In the pre-industrial stage low-income countries are mainly employed in primary
production, middle income countries are focused on secondary industries and finally
high-income countries are dominated by the tertiary sector.
This model tells us how employment changes over time and how the balance of
employment changes as a country develops. However it does assume that there is a
simple straight development path from LEDC’s to MEDC’s.
Process of industrialisation and deindustrialisation and the impacts of these
Industrialisation is a social and economic process which changes pre-industrial societies
(farming) to industrial ones. The industrial output is a good way of measuring how
industrialised a country is.
Deindustrialisation is the decline in manufacturing (secondary) industry and the growth
in tertiary and quaternary industries.
Reduced demand for
traditional products due to
new technologies
Greater competition from
Reasons for
De-industrialisation
countries such as China and
India
Mechanisation has increased productivity and
reduced the number of workers needed
36
Named Example: Mexico: an industrialising country
Mexico was originally mainly focused on agriculture but the growth of industry meant
many people moved from the rural areas to the cities. In 1950s manufacturing became
the biggest provider of wealth. Manufacturing has been attracted here due to:
- a large and highly skilled workforce
- large consumer market (plenty of people to buy the products)
- Low distribution costs
- Close to government who make the decisions
Re-export businesses have sprung up which are located close to the USA boarder, they
are owned by foreign companies who process goods imported from the USA and reexport duty free (no tax!). This has caused many problems such as the growth of the
‘informal sector’ e.g. shining shoes.
Named Example: Germany: a de-industrialised country
Germany has the 4th largest economy in the world. Deindustrialisation in the 1980s
forced manufacturing to move to lower-cost sites (many abroad) and the growth of
service industries. The decline in manufacturing meant that Germany had to act to
save its economy by setting up small manufacturing businesses. Germany now has 31%
of people employed in manufacturing but many people are now involved in knowledgebased industries.
Factors leading to diversification of rural economy in a
developed country
Diversify = create more variety in jobs and industry so that people are not dependent
on just one activity e.g. farming.
Lack of transport links
- Public transport is infrequent and
expensive
Local depopulation
- Younger people move out of rural
areas due to lack of jobs etc
Challenges for the
countryside
Disappearance of local services e.g.
bus services, health services have
declined
Lack of affordable homes due to
purchasing of second homes in
rural areas = increasing house prices
Change in farming:
- Low wages, increasing
mechanisation, cheaper imports
- Supermarkets have driven prices
down
37
There has been a decline in farming this has meant that farmers have had to diversify
their livelihoods in order to survive:
- Food Festival e.g. Ludlow Food Festival = celebration of local food that attracts lots
of people
- Rural sports e.g. Trout fishing in Cumbria. Includes ideas such as paintballing,
shooting etc
- Farm diversification e.g. Runnage Farm Dartmoor has accommodation. Increase of
40% to UK farm incomes due to diversification.
Environmental impact of employment change in urban
areas of a developing country
Named Example: Mexico City
Mexico City has seen the growth of its manufacturing industries which in turn attracts
over 1000 people per day to the city. The growth of industry has created many
problems:
1. Pollution of the air by both factories and cars. Mexico City is surrounded by
mountains so the air cannot move freely around and this means pollutants such as
nitrogen oxides become trapped becoming ‘photo-chemical smog’.
2. The new firms and around 20 million people all demand fresh water. Providing this
is an issue as the city takes water from underground aquifers which are becoming
empty. As they empty the land also sinks (9mm per year).
3. Water supply is polluted by firms who dump chemical waste into rivers
4. Waste disposal system cannot cope. Although the authorities collect 10,000 tones
per day, the city produces 11,000 tonnes per day; the rest is thrown into the
streets
38
Environmental impact of de-industrialisation and
economic diversification
Named Example: UK
Economic impacts
- UK use to be a large
shipbuilding area but has
declined over the years
- Loss of personal income
- Loss of taxes to national
and local governments
- Rising demand for income
support services
- Loss of income in the local
areas due people’s lack of
spending power (cant
afford to buy things)
Social Impacts e.g. Glasgow
- Family breakdown
- Alcoholism and crime
- Permanent unemployment
Environmental Impacts
Positive:
- More available land
- Less water used in
industrial processes
- Less energy required
for machines
- Reduced traffic
congestion
- Reduced noise and air
pollution
Negative
- Derelict Land
- Empty factory buildings
- Good manufactured
further away =
transport issues
Identify the potential for regeneration and environmental
change on Brownfield sites
Brownfield site = an area of land which has been built on before and is suitable for
redevelopment
Greenfield site = an area of land that has not previously been built on before
Developing Brownfield sites does have some negatives:
- Often more expensive to develop because of clean up costs
- Regulations for reclaiming the sites can often be a barrier to new development
- Some of these sites can be important wildlife habitats
Named Example: Birmingham – Fort Dunlop
The West Midlands Regional Development Agency has helped to support the
regeneration of the city areas affected by industrial decline.
Fort Dunlop in its prime employed 12000 people and in
1816 a village known as ‘tyretown’ was developed around
the site to meet the workers needs. The factory closed
in 1980s when Dunlop moved its manufacturing abroad.
It was empty for 20 years and then in 2002 it received
planning permission to redevelop into a mixed-use
sustainable 24-hr community.
39
Identify the potential for greener growth in urban areas.
Green employment is ‘attempts to improve air and water quality, recycle and reduce
waste, promote conservation and to improve the environment’. It includes the following:
- Making ‘green’ products from natural renewable materials or recycled goods
- Constructing green buildings that use less energy, recycle water and are built from
natural materials
- Offering ‘green’ services e.g. ecotourism
- Quaternary services e.g. architects designing green buildings
Examples
1) Eco-tourism
Tries to respect the environment and local people, but reduce the impact of
tourisms. It is growing on an average of 5% per year. Uluru (Ayers Rock) in
Australia offers eco-tourism by the local Anangu people. They offer guided tours
to cultural sits and teach about their desert life.
- ‘High cost-low volume’ which means it costs £280 pert night at the hotels
- Most tourists arrive by air – increasing environmental impact
- Located in the remote desert so everything has to be brought in by road
2) Recycling
Curitiba in located in SE Brazil. Its population has grown rapidly to 1.6 million
creating the normal problems of unemployment, poor housing etc. In 1989 it was
the first city in Brazil to introduce separation and recycling of its waste. Today
2/3rds of the city’s waste is processed creating employment sorting organic and
inorganic waste. Recovered materials are then sold to local factories and the money
is used to fund social programmes e.g. schooling.
40
Topic 5: Changing Cities
What you need to know:
 What an eco-footprint is and how we can calculate it
 Why many cities have very large eco-footprints
 Why eco-footprints vary in size from place to place
 What are the main causes of environmental pollution
 How we can manage the environment more sustainably and reduce our ecofootprint
 How we can reduce our waste
 How we can make our transport more sustainable
 How sustainable city living can improve the quality of life
 What green consumerism is
 How farmers markets are encouraging people to buy high-quality local
produce and cut down on food miles
41
Key Terms
Alternative fuels
Fuel sources that provide an alternative to fossil fuels
Bus lanes
A marked lane in a road in which only public transport
vehicles such as buses and taxis are permitted
A system of traffic control that charges drivers who
enter the congested central area of the city e.g.
London
A measure of how much land is needed to provide a
place e.g. city with all the energy, water and materials
it needs, including how much is needed to absorb its
pollution and waste
The amount of energy used by individuals, groups or
countries
The degradation of the environment through the
emission of toxic waste material
A highly organised agricultural system with high
inputs and high outputs
A set of stalls run by farmers and good growers from
the local area
Choosing to buy environmentally friendly products
Congestion charging
Eco-footprint
Energy consumption
Environmental pollution
Factory farming
Farmers’ market
Green consumerism
Household waste
Hybrid cars
Landfill
Organic produce
Park-and-ride schemes
Quality of life
Sustainable city
Throw-away society
Material produced by households that needs to be
disposed of
Cars which use electric batteries as well as petrol
engines
Disposal of rubbish by burying it and covering it over
with soil
Food grown or produced without the use of chemicals
A system whereby private vehicles are left of the
edge of an urban area and people are then bused into
the centre
The degree of well-being felt by an individual or group
of people in a particular area. This can relate to their
jobs, wagers, food etc.
Cities that have a number of policies that attempt to
reduce their impact on the environment (including the
surrounding area)
A society with the attitude to consumption that pays
little attention to the need to recycle
42
What are the environmental issues facing cities?
Urban regions and their eco-footprints
When towns or cities are first established they use the surrounding countryside to
produce food and raw materials for the people to survive. However, as the city
expands it begins to have to rely on importing food and raw materials from other areas
in order to support itself – therefore its eco-footprint has expanded.
The eco-footprint is used to identify how sustainable a city is and what changes need
to be made to improve the quality of life for people living within it.
43
How and why eco-footprints vary in size from place to
place?
A comparison of 2 places in the UK shows that:
City
Planets Footprint (global
hectares)
Winchester
3.62
6.52
Salisbury
2.79
5.01
Both these cities have around 43,000 people and are only
80km apart. Why are their eco-footprints so different?
 Incomes and house values in Winchester are higher so
people can afford to spend more on everything
 Both cities have high employment rates
 Both people commute out of Winchester and further to work than in Salisbury.
This means Winchester’s carbon footprint is increased, whereas in Salisbury
more people walk, cycle or use public transport
Differences between developed and developing countries
The link between wealth and environmental impacts is not clear as places such as
Germany and the Netherlands have high GDP per capita and longer life expectancies
than the UK but all have lower eco-footprints. However, eco-footprints of developing
countries tend to be much smaller than developed nations as their lifestyles and
consumption patterns are much different.
44
What are the main causes of environmental pollution?
Producing electricity
Nuclear power
Industry
Household waste
Oil
Agricultural
chemicals
Contaminated water
Producing electricity through the burning of coal, oil or gas
releases gases which contribute to increasing global warming
This has many threats including to land, air and water if any of
the radioactivity were to escape e.g. Chernobyl
Chemical or car industries produce environmental pollution – this
often occurs due to run-off into the water system
Increasingly we are dependant on landfill sites to dispose of
household waste. This contains chemicals which can seap into
the water table and also releases methane gase
Main source of energy for transport and burning this releases
chemicals into the air
Most food in MEDCs is grown with the use of pesticides or
fertilisers, these chemicals often end up in the food or water
supply
Many underground water sources have been contaminated by
chemicals from farming, industry and houses.
45
Assess the environmental impacts and footprints of
different urban areas and activities -Named Case Study: London
Key Facts:
 The City of London produces 8.8% of UK’s GDP
 Greater London is set to become the fourth largest urban economy in the world
 81% of London’s food comes from outside the UK
 20% of London’s water comes from outside the area e.g. from Wales
 London needs an area 125x bigger to supply all the resources it consumes
London developed due to its surrounding area and the ability for it to support its
population i.e. Carrying Capacity (the maximum number of people who can be supported
in a given area). Once this was reached London was forced to look outside its area in
order to support its growing population and economy.
London’s life support system
INPUTS
FOOD
 6.9 million tonnes per year
WATER
 866 billion litres per year
ENERGY
 13.2 million tonnes oil equivalent
 Only 1% renewable sources
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
 20 million tonnes
WORKERS
 3 million commuters daily
49 million tonnes of materials
consumed
OUTPUTS
WASTE
 40.9 million tonnes of C02
 27 million tonnes of food,
construction materials, chemicals etc.
 28% of water lost through leakage
 18% of energy is wasted
64 billion passenger km travelled
each year – 69% by car
What does London do with all its waste?
In order to cope with its waste London transports its waste to surrounding counties e.g.
Essex deals with 33% of London’s waste.
Landfill vs Incinerator
Landfill
Incinerator
For
• Makes good use of old quarries
• Long life span
• Easily maintained and safe
• Cost effective
• Produces methane that can be burnt • Safe disposal of toxic substances
as fuel
• Residue left over can be used for
• Can be sealed after use and used for
road building
parkland
• Gives off toxic gases
Against
• Atrracts vermin e.g. rats
• C02 is released
• Gives off the smells of methane
• 25% of originial waste remains
• Waste materials contaminate
after burning
groundwater
• Can suffer from subsidence
46
How we can manage the environment more sustainably
and reduce our eco-footprint
Houses
- Improve
insulation to
reduce heat loss
Power
Stop pollution
of air, land and
water. Increase
use from
renewable
sources
Cars
Reduce pollution
from exhausts
and recycle
materials from
old cars
What needs to
be overcome to
make our cities
more
sustainable?
Waste
Increase
recycling and
reduce amount
of rubbish
going to landfill
Food
Reduce the
amount of food
miles
47
Named Example: London – reducing energy and waste
Key Facts:
- Only 1% of London’s energy comes from renewable sources
- Up to 60% of energy is lost in homes due to poor insulation
- Londoners produce 3.4 million tonnes of rubbish each year
- Up to 80% of our waste could be recycled, re-used or composted
What is London doing?
Eco-communities – these new eco-towns are to be built on brownfield sites out of town.
E.g. BedZED near Croydon, Greater London, is the largest carbon-neutral ecocommunity in the UK. It is built on reclaimed land and promotes energy conservation.
BedZED – key characteristics
- Buildings have been built from natural, recycled or reclaimed materials
- Houses have been built facing south to allow for the use of solar power
- Producing as much renewable energy as that consumed
- Using heat from cooking for space heating
- Providing homes with roof gardens, rain water harvesting and waste water recycling
- Community layout promotes walking, cycling and public transport use
How could London reduce its waste?
Direct Variable charging – where recyclables are collected free of charge and ‘pay-asyou-throw’ policies are applied to everything else. However, this could encourage ‘flytipping’.
Polluter pays principle – where the company that produced the waste items are
charged. However the cost for this is likely to the transferred to the customer.
How we can make our transport more sustainable
There are various solutions to reduce the amount of cars, Lorries etc. on UK roads.
1) Converting cars to LPG (Liquid propane Gas) instead of petrol or diesel. It is
much cleaner and cheaper than petrol and grants are available for the cost of
the conversion.
2) Using hybrid cars which are powered by electric batteries as well as petrol.
3) Super-trams e.g. Manchester – aim to reduce congestion and improve air quality
4) Bus lanes help speed up the journeys to and from the city centres and would
there reduce air pollution as more people are encouraged to use them
5) Congestion charging e.g. In London a congestion charge of £8 pre-paid or £10
on the day applies to Central London, with an additional low emission zone charge
of £100-200 per day for large lorries. (Since 2003 there has been a 21% fall in
traffic in central London, a 43% increase in the amount of bus passengers and
43% increase in cyclists).
6) Park and ride schemes – help reduce the amount of people entering the city
centres and reduce congestion
48
Sustainable city living
What does it look like?
 All waste recycled for reuse
 Organic waste from urban sewage systems to be used as fertilisers
 More parks and green space
 Solar panels to be used to heat water and provide some electricity
 Public transport to be powered by electricity gained from renewable sources
 Industries would be required to clean its waste to prevent pollution
Named Case study: Curitiba, Southern Brazil
Key ideas:
 Population = 2.2 million
 Main idea was to create a ‘Integrated
Transportation Network’ in which there were 3 high
speed, one-way designated bus lanes which were
connected through terminals which allow them to
run every 90 seconds.
The system transports 2.6 million people every
day and is used by 70% of the city’s population
Buses use alternative fuel e.g. natural gas to cut down on pollution levels
What is green consumerism?
This concentrates on encouraging people to:
a) Reduce the amount of products we consume, including energy, water and food
b) Buy items that are environmentally friendly
How to become a green consumer?
- Don’t buy more than you need
- Buy organic fruit and vegetables
- Look for environmentally friendly labelled products
- Compare labels on energy consuming products
- Use public transport
- Look for products with less packaging
Farmers markets
The first British farmer’s market opened in Bath in 1997 and there are now 500 in the
UK. People spend around £120 million a year at these events. Farmer’s markets are a
set of stalls run by farmers and food growers from the local area. The idea is to
encourage small-scale, environmentally aware methods of farming and production.
Advantages for the farmer
Advantages for the customer
- Immediate payment
- Fresh produce
- No high transport costs
- Seasonal fruit and vegetables
- No costs to retailers i.e. shops
- Free range and organic meat and eggs
- Chance to explain the product
- Try before you buy
- Chance to ask questions
49
Topic 6: Changing Countryside
What you need to know:
 Issues facing rural areas in developing countries, e.g. rural isolation,
economic decline, depopulation.
 Pressures on rural areas in developed countries.
 The impact of changes to the national and global economy on rural areas
in developing economies.
 Urban-rural links and their impact on rural areas in one developed
country, and the pressures created
 Initiatives taken in rural areas in developing countries can help to address
issues of isolation and economic decline.
 Declining rural areas can develop more sustainably if appropriate action is
taken
 Initiatives taken in rural areas under pressure in developed countries can
help to address the issues.
 Rural areas under pressure can develop more sustainably in future if
appropriate action is taken.
50
Key Terms
Accessible countryside
Countryside within easy reach of urban areas
Chocolate box village
A rural settlement that appears to match the
picturesque image sometimes used on boxes of
chocolates
A residential area within relatively easy reach and
often surrounding a city, where many residents travel
to and from the city daily
The movement of people and employment from major
cities into smaller settlements and rural areas located
just beyond the city
Reducing risks e.g. in farming areas, farmers can find
other ways of making money out of the farm
Negative impacts of the natural environment,
generally through human action
The process, led by transnational companies, whereby
the world’s countries are becoming part of one vast
economy
A scheme that originates within a local community
rather than being imposed from above
A place of special interest or appeal that attracts
large number of visitors and tends to become
overcrowded at peak times
The decline of population in rural areas and regions
Commuter belt
Counterurbanisation
Diversification
Environmental
degradation
Globalisation
Grassroots scheme
Honey pot
Rural depopulation
SSSI
Telecottaging
Urban Fringe
Site of Special Scientific Interest – a small area that
has officially been protected because of its wildlife
or geology
Working from home in the country, using computer
communication
The countryside surrounding an urban area
51
Issues facing rural areas in developing countries, e.g. rural
isolation, economic decline, depopulation
Spiral of Decline
Food
insecurity
Less food
produced
Rural-urban
migration
Neglect of
farming
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Physical and human processes affecting developing
areas:
Environmental degradation  due to deforestation and desertification 
clearance of vegetation in order to farm means soil erosion increases  increasing
droughts  lack of food
Population change  high rates of natural increase  pressure on natural
resources
Urbanisation  more people are leaving the countryside as they are attracted to
the cities for jobs  only elderly and females left in the countryside to do the
farming
Human hazards  diseases and wars cause higher death rates  less people to
produce the food
Globalisation  land can be turned into exotic crop growing for people thousands
of miles away
52
Named Example: Malawi
-
Key Facts:
Annual GSP $800
50% of the population lives below the poverty line
33% are underfed
Owes $1.8 billion in debt
Problems faced:
1) Rural isolation in southern Malawi
- Only 1 for every 139 people have access to a telephone
- Rural economy has hardly grown as it is poor infrastructure e.g. during wet season
it takes hours to travel 20 km
-
-
2) Rural Poverty
Every day farmers spend 43 minutes collecting wood, 48 minutes walking to farm
plots and 128 minutes walking to market
Rural areas have fewer healthcare facilities
Primary schooling is free, but secondary schooling costs a family most of their
year’s income
3) Depopulation
More people are leaving the countryside as they are attracted to urban areas for
jobs, education and healthcare. This results in the elderly and female population
being left behind.
The impact of changes to the national and global economy
on rural areas in developing economies
Named Example: Malawi
Growth of large estates created during the 19th Century colonisation of Malawi by
Britain. They estates plantations for tea, coffee and tobacco. They hire local landless
farmers and the get paid 1p per kg of tea leave picked.
Tobacco Tenants- Malawi has 1.4 million child labourers. These farmers are allocated a
plot of land by estate owners to produce a specific amount. Many tenants lack
medication, proper housing and safe drinking water.
Small holders – the majority of farmers in rural areas, 1.8million families and produce
80% of its food. They are using subsistence farming as they only produce enough food
for themselves.
53
Pressures on rural areas in developed countries
1) Decline in agricultural employment
The amount of land being farmed has decreased, but what it produces has increased.
The UK now grows around 60% of its food. Farming has also declined in the urban
fringe as more land is converted into building plots
2) Farm diversification
Due to the decline in farming, many farmers are not making enough profit from food
production alone. So they are finding other ways of making money out of the farm or
turning their farms into completely different businesses.
Examples: farm buildings turned into cottage industries e.g. making greeting cards or
renovated into second homes.
Spiral of decline in rural areas
People become
dissatisfied with
worsening quality of life
People leave for better
opportunities elsewhere
Less money and fewer
people leads to closure
of shops, schools
Employers find it
difficult to find labour
Businesses close
Urban-rural links and their impact on rural areas in one
developed country, and the pressures created
****Named Case Study: Lake District *****
The Lake District, in Cumbria, is one of the UK’s most popular National Parks. (National
Parks are outstanding areas of natural beauty). Due to its popularity and accessibility
it has a variety of problems:
1) Accessibility – under pressure due to how easy it is to get to the Lake District e.g.
Motorways bring people from Preston, Manchester etc
- UK car ownership has risen
- Rail access is good and improving
2) Traffic Congestion is a major problem e.g. 85% of people arrive by car causing
congestion on the narrow rural lanes
3) House prices are high due to summer homes pushing the prices of housing higher
beyond the reach of local people
4) Second homes – 40% of houses are second homes which destroys the local
communities
5) Seasonal unemployment – jobs in tourism are seasonal and low paid
54
Initiatives taken in rural areas under pressure in developed
countries can help to address the issues: LAKE DISTRICT
CASE STUDY CONTINUED!
Making farming greener:
-
-
Arable rotation = rotating vegetables e.g. peas etc can fix nitrogen and reduce the
amount of fertiliser needed
Organic Farming = Relies on crop rotation, compost and biological pest control to
maintain the soil and control pests. Does not use chemical fertilisers so it is
environmental friendly.
Hedgerows = these control livestock and help to prevent soil erosion and water runoff.
Housing problem in the Lake District
-
charge second home owners more than 100% council tax to raise money
Limit second home ownership
Convert disused farm buildings into affordable housing
Stop the Right to buy, to preserve the amount of council housing.
Traffic problem in the Lake District
1) Build Bypasses around key towns e.g. Ambleside – would improve journey times
and increase road capacity
2) Park and Ride at key towns – reduce town centre traffic
3) Limit car parking = reduce the number of parking spaces to put visitors off
arriving by car
4) Charge vehicles entering the national park = could use the money raised to
maintain the parks
55
Initiatives taken in rural areas in developing countries
can help to address issues of isolation and economic
decline
***Named Case Study: Ethiopia***
Crops and a shop:
Ethiopia is one of the poorest and least developed countries in the world. Due to its
location the climate is hot and arid making farming extremely difficult. FARMAfrica is a non-governmental organisation which works with local rural communities
in Eastern Africa. The organisation helps them to built canal to channel water into
the fields, received starter kit of seeds and loans to open a small shop to sell items
like soap and salt.
Ethiopia’s millennium villages
-
Millennium Promise is a non-governmental organisation who aims to end rural hunger,
disease and poverty. It is a ‘bottom-up’ approach which uses the following ideas:
building micro dams and safe water points
refurbishing classrooms in local schools
Distributing insecticide-treated bed nets to tackle malaria
Fish Farming
World Vision has set up a project to develop fish farming in Malawian families affected
by HIV/AIDS. It helps farmers to dig small, rain-fed ponds designed for common
freshwater fish. Kitchen waste is used to feed the fish and provides a good source of
income to the families. It has helped reduce children malnutrition from 45% to 15%.
It has also doubled the income of 1200 households.
56
Topic 7: Development Dilemmas
What you need to know:
 Economic development can lead to regional economic differences in
developing countries
 Disparities can develop between urban and rural areas in the same
country
 Development models in developing countries are usually ‘top-down’ or
‘bottom-up’
 The impact of top-down development in a developing country
 Characteristics of bottom up development
 Impacts of bottom up development in a developing country
 The characteristics of sustainable development in rural areas
 Are top-down or bottom-up schemes more appropriate for rural areas in
developing countries in future?
57
Key Terms
Appropriate Technology
Bottom-up approach
Core region
Disparity
Environmental Impact
Assessment
Hydro-electric power
Human Development
Index
Micro-Hydro Schemes
Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs)
Non-government
organisations
Periphery
Poverty
Poverty Cycle
Top-down approach
Equipment that the local community is able to use
relatively easily and without much cost
Development projects that come from local
communities rather than central government or
external agencies
The most important social, economic and political area
of a country or global region – the centre of power
A great difference – between parts of a country in
terms of wealth
A method of evaluating the effects of plans and
policies on the environment
The use of fast flowing water to turn turbines which
produce electricity
A measure of development that uses four economic
and social indicators to produce an index figure that
allows comparison between countries
Small-scale HEP that generate electricity locally
The development goals agreed by the world
governments at the UN summit in September 2000
Charities such as WaterAid who do not report back to
a specific government or country
The outer limits or edge of an area, often remote or
isolated from the core
A state of shortage of money and goods, usually
measured in terms of average wealth and income in
society
A set of processes that maintain a group or society in
poverty
Approach in which projects are set up and organised
by governments, often with little consultation with
local communities
58
Economic development can lead to regional economic
differences in developing countries
Development means improvement for people and the economy. Within a country
there tends to be disparity between the core areas (urban areas with the majority
of people and services) and the periphery (rural remote countryside).
Upward spiral caused by
Multiplier effect
Growth continues and
settlement and economy
expand
Workers need to build
Need Food
and provide these
Demand for more workers
Need houses, water and
services
Shops open, more services
needed
Needs workforce
People move there
Growth of industry
Investment
Measuring Development:
1) Economic Wealth
Measured as Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita = the total value of goods and
services in a nation measured over a year
2) Human Development Index (HDI) gives a country a score between 0 and 1 and is
based on life expectancy, education and income.
3) Birth rates – The number of babies born per thousand per year
4) Death rate - The number of deaths per thousand per year
5) Infant mortality rate – The numbers of babies who die before the age of 5 per
thousand per year
6) Access to clean water
7) % rural population – The amount of people who live in peripheral/countryside areas
8) Types of employment – amount/percentage of people employed in primary,
secondary, tertiary etc
9) Level of literacy – the numbers/amount of people who can read and write
59
Disparities can develop between urban and rural areas in
the same country
Named Example: India
Core area: Maharashtra
-
Is India’s richest core region with the highest GDP and contains India’s largest city,
Mumbai. It has grown due to various reasons:
Services e.g. banking, IT and call centres. Mumbai’s universities produce English
speakers who are employed by large Western companies e.g. BT.
Manufacturing: cotton, food processing, steel, engineering and cement are commonly
exported.
Entertainment: Mumbai has the world’s largest film industry- Bollywood
Leisure and business services – hotels and restaurants
Periphery area: Bihar
-
Bihar is India’s poorest state with 86% of population live in rural areas with most
working in farming.
Average incomes are only 6000 rupees (£75) per person per year. This is 33% of
India’s average income
55% of households live below the poverty line and 80% of people work in low-level
jobs
It gets very little investment from companies because its people cant afford basic
services
In 2003, only 58.5% had electricity and 12% water-flushed toilets
School attendance is low with only 35% of children attending primary school and 8%
reached upper primary.
Development models in developing countries are usually
‘top-down’ or ‘bottom-up’
There are different ways that a country can prompt development:
Decisions are made by the national government and
new regulations/laws are put into place. Local
people are not involved in the process or decisions
being made. E.g. Dams for Hydro-Electric Power
(HEP)
Problems:
-
-
-
Country gets into debt as it borrows large
amounts of money from the World Bank
Conditions are often attached to the loans
Uses lots of energy and is expensive to operate
after being built
Often take resources away from peripheral areas that need it
Bottom-up Development
60
Local people are fully involved in
the process and decision-making
and therefore the development
scheme are often more appropriate
to the local needs of the people.
E.g. Building a biogas digester
The impact of top-down development in a developing
country
****CASE STUDY: Santo Antonio Dam in Brazil****
Background:
- Part of the Madeira River Project
- Madeira River Basin covers 1.5 million km2 and the dam is located 5km upstream
from Porto Velho
- Cost $5.3 billion to build and will produce 3,150 MW of electricity
Social
Economic
Environmental
Advantages
-
Disadvantages
20,000 jobs
created
Attracted 100,000
people to the area
Health, education
etc have improved
Education and
training centre for
immigrants created
-Dam built despite
local opposition
- 3,000 people forced
to leave their homes
- Indigenous peoples’
land at risk of flooding
- Increase in malaria
due to greater water
area
-
Produce the cheapest
electricity in Brazil
Will supply 8% of
Brazil’s electricity
Better
infrastructure (roads
and waterways) in
centre of S. America
- cost $22 billion
- Too much reliance on
HEP (76% of electricity)
- High sediment loads
can block turbines
reducing their
effectiveness
- commercial fishing at
risk, from the dam
-
HEP is renewable and
avoids use of oil/nuclear
- Fish channels in the dam
allows fish to migrate
- Two forests will be
planted
- Suggestions by public
have been included in
basic environmental
plans
- River food webs will be
affected
-Final flooded area was x2
as large as predicted
(+1000km2)
-Project fined £3.3 million
for killing 11 tonnes of fish
61
Impacts of bottom up development in a developing country
***CASE STUDY: Micro-hydro schemes in Peru****
Micro-Hydro schemes are those with an electricity
generating capacity of less than 100KW. The water is
diverted from a stream to a high point of the valley side
and then down a pipe to turn a turbine.
These are considered appropriate for the local skills
level and help spread technology to the rural periphery.
They are low cost and involve the local people
Peru:
In the poorest area of Peru 44% of people live on less than $2 a day. Rainfall in the
area is high so a charity called ‘Practical Action’ helped install 50 schemes providing
electricity for 30,000 people.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Social
- Local people involved in all
stages of the scheme
- Health care is improved
as electricity allows
storage of medicines
- Electricity for schools
- Training of local people to
operate the technology
gives them skills
Economic
- Cheaper electricity
than a large HEP
scheme
- Scheme uses local
skills and cheap
technology
- 60% of people in the
area said that their
income had increased
Environmental
- Avoids flooding large
areas of land that would
take away farmland
- Avoid the need to burn
wood from local trees
for fuel
- Replaces fossil fuel use
-Poor people have to pa for
the electricity which is
metered
- Some villages have doubled
in size creating population
pressures
- Demand for electricity
is variable
- Initial capital cost is
high for a poor village
e.g. £500 per household
Some specialised
equipment had to be
imported
- Small storage dam is
needed which alters the
flow of the river and spoils
the scenery
62
The characteristics of sustainable development in rural
areas
Social – long term benefits
Appropriate technology –
for the local population e.g.
method and equipment used
education, energy etc
Local Decision making –
local people involved in all
stages of planning and
are at a level people can
FEATURES OF
SUSTAINABLE
SCHEMES
choice
understand and use
Affordable – initial cost and
maintenance is low enough
for local people to afford
them
Nature-small overall impact
on the natural environment
Are top-down or bottom-up schemes more appropriate for
rural areas in developing countries in future?
Achieving sustainable development can become a problem for developing countries as
they are stuck in a cycle of poverty. Large top-down schemes that focus on national
problems (e.g. Santo Antonio Dam) may overlook the rural poor and do very little to
improve the lives of local people living in the periphery. Small-scale, bottom-up
schemes are often more appropriate and more sustainable in the long term.
Cycle of Poverty
Subsistence farming
No investment in
land improvement,
Little or no surplus
machinery or
farm produce
materials
Little or no income
It is hard for developing countries to improve the well-being of the population whilst
still ensuring the conservation of ecosystems and resources.
63
Topic 8: World of Work
What do you need to know?
 How the new global economy works
 How globalisation has led to the inter linkage of the world’s economy, and
that some countries are winners and some LDCs are losers
 How the global shift has led to changes in the global economy as
production shifts from developed to developing countries
 How transnational companies drive the processes of globalisation and the
global shift
 How transnational companies operate
 How changes are taking place in the world of work
 How these changes are impacting on people and the environment in named
locations
 How there are winners and losers as a result of changing employment
 How new technology (ICT) is transforming the ways people work
 How changes have occurred in the workplace, with improved working
conditions for many in developed countries
 Whether work and employment are becoming more sustainable
64
What is the ‘new economy’?
This relates to MEDCs moving towards a global service sector economy through the
process of globalisation (growth and the spread of ideas on a global or worldwide scale).
The global economy is divided into 4 sectors:
Primary sector – working with natural resources e.g. farming
Secondary sector – making things e.g. manufacturing
Tertiary sector – providing services e.g. banks, teachers
Quaternary sector – research and ICT based
As countries move towards more tertiary and quaternary based sectors there is less
reliance on traditional locations and they become ‘footloose’.
New economies tend to be based on the production of knowledge, ideas and services
e.g. jobs in ICT, TV production and bio-technology. Countries which have strong global
connections are the well connected and influential have been areas where the new
economies have developed e.g. Singapore. Whilst traditional economies have remained
in more isolated areas such as Bangladesh and countries in Africa.
However a particular feature of the global economy is the dependence that develops
between countries. Lower-income countries tend to focus on growing food and buying
cheap manufactured goods. Middle-income countries buy raw materials and
manufacture these into goods. Whilst high-income countries buy food and
manufactured goods; but focus on selling services and new technologies.
Changes to the global economy:
 New services are appearing within the tertiary and quaternary sectors
 Locations for industries are changing e.g. global shift of manufacturing to
cheaper locations in low-income countries
 Introduction of teleworking and outsourcing
 More and more resources are being consumed
65
Implications of the ‘new economy’ of people in different
parts of the world
In 1960, the richest 20% of the people shared 70% of the global wealth between them.
By 2004, the richest 20% controlled over 90% of the world’s wealth. This has meant
there has been increasing inequalities caused the globalisation. The growing economy
is affecting people in a number of ways:
- Workers in developed countries have to retrain as jobs in primary sectors have
switched to tertiary and quaternary sectors
- Workers in the developing work have had to learn new skills
- More women are becoming involved in the global labour force
- The use of child labour is a tradition some countries as it is cheap, however in the new
economy it is banned.
Named Example: China’s Growth
China’s economy has seen a huge shift from primary production to industry as it has
developed over the past decade. However the implications of this growth have been at
the cost of the environment. 70% of China’s rivers and lakes are polluted by industrial
and domestic waste and 30% of China suffers from acid rain caused by coal-fired
power stations.
How transnational companies drive the processes of
globalisation and the global shift
A Transnational Corporation is a company which has production in more than one
country around the world. Advances in technology, communication and networking have
lead to the global shift in economic activity. This has meant that labour-intensive
manufacturing shifted to more low-income countries to take advantage of the cheap
labour. More recently service based industries such as Call centres have shifted to
places such as India – this is known as ‘outsourcing’.
66
Named Example: Wal-Mart
Key Facts:
 Wal-Mart's 2002 sales topped $218 billion, with sales growth at 13.8 %.
 Its 2002 net income was $ 6.7 billion, a growth of 6 %.
 Wal-Mart has 1,283,000 employees, as of 2002; a growth of 11.2 %
 Wal-Mart is the largest retail store in the United States
 Currently Wal-Mart operates over 4,150 retail facilities globally.
 According to the Fortune 500 Wal-Mart holds the number one spot, ranked by its total
sales.
History:
1962
Wal-Mart opened the first store.
1985 Wal-Mart has 882 stores with sales of $8.4 billion
1990 Wal-Mart becomes USA nation's No. 1 retailer.
1996 Wal-Mart enters China
Why is Wal-Mart so successful?
Aim 1: Dominate the Retail Market Everywhere
Wal-Mart is a discount retailer because they sell their products at the lowest possible
prices. Each store is encouraged to f compete against all other stores in its customer
base until the Wal-Mart store gains dominance over its local competitors
Aim 2: Growth by expansion in the US and Internationally.
Currently the corporation employs over 1.3 million employees, one million in the US
alone. The company owns over 4000 stores worldwide. Over 1,200 units (stores) are in
operation internationally. Internationally, the retailer operates in Mexico, Canada,
Argentina, Brazil, China, Korea, Germany, and the United Kingdom.
Aim 3: Create Positive Brand and Name Recognition
Their goal is to have the customer associate the retailer with the reputation of
offering the best prices. The company accomplishes this through television advertising
campaigns and newspaper adverts.
Aim 4: Branching out into New sectors of retailing
Wal-Mart has recently become a major pharmacy, car repair shop and it is now moving
into grocery sales
67
Who are the winners and losers in the changing
employment patterns?
MEDCs
LEDCs and
NICs
Advantages
Disadvantages
o Cheaper imports from LEDCs
benefits customers
o Global shifts allow jobs in many
different countries
o Greater efficiency caused by
outsourcing = new technologies in
MEDCs
o Loss of industries = better
environmental quality
o Exports rise = increased income
and investment into the country
o Wealth can trickle down to local
areas with new jobs
o New technology = new skills
o Outsourcing can lead to job
losses within MEDCs
o Job losses often concentrated
in certain areas e.g. clothes
making = mass unemployment and
social problems
o New jobs in urban areas
promote rural to urban migration
o Social impacts e.g. exploitation
o Over-dependence on single
process e.g. textiles
o Reduce food supplies as people
switch to manufacturing jobs
o Environmental pollution
How new technology (ICT) is transforming the ways people
work
Named Example: Call Centres in India
In the mid 1990’s call centres were shifted to South Asia, especially India with an
estimated value of outsourcing at £27 billion in India. IT and business process
outsourcing services now account for 5.4% of India’s GDP.
Reduced time
for product to
go to market
Operational
expertise
Access to a
wider range of
knowledge and
talent pool
Cost saving and
higher profits
Reasons why a
company
might
outsource
Improved
quality
Shared risks
Good contracts
68
Why is India attractive for outsourcing?
o The Commonwealth link with the UK
o English language skills are good in India
o IT is well taught in the Indian education system
o Low wage costs in India
o India produces 3 million graduates a year
o Low telephone/internet costs
Assess the impact of the service economy of one developing country:
LEDCs/NICs
Costs
Benefits
In 2008 outsourcing brought $24 billion
Loss of cultural identity
to the Indian economy
Unsocial hours e.g. 5 hour time
Outsourced jobs have a higher starting
difference between India and the UK
salary compared to the average wage
Abuse from angry customers = antiMore jobs created in LEDCs
western attitudes
Gender
inequalities are being reduced
Economy driven by ‘low value’ activities
MEDCs
Costs
Benefits
Outsourcing = larger profits from
Job losses – by 2008, 200000 jobs had
companies which benefits shareholders
been outsourced from the UK
40% cost saving in comparison with
Loss of female jobs
keeping operations in the UK
Job losses often concentrated in
vulnerable areas e.g. north-east
Labour costs of a call-centre worker in
the UK are £18-20000 per year, in India
just £2500
How changes have occurred in the workplace, with improved
working conditions for many in developed countries
The global shift in manufacturing has meant that in areas of the UK high unemployment
rates have left areas with extreme dereliction. Manufacturing accounts for only 25%
of the UK’s economic wealth and employs only 1 in 5 people. Industries such as textiles
and shipbuilding have moved overseas and automation has meant that goods are now
made by machines rather than people, increasing job losses in some areas of the UK.
Rural areas have also seen the impact of mechanisation in farming which has led to job
losses and an increased reliance on imported food has meant that rural areas are
becoming increasingly deprived.
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Growth of the tertiary sector in the UK
With the decline in the primary and secondary sectors some of the job losses has been
offset by growth in the tertiary and quaternary sectors. These have led to the
development of:
- Industrial estates – contain ‘service industries’
- shopping complexes – shops have moved away from the traditional high streets to out
of town shopping complexes e.g. Meadowhall
- Business parks – these contain offices which have also moved out of the CBD
- Science Parks – these contain quaternary industries and are located close to
universities.
Named example: Southampton Science Park
Located 1 mile from the M3 and 1 hour from London, this area contains office and
laboratories and is home to companies such as BskyB and those involved in
nanotechnology. The park offers a good location, quality environment and access to the
University of Southampton.
How have working conditions been improved in MEDCs?
1. Health and safety regulations now apply and protect the well-being of workers
2. Working days are shorter
3. National minimum wages have been established
4. Flexible working hours and part-time work has allowed mothers to go to work
Advantages
Better health
Less stress
Lower staff turnover
Less traffic congestion and pollution
Disadvantages
Lower wages as working less hours in
some cases
Isolation from other work colleagues
Difficult to motivate and organise
home workers
Can mean you are less likely to be
promoted
5. Equal opportunities have meant that a person cannot be discriminated against for
age, gender or ethnicity.
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Changes in employment in the developing world
Tourism has been a huge economy for LEDCs as it has meant regular wages, however
the ‘leakage’ of money back to the MEDCs through TNC tour operators and hotel chains
has meant that tourism is not bringing all of the potential benefits.
The majority of LEDCs are still primarily focused of primary industries to feed its
population.
Named Example: Kenya’s agribusiness
3/4ths of the population are employed in farming and this produces 1/4th of the
country’s GDP. Kenya has started to export vegetables and flowers to MEDCs and has
allowed farmers to see regular wages. The downside it that there has been a shift to
buying imported food which is more expensive as it is no longer been grown in house.
Environmentally, water resources are increasingly under pressure and the carbon
footprint of Kenya is increasing as they fly the products to Europe.
Importantly, many jobs in LEDCs are still part of the informal sector e.g. shoe shiners
and therefore are not regulated by the government’s improvements in working
conditions.
Is work and employment are becoming more sustainable?
No:
 Resources are being used at an increased rate e.g. energy and raw materials
 Mass transport of materials, goods and people has meant more emissions which
contributes to global warming
 Damage to the environment e.g. clearing forests for farming
 Increasing shortage of water supplies which are used to irrigate crops
What needs to be done?
1. Increased use of renewable energies e.g. wing, solar etc
2. More recycling of waste
3. Efficient use of resources
4. Less water usage
5. Efficient transportation of products
6. Local sourcing of materials and products e.g. farmers markets
b Workplaces are likely to change in response to company relocation,
new technology and outsourcing.
Assess how workplaces might change for different people in future.
Evaluate whether changes in workplace and work practice are sustainable, e.g. company
relocation, outsourcing, and new technology, eg working at home.
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Practice Exam Questions
Topic 1: Population Dynamics
1. Choose a developed country that you have studied. Describe the changes and the
problems that have been caused by population change. (4 marks)
2. Explain 2 problems faced by countries with youthful populations (4 marks)
3. Explain how governments can encourage a rise in birth rate (4 marks)
4. Foundation- Describe the key features of stage 1 of the Demographic Transition
Model (3 marks)
5. Higher – Explain why stage 1 of the Demographic Transition model is called the
‘High Fluctuating’ Phase (3 marks)
6. Referring to examples, explain the factors that can lead to either population
increase or population decrease (4 marks)
Topic 2: Consuming Resources
1. Outline how increasing car ownership might cause an increase in the demand for
oil (2 marks)
2. Outline how technology might help solve shortages of resources (2 marks)
3. Foundation: State 3 ways we can use resources more sustainably (3 marks)
4. Higher: Explain how developing sustainable transport can lead to a reduction in
resource use (3 marks)
5. Explain why some people believe that the world’s resources will run out soon,
while other people think that will not happen (6 marks)
6. Using examples, explain how renewable energies could replace the world’s
dependency on fossil fuels (4 marks)
Topic 3: Living Spaces
1. Explain 2 reasons why people who move overseas when they retire sometimes
return home disappointed (4 marks)
2. Explain the pressures that can result from the demand for new housing in rural
areas (4 marks)
3. Explain 2 ways in which cities might be made more sustainable in the future (4
marks)
4. Foundation: State 3 reasons why people in developed countries want to live in
rural areas (3 marks)
5. Higher: Explain how both push and pull factors are encouraging
Counterurbanisation (3 marks)
6. Describe the advantages and disadvantages for people living in the urban spaces
of one city you have studied (5 marks)
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Topic 4: Making a living
1. Describe and explain the difference between informal and formal sectors of
employment (4 marks)
2. Using examples, explain how the growth of industries in developing countries can
bring both benefits and problems (4 marks)
3. Foundation: Describe the types of jobs you would find in the ‘green sector’ (3
marks)
4. Higher: Explain why the ‘green sector’ is seen as a source of providing new jobs
in the future (3 marks)
5. Using examples, explain how employment opportunities in the future could be
more sustainable (6 marks)
Topic 5: Changing Cities
1. Using examples, explain how and why different cities have different ecofootprints
2. Use examples to explain how cities are trying to reduce their footprint.
3. For a city you have studied, explain the benefits and problems caused by
transport schemes to reduce its eco-footprint.
4. How can people become green consumers?
5. How do farmers markets help people to reduce their eco-footprint?
6. Using examples, explain how attempts are being made to make cities more
sustainable.
Topic 6: Changing Countryside
1. Using named examples, explain the challenges faced by rural areas in the
developing world (6 marks)
2. Explain how a declining rural area could develop more sustainably in the future (6
marks)
3. Foundation: Explain, with an example, why some National Parks are under
pressure from a range of activities (4 marks)
4. Higher: Explain why the aims of National Parks conflict (4 marks)
5. Using examples, explain the reasons for rural poverty in developing countries (6
marks)
6. For a rural area you have studied which is under pressure, explain the problems
it faces (6 marks)
7. For a rural area under pressure, explain how one problem that it faces could be
solved (6 marks)
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Topic 7: Development Dilemmas
1. For a named example of a top-down development strategy that you have studied,
explain how successful it has been in meeting the needs to the developing
country (6 marks)
2. Using a named example, explain how bottom-up schemes meet the needs of
developing countries, and how successful these have been (6 marks)
3. Identify 3 characteristics of a bottom-up rural development scheme that makes
it sustainable (6 marks)
4. Foundation: Describe, using an example, how a mega-dam could help a country
develop (4 marks)
5. Higher – Explain the positive impacts, other than providing HEP, of building
Mega-dams (4 marks)
6. Using examples, explain why poverty can be seen as a cycle (6 marks)
Topic
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8: World of work
What does the term new economy mean?
Explain why the benefits of the new economy are unevenly spread.
What are the advantages and disadvantages to the employees of working for a
multi national company?
Choose a TNC you have studied and explain the advantages and disadvantages
the TNC has for the country or countries where it has factories.
How can the global economy bring benefits to developing countries?
Why have some developing countries experienced a rise in employment in the
service sector in recent years?
Using examples, explain how outsourcing produces both winners and losers.
Explain why transnational companies locate their headquarters in developed
countries and many other factories in developing countries.