INTRODUCTION TO
BIOTECHNOLOGY
TEA
CHAPTER 1
BIOTECHNOLOGY
BASICS
Biotechnology is a cutting edge field with new discovering made daily to improve health and nutrition.
Click on the link below to learn more about the setm
cells in this picture.
http://publications.nigms.nih.gov/biobeat/12-06-21/
Photo Courtesy: National Institute of Health
What is Biotechnology?
“What is biotechnology? It sounds interesting; but I just have no idea what it is exactly?” Have you ever asked
that question? You have probably touched on the topic in your high school biology class, but much of what you
know is likely formed from media sources which may be true or false. As we enter the biotechnology century, developments in science are giving us a better understanding of the natural world. At the same time we are developing new tools that are collectively referred to as "biotechnology." These help us address problems related to human health, food production, and the environment. Any new technology, particularly one as far-reaching as biotechnology, will generate interest, as well as concerns. In this course, we will discuss the complex science of biotechnology and the implications these discoveries have on our everyday lives. Before you begin, take the Check
Your Knowledge 1 quiz below.
1. Check your knowledge by taking the quiz ALONE.
2. Once completed, check your answers with your neighbor.
Check Your Knowledge 1: What
do you Know? What do You
Know About Biotechnology?
Question 1 of 16
Do you purchase genetically modified foods?
3. Identify common missed questions.
A. yes
4. With your classmates, identify some common
misconceptions that most of the class shares.
B. no
C. sometimes
2
History of Biotechnology
We think of biotechnology as a relatively new field of science, but the word “biotechnology” was first used in 1919
by a Hungarian engineer. He used it to describe using another living organism for one’s own benefit. By this definition, biotechnology is not new. In fact, it dates all the way back to the very beginnings of civilization. View Interactive 1.1 to explore events that led to the understanding of the human genome as we know it today.
INTERACTIVE 1.1 Human Genome Timeline
Click in the image to explore
the timeline. Are there any
events that surprised you on
the timeline? What event do
you consider to be the most
important? Why?
3
F ERMENTATION
From the beginning of
time, agriculture has concentrated on improving
food production. The earliest and most familiar
bioprocess is microbial
fermentation. Fermentation is a metabolic process where by-products of
glucose metabolism, carbon dioxide, and lactic
acid, can be used to
leaven bread, produce yogurt and cheese from
milk, produce wine from
sugars, and brew beer
from starches. View Gallery 1.1 to identify some
other useful products
that are still made today
using this ancient form
of biotechnology.
GALLERY 1.1 Products created using fermentation
The mold that gives Roquefort its distinctive character (Penicillium roqueforti) is found
in the soil of the local caves.
4
S ELECTIVE M ARKERS
For thousands of years, humans
have used an agricultural biotechnology application called selective
breeding to cultivate superior
crops and livestock that show an
improved growth rate or other desirable traits. It is common sense
to know that if you breed a male
and female with a desirable trait,
the offspring will carry that trait.
However, until only a few hundred
years ago, no one understood the
biology behind this common sense.
Today, the biotechnology of
marker assisted selection (MAS) allows breeders to use biochemical
and genetic markers linked to
traits of interest to identify superior plants and animals for breeding. View Gallery 1.2 to identify
some other examples of selective
breeding.
GALLERY 1.2 Examples of Selective Breeding
ARS researchers have selectively bred carrots with pigments that reflect almost all
colors of the rainbow. More importantly, though, they're very good for your
health.
5
MOVIE 1.1 Desirable Breeding Traits
Breeding Cattle Traits
Cows have adapted to an incredible range of environmental factors as they have provided people
with milk, meat, leather, and draft power. As a response to the many uses and habitats of cattle, a
wide variety of breeds have been developed. Breeders of beef and dairy cattle carefully select cows
from known breeds that will yield the most meat
and milk. In Movie 1.1 from Nature, learn about the
most desirable traits in both beef and dairy cows.
"Desirable Breeding Traits in Cattle." Teachers' Domain. 11 Nov. 2008. Web. 11 Apr.
2012. <http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/nat08.living.gen.geneng.traits/>.
Questions: Movie 1.1 Desirable Breeding Traits
1. How many different breeds of cattle have humans created?
2. Would the qualities that make good beef cattle help them survive in the wild?
6
M ENDEL
Practice 1 Punnett
Squares
Question 1 of 2
One cat carries heterozygous, long-haired traits (Ss), and its mate carries homozygous short-haired traits (ss).
Use a Punnett square to determine the probability of one of their offspring having long hair. (Review Punnet
Squares)
In the 1800s Gregor Mendel began to study inheritance patterns of a common garden pea. Mendel’s observations led him to believe that some traits were “dominant” and would always be expressed, whereas other traits were “recessive” and would only be expressed if both parents contributed a recessive allele. You may remember using punnett squares in your biology course to
predict trait outcomes of a particular cross or breeding experiment. Test your knowledge by trying Practice 1.
A. 100%
B. 75%
C. 50%
D. 25%
Mendel’s work went largely unnoticed until the early 1900s and has since been considered the
foundation of population genetics. It is important to note that at this time no one understood
that DNA was the mechanism of inheritance. Today the structure of DNA has been elucidated
and is exploited for the countless biotechnology applications that will be discussed in this course.
7
V ACCINATIONS
In the late 18th century, Edward Jenner demonstrated that people injected with a live cowpox virus were
immune to smallpox. How could that
possibly have worked? Well, you
have to understand a little bit about
the immune system. Antigens are on
the surface of all pathogens. A pathogen is a bacteria or virus that that has
the potential to cause disease in the
host it invades. Your body reacts to
these foreign antigens by stimulating
white blood cells to produce antibodies that attach to the antigens on the
pathogen and mark them for destruction. However, while your body is carrying out this immune response, you
may feel sick. BUT some of those
white blood cells become something
called “memory cells” so that if your
body ever encounters the same antigen again, these “memory cells”
quickly produce large amounts of antibody and attack the invader. The
cowpox virus is very similar to the
smallpox virus. So while people who
received the cowpox injection did not
get sick, the cowpox virus did stimulate the immune response and produce memory cells that would recognize the smallpox virus if the person
ever came in contact with it. Therefore, the injected people had immunity to the smallpox virus without
ever becoming ill with the virus. Today more than 325 million people
worldwide have been helped by
biotechnology-derived drugs and vaccines. To find out more about the development of the smallpox vaccine
view Gallery 1.3.
LoremtoIpsum
Type
enter dolor
text amet, consectetur
An antibody is a protein component of the
immune system that circulates in the blood,
recognizes foreign substances like bacteria
and viruses, and neutralizes them. After exposure to a foreign substance, called an antigen, antibodies continue to circulate in the
blood, providing protection against future
exposures to that antigen.
8
GALLERY 1.3 Smallpox !
This young girl in Bangladesh was infected with smallpox in 1973. Freedom from smallpox was declared in Bangladesh in December, 1977
when a WHO International Commission officially certified that smallpox had been eradicated from that country.
9
P HARMACEUTICALS
Another huge advancement for the pharmaceutical industry was the discovery of penicillin. In 1928 Alexander
Fleming noticed by accident that certain bacteria would not grow in the proximity of a particular mold. Fleming, being
a typically inquisitive scientist, investigated the cause of this phenomenon. Fleming’s research led to the discovery and
purification of the first antibiotic, penicillin. Antibiotics work by either directly killing the microorganism or by inhibiting its replication. Antibiotics ONLY work for bacterial infections, not for viral infections like colds. Since Fleming’s discovery, many new antibiotics have been produced by the pharmaceutical industry, but we still only have a limited number of antibiotics. It is important to maintain the potency of our antibiotics by controlling their misuse and overuse and
reminding patients to finish their antibiotic prescription to prevent the mutation of a bacteria resulting in resistance to
that particular antibiotic.
FIGURE 1.1 Fleming
Fleming (center) receiving the Nobel prize from King Gustaf V of Sweden (right) in
1945.
10
G ENETIC E NGINEERING
IMAGE 1.1 Genetic Engineering of the Zebra fish
MOVIE 1.2 Blinking Bacteria
When one thinks of modern biotechnology, however, gene engineering and recombinant organisms take center stage. Biotechnology was revolutionized when scientists first learned
how to isolate and clone genes and discovered that it was possible to insert these cloned
genes in a different organism and have the protein expressed. For example, scientists isolated a gene from jellyfish called the GFP gene Image 1.1. This gene expresses a protein that
fluoresces green under UV light and is thus called the Green Fluorescent protein. Scientists
have been able to clone this gene into many other organisms, including the fish in this picture, and when the GFP gene is expressed, these organisms glow green under UV light!
There are limitless applications for the use of genetically engineered organisms which we
will explore later in the course. View Movie 1.2 to see an exciting possibility for genetically
modified bacteria that could one day allow biologist to build cell sensors that detect pollutants or help deliver drugs. In this movie, E. coli cells flash in synchrony. Genes inserted into
each cell turn a fluorescent protein on and off at regular intervals
Select the movie to view
11
Chapter 1 Review and Lessons
Check Your Knowledge
Check Your Knowledge 2
History of Biotechnology
Question 1 of 6
Which of the products below are produced by a process called fermentation?
Extend Your Knowledge
1. Use the Internet to find several examples of selective breeding that are used to produce products that
you may encounter in today’s market.
2. Explain why antibiotics would not be prescribed for
a common cold.
3. Use the Internet to research 5 events from Interactive 1.1.
4. Pick an example of a biotechnology application
and describe how it has affected your everyday
life.
Apply Your Knowledge
Lesson 1.1 A
Timeline
Lesson 1.2 B Lesson 1.3 C Lesson 1.4 D
Movie Project Current Events
Root Beer
5. Visit the website AccessExcellence at
http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/AB/BA/.
Briefly describe 3 current applications of biotechnology. Share these applications with the class.
6. A website used often by biotechnologist is The National Center for Biotechnology Information, NCBI.
Visit NCBI at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ and explain why you would use the following resources if
you were a biotechnologist: PubMed, Bookshelf,
PubMed Central, BLAST, Nucleotide, Protein and
Genome.
12
Podcast Notes
PODCAST 1.1 Biotech History
Introduction to Biotechnology – Student Resources
I.
II.
View the podcast above. Scroll up and
down on podcast notes to the right to identify the take away ideas from the podcast.
A print copy of notes are available in
Lesson 1.1 below
Podcast 1.1 notes
download
Define Biotechnology.
Biotechnology dates back to the beginning of civilization. Briefly
describe some historical applications of biotechnology.
a. Fermentation
b. Selective Breeding
c. Mendel’s Work in Genetics
d. Vaccinations
e. Antibiotics
f. Genetic Engineering
Introduction to Biotechnology – Student Resources
CHAPTER 2
CELL STRUCTURE
AND FUNCTION
This tropical scene, reminiscent of a postcard from Key West,
is actually a petri dish containing an artistic arrangement of genetically engineered bacteria. The image showcases eight of the
fluorescent proteins created in the laboratory of Roger Y.
Tsien, a cell biologist at the University of California, San Diego.
Tsien, along with Osamu Shimomura of the Marine Biology
Laboratory and Martin Chalfie of Columbia University, share
the 2008 Nobel Prize in chemistry. Courtesy of Nathan Shaner,
Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute. Featured in the
October 15, 2008, issue of Biomedical Beat.
LEVELS OF
L IFE
The term biotechnology refers to the use of living organisms to modify human health and the environment. Throughout history we have learned a great deal about the organisms that our grandfathers used so effectively. The marked increase in our knowledge of the metabolic processes of these organisms allows us to manipulate organisms to our benefit. Understanding what makes up a cell and how the cell works is fundamental to all of the biological sciences. A cell is
the smallest unit of life and the building block of all organisms. Appreciating the similarities and differences between
cell types within and among organisms is particularly important to the fields of cell and molecular biology. In Image 2.
1, researchers at the National Cancer Institute manipulate cells to learn more about the progression of prostate cancer.
IMAGE 2.1 Prostate cells
Wild type human prostate cells
from an organoid (a man-made
construct that resembles an organ).
These cells have come from a xenograft where they serve as controls
for the study of primary prostate
cancer tumor cells, which are also
injected into mice and then extracted for characterization.
Image Courtesy of National Cancer Institute.
15
INTERACTIVE 2.1 Before jumping into a discussion of biotechnology, you will need an overview of molecular biology.
Let’s start with reviewing the organization of life. Select each of the levels below to read more about them.
Tissue Level
Chemical Level
Cellular Level
Organ Level
Organismal Level
System Level
Can you think of
other examples
that could be used
to demonstrate
these levels of life.
16
T YPES OF C ELLS
GALLERY 2.1 Examples of prokaryotic cells
Prokaryotic Organisms
Evidence shows that life arose on earth about 4 billion
years ago. The first types of cells to evolve, were prokaryotic cells, organisms that lack a nuclear membrane which
surrounds the nucleus. They also lack organelles which
act as tiny organs in higher evolved cells. This lack of organization causes prokaryotic cells to be very small, simple and not visible by the naked eye. The prokaryotic cells
in Gallery 2.1 are only visible by the use of special electron microscopes. Bacteria are the best known and most
studied form of prokaryotic organisms.
Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms that do not develop or differentiate into multicellular forms. Some bacteria may grow in chains or clusters, but each cell in the
colony is identical and capable of independent existence.
The cells may be adjacent to one another but typically
there is no continuity or communication between the
cells. Prokaryotes are capable of inhabiting almost every
place on the earth, from the deep ocean to just about
every surface of your body. Flip through Gallery 2.1 to
view different types of prokaryotic cells.
Salmonella bacteria, a common cause of food poisoning, invade an immune cell.
Credit: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases
(NIAID)
17
Genetic Material
Prokaryotes are distinguished from eukaryotes on the basis of nuclear organization, specifically their lack of a nuclear membrane. Notice in Image 2.3 the the genetic material (colored RED) appears to be coiled up and floating
around freely. In contrast, Image 2.2 and Image 2.4 clearly have a nuclear membrane enclosing their genetic material. This is called the nucleus and appears as the PURPLE circular structres. Prokaryotes also lack any of the intracellular organelles and structures that are characteristic of eukaryotic cells.
IMAGE 2.3 Prokaryotic Cell
Genetic Material
IMAGE 2.2 Eukaryotic Cell
IMAGE 2.4 Eukaryotic Cell
Genetic
Material
Genetic
Material
18
Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic cells include protist, fungi, animals, and plants.
They are about 10 times the size of a prokaryote and perform highly complicated functions. The major difference
between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is the presence of
membrane-bound compartments in which specific metabolic activities take place. The most important one being
the nucleus, a compartment that houses the eukaryotic
cell’s DNA. The name eukaryotic literally means “true nucleus”.
Eukaryotic organisms also have other specialized structures, called organelles, which are small structures within
cells that perform specific functions. As the name implies,
organelles act as small organs of the cell. There are many
types of organelles commonly found in eukaryotic cells,
that perform functions necessary to have highly complex
functions.
The origin of the eukaryotic cell allowed for higher thinking organisms such as humans. Although eukaryotes use
the same genetic code and metabolic processes as prokaryotes, their higher level of organization has permitted
the development of multicellular organisms. Flip through
Gallery 2.2 to views some examples of eukaryotic cells. See
if you can identify the nucleus or other organelles. Notice
their complexity compared to prokaryotic cells.
GALLERY 2.2 Types of eukaryotic cells
Endothelial cells under the microscope. Nuclei are stained
blue, microtubles are marked green and actin filaments are labelled red.
Credit: National Institute of Health
19
Parts of the Eukaryotic Cell
The lysosome is the trash man of
the cell because it digests excess or
worn out organelles and proteins
by breaking them down and removing them.
The ribosomes act as factories which translate the
genetic information, or DNA, from the nucleus into
useable protein molecules. Proteins do the work in
the cell.
The nucleus functions as the control
center of the cell and houses the genetic information with the goal of
maintaining cell homeostasis.
The mitochondria functions
as the powerhouse of the
cell because it produces the
energy the cell needs to perform its duties. The energy
currency of the cell is ATP.
The plasma cell membrane is made up
of a phospholipid bilayer. It surrounds
the cell and functions as a gate that allows molecules in to and out of the cell.
The endoplasmic reticulum is
the highway of the cell. It
forms an interconnected network of tubules and vesicles
and functions to transport proteins throughout the cell. Many
of the protein-producing ribosomes are located here.
The golgi functions as the post office in the cell and packages and
modifies the proteins.
20
Types of Eukaryotic Cells: Animal vs. Plant
There are actually two types of eukaryotic cells: animal cells and plant cells. They are very similar, but there are
three distinct differences.
1. Plant cells have a cell wall surrounding the plasma cell membrane.
2. There is also a very large vacuole which functions as storage for the cell. The vacuole stores molecules needed
by a cell and also isolates material that may be harmful for the cell.
3. The final difference is that in addition to all of the organelles previously discussed, plant cells also have organelles called chloroplasts. The chloroplast is the site of photosynthesis in a plant cell. Sunlight is captured and
metabolized into glucose and oxygen in the presence of carbon dioxide and water. Photosynthesis is one of the
most important biochemical pathways, since nearly all life on Earth either directly or indirectly depends on it
as a source of energy. Animals metabolize the glucose from a plant source to produce ATP, the energy currency
of the cell.
IMAGE 2.5 Plant Cell
What structures do animal and
plant cells have in common?
21
Many different types of cells are grown and studied
in biotechnology labs. Cells can be manipulated by
pharmaceutical companies to produce proteins to
treat diseases such as diabetes and anemia. We will
be studying these applications and many others
later in the course.
22
Chapter 2 Review and Lessons
Extend Your Knowledge
Check Your Knowledge
REVIEW 2.1 Test Your Knowledge: CELLS 1
Question 1 of 6
Cells are classified into two categories based on the location of their
genetic material. They are:
REVIEW 2.2 Test Your Knowledge CELLS 2
Question 1 of 10
Label the animal cell below:
mitochondria
nucleus
A. prokaryotic and eukaryotic
B. animal and plant
plasma membrane
C. prokaryotic and bacteria
D. animalia and bacteria
golgi apparatus
nucleus
mitochondria
golgi apparatus
plasma membrane
Apply Your Knowledge
Lesson 1.2 A
Virtual Cell
Lesson 1.2 B
Microscope
Lesson 1.2 C
Electron Mic
1. What types of cells are commonly used in biotechnology: prokaryotes or eukaryotes? Give an
application currently used in biotechnology for
each type.
2. Compare the scanning electron microscope to
the transmission electron microscope. Identify the
pros and cons of each technology when viewing
cell samples.
3. Bacterial cells are often difficult to identify because of their small size. Microbiologists often
use two procedures, the gram stain and agar
test, to help in this task. Research each procedure and explain their role in bacteria identification.
4. Go to
http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/stemcells/le
ctures.html to learn more about how eukaryotic
cells are being used for stem cell application.
Create 5 short answer questions from this lecture
and submit to your instructor along with the answers.
5. Why would a biotechnologist need to use the
Kirby-Bauer Test? Outline the steps used in this
procedure and carry out your own experiment.
23
Podcast Notes
PODCAST 1.2 Cell Structure and Function
View the podcast above. Scroll up and
down on podcast notes to the right to identify the take away ideas from the podcast.
A print copy of notes is available
.
Podcast 1.2
notes
CHAPTER 3
THE BLUEPRINT OF
LIFE
X-ray crystallographic data was used from real DNA
molecules to paint a unique portrait of the double helix.
Image Courtesy: National Science Foundation. Credit:
Kenneth Eward, BioGrafx Scientific & Medical Images,
Ovid, Michigan
Z OOMING I N ON DNA
Now that we’ve familiarized ourselves with the structure of
a cell, let’s peek inside the nucleus and look at the structure of DNA. DNA is the master copy of an organism’s genetic information, which is passed on from one generation
to the next. The 3 billion base pairs in DNA of every human cell would stretch to about 6 feet if unraveled. The
chromosomes in the nucleus are highly coiled and condensed packages of DNA. When you zoom in on DNA, you
can see that the DNA is arranged into functional units
called genes. The Human Genome project discovered that
humans have approximately 20,000 genes on the chromosomes. These genes are made up of individual DNA units
called nucleotides arranged in a specific sequence, unique
to each gene. Chromosome, gene, and nucleotide are all
DNA! They are just different levels of organization for the
DNA. To use an analogy, it’s like a book. The book is divided into functional units called chapters,
and the chapters are made up of individual How is DNA Packaged?
words. Chromosomes are divided into
functional units called genes which are
made up of individual nucleotides. So
how do 20,000 genes fit into the nucleus?
Visit the website to the right to find out.
26
DNA D ISCOVERY :
It was not until the mid 1900s that DNA was elucidated
as the inherited material described in Gregor Mendel’s
pea studies. Many scientists contributed to current DNA
knowledge, but we will only mention a few here.
•In 1869 Friedrich Miescher isolatesd
DNA for the first time from pus found in
white blood cells. He identified a nuclear
substance that he called nuclein. Subsequent studies showed that this nuclein
was slightly acidic, thus the name “nucleic
acid.”
•In the early 1900s, other scientists began to describe the chemical properties of
DNA in much more detail.Frederick Griffith was the first to demonstrate transformation. Transformation is when one organism is able to take up and express
traits from another organism. Griffith was able to inject
a heat-killed strain of virulent bacteria into mice along
with a living nonvirulent bacteria. Griffith discovered
that the mice died. Therefore the virulent trait, or
“transforming principle” as he called it, must have trans-
ferred from the dead bacteria to the living bacteria. Of
course, Griffith did not know that the “transforming
principle” was DNA. In 1944, Oswald Avery, Colin Macleod, and Maclyn McCarty proved this.
• Following the results of these and
other experiments, scientists knew
that DNA was the inherited material
in a cell, but they still did not know
the structure of DNA. Erwin Chargaff provided a very important clue when he showed
that the percentage of adenine bases always equaled
thymine bases and that guanine bases always equaled cytosine bases.
Courtesy: National Human
Genome Research Institute.
27
IMAGE 3.1 Photo 51
In 1952, Rosalind Franklin used X-ray crystallography to generate
beautiful pictures of the DNA molecule, such as the one in Image 3.1.
Watson and Crick studied these pictures and, along with all of the data
that had been collected from previous experiments, published a paper
in 1953 describing the structure of the DNA molecule. Let’s look at the
structure that Watson and Crick described in the next section.
Want to know about these scientists and their discoveries?
• http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/Collection/CID/KR
Photo 51 is the nickname given to an X-ray diffraction image of DNA taken by Rosalind Franklin in
May 1952, when she was working at King's College London in Sir John Randall's group. It was
critical evidence in identifying the structure of
DNA. Some believe it was an injustice that she
was not included in the nobel prize awarded to
Watson and Crick in for the discovery of the double helix structure.
• http://www.nobelprize.org/educational/medicine/dna_double_helix/
readmore.html
Courtesy:National Library of Medicine.
28
DNA S TRUCTURE AND R EPLICATION
INTERACTIVE 3.1 Double Helix
IMAGE 3.2 The Double Helix
Can you identify the following in
this 3D model: sugar phosphate
backbone, nucleotides, double
strands
DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans
and almost all other organisms. Nearly every cell in a person’s body
has the same DNA. Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus (where it
is called nuclear DNA), but a small amount of DNA can also be found
in the mitochondria (where it is called mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA).
The DNA molecule consist of two strands wound around each other to
from a double helix. Click on Interactive 3.1 to see it in 3D. Then study
Gallery 3.1 to learn about the units that make yp the DNA structure.
29
GALLERY 3.1 DNA Structure: Swipe though the gallery to learn about basic DNA structure.
The DNA molecule consists of two strands that wind around one another to form a shape known as a double helix. Each strand has a backbone made of alternating sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate groups. Attached to each
sugar is one of four bases--adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T).
30
PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER :
Select the terms below to find out how they are used to describe the DNA structure. All of these terms will become very important when we discuss DNA replication in the next section.
31
IMAGE 3.4 DNA Replication
DNA R EPLICATION
Did you know that cells in your body have to regenerate and replenish themselves? Well, think about what
happens to your skin in the winter. Your skin becomes
dry and flakes off. What happens to those skin cells?
Does your skin become so thin from loss of cells that
you can see through it? Of course not! The cells regenerate to replace the ones that flaked off. This occurs
through a process called mitosis and is represented in
the diagram above. During mitosis, one cell divides to
produce an identical copy of itself. If the cell is going
to be identical, it must also have the same copy of
DNA. DNA replication is the process where DNA
makes an exact copy of itself for a new daughter cell
just before mitosis as seen in Image 3.3.
IMAGE 3.3 Mitosis: Cell Division
Once Watson and Crick described the structure of
DNA, scientists were eager to learn how this genetic
material could be passed on to new cells. In 1958 Messelson and Stahl performed an experiment that demonstrated DNA replication was semiconservative. This
means that instead of having an entirely new copy of
DNA in the new cell, the two resulting strands of DNA
are half old and half new as seen in Image 3.4. Let’s explore how this happens in Gallery 3.2 found on the
next page.
32
GALLERY 3.2 Steps in DNA Replication
The first step in DNA replication is for the enzyme, helicase to unzip the double
stranded DNA molecule.
33
Chapter Summary:
DNA replication results in two identical copies of DNA that are half old and
half new. The strands are complementary to one another which means if
you know the sequence of one strand, you can figure out the other strand sequence. This is because A always binds with T and G always binds with C.
The new copy of DNA is then ready to be placed into a new cell. Modifications can be as simple as changing a single nitrogen base (A, T, G, C) in a
gene sequence, or as complicated as cutting out entire genes or gene sections and inserting new ones. Changing DNA sequences may affect the characteristics of cells or whole organisms. We will discuss these modifications
later in the course.
34
Chapter Review
Extend Your Knowledge
Test Your Knowledge
REVIEW 3.1 Test Your Knowledge
Question 1 of 13
1. Use the Internet to research how DNA can
be manipulated to created recombinant organisms. List 3 examples you find.
Which of the following is true of DNA. You may choose more than one answer.
2. What is the Genographic Project?
A. It is a double stranded
B. It is found in the nucleus of eukaryotic organisms
C. It contains heredity material
D. It is made up of four letters: A,T,G and U
3. What is the current status and future implications of the Human Genome Project.
4. Compare and contrast the genome of a bacteria cell, a plant cell and a human cell in
terms of size and genetic components.
5. Use an online mind map software to outline
the structure of DNA and the replication
process.
Apply Your Knowledge
Lesson 1.3 A
DNA Extraction
Lesson 1.3 B
DNA Origami
Lesson 1.3 C Lesson 1.3 D
DNA Timeline Replication
6. Go to
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/tech/rosal
ind-franklin-legacy.html and find out why controversy is sometimes associated with Rosalind Franklin and the discovery of the double
helix.
35
PODCAST 1.3 NOTES
PODCAST 1.3 : DNA and RNA Structure
Podcast 1.3 Notes
36
PODCAST 1.4 NOTES
PODCAST 1.4 DNA Replication
1.4 Podcast Notes
37
4
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
By mixing fluorescent dyes like an artist mixes paints, scientists are able to color code individual chromosomes. The
technique, abbreviated multicolor-FISH, allows researchers to visualize genetic abnormalities often linked to disease. In this image, "painted" chromosomes from a person
with a hereditary disease called Werner Syndrome show
where a piece of one chromosome has fused to another (see
the gold-tipped maroon chromosome in the center). Courtesy of Anna Jauch, Institute of Human Genetics, Heidelberg, Germany.
Featured in the March 21, 2007, issue of Biomedical Beat.
RNA
Structure
Let’s begin by examining the structure of RNA. RNA nucleotides are very similar to DNA nu- IMAGE 4.3 Nucleic Acids
cleotides. However, there are some very important differences as seen in Image 4.3.
1. First, the four bases in RNA are adenine, guanine, cytosine, and no, NOT thymine, but uracil. Open image 4.3 and identify these bases. What other differences do you notice?
2. RNA is single stranded.
3. The second difference is found on the number 2 carbon. Find the 2’ carbon hihglighted in
Image 4.1. This extra OH makes it difficult for RNA to form hydrogen bonds with adjacent
nucleotides. That’s why RNA is almost always single stranded. AND because it is singlestranded and represents only small sections of the DNA, RNA can leave the nucleus
through small nuclear pores and travel into the cytoplasm where it is used as a template to make proteins.
IMAGE 4.2 DNA Nucleotide
IMAGE 4.1 RNA Nucleotide
Extra OH only
found in RNA
No OH here. This is why
DNA is named Deoxy(no
oxygen)ribose
39
Types
IMAGE 4.6 Types of RNA
There are three types of RNA to be discussed. Let’s define them in Image 4.6. Messenger RNA (or mRNA) is shown in purple and is the copy
of RNA that is made directly from the DNA sequence. The next two
RNAs are necessary for making protein. Ribosomal RNA (or rRNA) is
shown in brown and, along with proteins, is what makes up the ribosomes. Do you remember from lesson 2 what happens at the ribosomes? That’s right! Ribosomes are where proteins are made. The last
type of RNA, called transfer RNA (or tRNA), is shown in green, and it
functions to bring amino acids to the ribosomes for protein assembly.
Take a closer look at tRNA and mRNA in Image 4.4and Image 4.5 below.
IMAGE 4.4 tRNA Close Up
IMAGE 4.5 mRNA Close Up
Each tRNA molecule has two important areas: a trinucleotide region called the anticodon and a region for
attaching a specific amino acid.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a single-stranded RNA
molecule that is complementary to one of the DNA
strands of a gene. The mRNA is an RNA version of
the gene that leaves the cell nucleus and moves to the
cytoplasm where proteins are made.
40
Transcription
DNA transcription refers to the synthesis of RNA
from a DNA template. This process is very similar to
DNA replication and also occurs within the nucleus.
Study Figure 4.1 and identify the differences between
DNA replication from Chapter 3 and DNA transcription. The most important difference is the enzyme
RNA polymerase shown in orange, an enzyme that
synthesizes RNA from a DNA template. For transcription to be initiated, RNA polymerase must be able to
recognize the beginning sequence of a gene so that it
knows where to start synthesizing an mRNA. This sequence is known as the promotor sequence. The RNA
polymerase then unwinds the double helix at that
point and begins synthesis of a RNA strand complementary to one of the strands of DNA. This strand is
called the antisense or template strand, whereas the
other strand is referred to as the sense or coding
strand. View Gallery 4.1 on the next page for a closer
look at transcription.
FIGURE 4.1 Transcription
What is the difference between the antisense strand and the sense strand?
Why is the antisense strand called the
template or coding strand?
41
GALLERY 4.1 Steps in Transcription
sent at, lacus vestibulum et at dignissim
cras urna, ante convallis turpis duis lectus
sed aliquet, at tempus et ultricies. Eros sociis cursus nec hamenaeos dignissimos imperdiet. Imperdiet sem sapien. Pretium
natoque nibh, tristique eligendi molestie
massa.
Step 1: RNA polymerase binds to a promoter region on double stranded DNA
and unzips the double helix just like DNA polymerase did in DNA replication.
42
INTERACTIVE 4.1 The Central Dogma
1. Transcription
2. Transport
Translation
1
2
3
43
Translation
The Central Dogma
The central dogma of molecular biology tells us that DNA is transcribed into RNA and that RNA is the middle man between DNA and protein. Proteins do the work in a cell, and they are translated from mRNA. So far we have covered
the first process. In this section we will explore how the mRNA is decoded into a functional protein that will perform
most of the work and structures within the cell. In biotechnology, proteins may be synthesized to create pharmaceuticals such as insulin or used in industrial processes such as detergent manufacturing.
IMAGE 4.7 The Central Dogma
44
Codons
There are a couple of definitions you’ll have to understand before you can fully understand translation. The
first is the definition of a codon. The messenger RNA
strand is read in groups of 3 nucleotides. Each group of
three RNA nucleotides is a codon. Identify these structures in Image 4.8.
IMAGE 4.9 Amino acid strand
IMAGE 4.8 mRNA codons
Every codon codes for a specific amino acid.
What do amino acids have to do with this? Well, a protein is a string of amino acids held together by peptide
bonds. Notice in Image 4.9 that we zoomed in on one of
the amino acids so that you could see the molecular structure. It doesn’t look anything like a nucleotide! It has a
central carbon, an amino (NH2) group, a carboxy
(COOH) group, and a variable R group.
45
Amino Acids
There are 20 different amino acids that are used to make proteins. The only difference between the amino acids is the
R group. Image 4.10 shows the R groups of the 20 different amino acids. Click on the chart to zoom in for a better
view. It also shows the three letter designation for each amino acid. For example, alanine can also be written as Ala.
Also notice that the backbone structure (highlighted in yellow) is the same for every amino acid. The R groups (in
white) are the distinguishing characteristic of each amino acid. The amino acids are grouped together based on structural similarity. Some are nonpolar hydrophobic, some are polar uncharged, some are polar acidic, and some are polar
basic.
IMAGE 4.10 Amino Acid Chart
These amino acids are
linked together to form
proteins.
How will the different R
group properties affect
how they will interacts
with water and each
other?
The answer to this question is what will give proteins its unique 3D shape
discussed in the next
chapter.
46
The Genetic Code
Image 4.11 shows the genetic code in chart form. It tells us the amino acid for every codon (3 RNA nucleotides) of
mRNA. For example, the codon ACU codes for the amino acid threonine. Start at the arrow and follow the pink line to
see how this was derived. The podcast at the end of this chapter provides a tutorial on how to use this chart of you need
IMAGE 4.11 Codon Chart
more help.
47
Tricks of the Code
There are 3 STOP codons
which will tell the ribosome
that protein synthesis is over.
There is more than
one codon for threonine. There are actually FOUR codons
that all code for threonine. This is called
the “degeneracy” or
“redundancy” of the
code and protects the
organism from mutations.
The only
amino acid that
a protein may
start with.
48
Your Turn
Now you try it. What is the sequence of amino acids that will code for this segment of mRNA: CGAGAAGUC ?
GALLERY 4.2 Reading the Genetic Code
First, break this segment of RNA up into groups of 3 representing the codons. The first codon is
CGA. Using the genetic code, you can find that CGA codes for the amino acid arginine.
49
STEPS IN TRANSLATION
2
1
Translation always begins at a
start codon and ends at a stop codon.
The region between the start and
stop codons is called the open
reading frame (ORF).
INITIATION:
•mRNA attaches to the small
subunit of a ribosome.
•tRNA anticodon pairs with
mRNA start codon.
•Large ribosomal subunit
binds and translation is initiated.
50
4
3
ELONGATION:
Anticodon of tRNA
carrying next amino
acid (Arg) binds to
codon on mRNA.
ELONGATION:
A peptide bond joins the
amino acids and the first
tRNA is released.
51
4
5
TERMINATION:
Amino acid chain continues until a stop codon is
read.
Proteins
fold in next
Chapter !
TERMINATION:
The amino acid chain is released
and all of the translation machinery is recycled to translate another protein.
52
Chapter 4 Review
Extend Your Knowledge in Biotech
1. Use the Internet to find biotechnology companies in
your area. List them and give a brief description of the
company.
Test Your Knowledge
REVIEW 4.1
Question 1 of 21
The Central Dogma of Biology involves which of the following processes:
A. transcription
B. translation
C. cellular respiration
D. elongation
2. Go to www.bio.org and search this site for the most current financial information on the biotechnology industry
in the United States and worldwide. Example data may
include: status of funds for R&D, investments, number of
companies, employment outlooks, amount of sales in recent years or governmental awarded to the industry.
3. Explain why embryonic stem cells are such a hot topic
in the news.
4. Go to http://biotech-careers.org/. Choose one job description and share your findings with your classmates
in the form of a poster.
Apply Your Knowledge
Lesson 1.4 A
Altered Genes
5. Using a concept mapping application, create a concept
map on the Central Dogma. The concept map should
include terms and concepts related to DNA, its structure, how it makes copies of itself, how it’s code is read,
enzymes and proteins related to DNA.
53
PODCAST 4.1 Transcription
PODCAST NOTES
Translation
PODCAST 4.2 Translation
PODCAST NOTES
Translation
CHAPTER 5
PROTEINS
Fluorescent microscopy image overlaid with phase image to display incorporation of microspheres (red stain) in embryoid bodies (gray clusters).
The research of Todd McDevitt, an assistant professor in the Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering at Georgia Tech and Emory Universities, shows that delivering molecules via biodegradable microspheres enhances the efficiency and purity of stem cell differentiation.
To learn more about McDevitt's discovery, see the Georgia Tech news
story, "Fate and Function: Molecule Delivery Method Improves Embryonic Stem Cell Differentiation.". [Research supported by NSF grant CBET
06-51739.] (Date of Image: April 9, 2008)
Molecular Structures
In order for a protein to be functional, it has to be modified in several ways once the amino acid chain is released
from the ribosome. These are called post-translational
modifications. A very important post-translational modification is the folding of the protein into its appropriate 3dimensional shape as is shown by the folding of the protein in Image 5.1.
IMAGE 5.1 Protein folded
There are lots of different types of proteins, such as hormones, antibodies, and enzymes mentioned earlier. Proteins interact with other proteins or molecules to perform
their function in a cell. A substrate is what a protein
binds to and acts upon. It is critical for the protein to fold
properly so that it can interact with the substrate it is intended to bind with. The active site is the pocket in the
protein that binds the substrate. The illustrated protein in
Image 5.2 is an enzyme that binds a large substrate molecule and breaks it down into two smaller molecules. Enzymes can also work the other direction and take two
smaller molecules and combine them into one large molecule.
IMAGE 5.2 Protein Substrate Interaction
If this shape of this protein is altered in any way, its activity
may be altered as well.
56
Protein Folding
There are four levels of protein structural organization. Study them below.
The first level is called the primary structure of the protein.
It is simply the specific sequence of amino acids that are
held together by peptide bonds.
The secondary structure of the protein occurs as a result
of repeated coils or folds in the chain resulting in hydrogen
bond formation at intervals between the amino and carboxyl groups of the amino acids. The hydrogen bonds
formed between the amino acids cause one of two characteristic shapes. These are alpha helices which have a
coiled spring appearance and beta pleated sheets which
have the appearance of a folded ribbon.
The interaction between the alpha helices and beta sheets
will contribute to the tertiary structure of the protein, which
is the final three-dimensional shape of the protein resulting
from interactions between the R groups on the protein chain.
Sometimes multiple polypeptide chains aggregate together,
forming the quaternary structure of the protein. For example, hemoglobin is the aggregation of 4 polypeptide chains.
57
GALLERY 5.1 Yellow mealworm beetle antifreeze protein
Angela, can you
type up a closing paragraph for this section to close
with gallery 5.1 examples of enzymes.........
Restriction enzymes cut DNA at specific nucleotide sequences,
and are widely used in biotechnology. This structure shows EcoRI,
a restriction enzyme from Escherichia coli, with a small piece of
DNA bound in the active site.
58
Regulation Strategies
IMAGE 5.3 Lorem Ipsum dolor amet, consectetur
Remember learning in Chapter 3 that DNA is the same in
the nucleus of every cell in your body? How is it, then,
that cells differentiate and perform distinct functions?
For example, what makes a muscle cell different from a
skin (or epithelial) cell if they all have the same DNA?
This is because cells express different genes and therefore
different proteins. Not every gene on the chromosomal
DNA is “turned on” or expressed. The cell expresses proteins based on a number of different cellular requirements. This is called control of gene expression. When a
gene is “turned on,” that means that protein synthesis has
begun and a gene expresses its intended protein through
transcription and translation. When a gene is “turned
off,” protein is not made. Therefore, 2 cells that have the
same set of genes can express very different proteins
based on the function of that cell and which genes are
“turned on.” For example, muscle cells “turn on” genes
for actin and myosin production, whereas skin cells “turn
on” genes for melanin production. In eukaryotic cells, conAt each of the 5 stops in the image above, there are many ways tyhat
trol of gene expression is very complex. Review Image 5. protein activity can be “turned on” or “turned off”.
3 for ways to control gene expression.
59
Control Gene Expression in Prokaryotes
Since eukaryotes are so complex, let’s look at a simple example of prokaryotic control of gene expression. Prokaryotes
cluster related genes together and put them under the control of a single promoter so that that they are transcribed
into a single mRNA molecule by RNA polymerase. This is defined as an operon system as seen in Image 5.4. An
operon is a functioning unit of genomic DNA containing a cluster of genes under the control of a single regulatory signal or promoter. A model operon system to study is the Lac operon. The lac operon is an operon required for the transport and metabolism of lactose in Escherichia coli and some other enteric bacteria. Study how the lac operon is turned
on and off in Gallery 5.2.
IMAGE 5.4 Bacteria genes are clustered into operons
Genes located in operon systems
can be turned on only when
needed allowing the cell to save
it’s energy.
60
GALLERY 5.2 The Lac Operon
Promoter region allows RNA polymerase to attach and begin transcription.
Operator region is in the middle of the promoter.
Remember that the promoter region is where RNA polymerase binds to begin transcription of the DNA template strand into messenger RNA. Transcription is the first step of protein synthesis. If there isn’t any mRNA,
there can’t be any protein. Also notice that right in the middle of the promoter region is an operator region.
61
Mutations
Remember the central dogma? DNA codes for RNA which codes for proteins and the proteins confer phenotypic traits,
or physical characteristics. Traits can be anything from hair color and eye color to being a carrier for a disease like cystic fibrosis, to actually having a disease like cancer or sickle cell anemia. Notice in Image 5.5 that alterations of the
DNA code may alter their resulting protein products which may be seen as changes in the phenotypic traits.
IMAGE 5.5 The Central Dogma of Life
If DNA sequence is altered:
•the mRNA sequence will be altered
•therefor, the amino acid sequence will be altered
•resulting in a possible mis-folding of the protein
•and a possible trait change
62
What is a mutation?
A mutation is a change in the DNA sequence. The mutation can affect a large section of the DNA or only a single nucleotide, and these mutations can have detrimental effects, positive effects, or no noticeable effect at all. Mutations can
be inherited from your parents (Image 5.6), or they can be acquired over time by exposure to mutagens (Image 5.7).
Mutagens are agents that interact with your DNA to cause mutations. For example, radiation from the sun can cause
thymine dimers in your DNA. If these are not repaired, they can cause lasting damage to your skin and ultimately may
cause a type of cancer called melanoma.
IMAGE 5.7 Mutagen
IMAGE 5.6 Inherited Mutations
Mutagens are agents that interact with DNA to
cause mutations.
Examples are chemicals and radiation
63
Point Mutations
A point mutation is a mutation that only alters a single nu- IMAGE 5.8 Silent Point Mutation
cleotide base in the DNA. Point mutations are often silent.
Do you remember what an intron is? It’s noncoding segments of DNA that are cut out of the mRNA before it
leaves the nucleus to be translated into protein. Mutations
in the introns most likely will not effect protein amino acid
sequence and therefore will not affect its function. Also,
do you remember that term “degeneracy of the code”? We
said that meant there were multiple codons that code for
the same amino acid. For example, there were four codons
that all coded for threonine. So if a point mutation occurs
in an exon like in Image 5.8, but the resulting codon still
codes for the same amino acid , there will be no difference
in the protein. The top diagram represents the wild type
(or typical) sequence of DNA (in blue) followed by the
mRNA sequence (in purple) and the resulting amino acid
sequences are shown in grayscale. The bottom diagram
shows that the sixth C was mutated to a T (shown in
green). This would cause RNA polymerase to add an A
How will this change in DNA sequence
rather than a G to the mRNA (shown in orange). The new
affect the amino acid sequence? the procodon is CUA instead of CUG, but according to the genetic
tein folding?
code, it still codes for leucine. Despite the mutation, the
amino acid sequence is unaffected, and, therefore, the protein will function exactly the same.
64
Also, do you remember the chart of the 20 amino acids that make up proteins shown in Image 5.10? We noticed that
they were grouped by functional similarities. If a point mutation results in an amino acid substitution, but it is very
similar structurally to the wild type amino acid, it may not alter the folding of the protein in a way that alters protein
function. In Image 5.9, the mutation caused a leucine to be substituted for a valine. In viewing image 5.8, you will notice that these are both nonpolar amino acids that are structurally very similar. The alpha helices and beta sheets will
most likely form in the same way as the wild type and the tertiary structure of the protein will likely be unaffected.
That means this protein will still be able to perform its function in the cell even though it contains an amino acid substitution.
IMAGE 5.9 Point mutation resulting in structurally similar proteins
IMAGE 5.10 Amino Acids
65
Unfortunately, there are times when a point mutation can be detrimental such as in Image 5.11. This example shows a
single point mutation causing the amino acid valine (highlighted in orange) to be substituted for glutamic acid (highlighted in green). This single substitution results in a condition called sickle cell anemia. This mRNA codes for the hemoglobin protein which transports oxygen in the blood. The substitution of a nonpolar amino acid for a polar/acidic
amino acid alters the hemoglobin in such a way that it is not able to efficiently bind and transport oxygen in the blood.
This complication causes joint pain and various other symptoms and shortens the patient’s expected life span to only
45 years.
IMAGE 5.11 Point mutation resulting in sickle cell anemia
66
Frameshift Mutations
A frameshift mutation is an addition or deletion of one or more nucleotides that causes a shift in the reading frame of
the codons. In the example above, an extra G was added in the DNA (shown in yellow), which will cause RNA polymerase to add an extra C in the mRNA sequence (shown in blue). Remember that ribosomes read mRNA in groups
of three. This extra C will not only cause a different amino acid to be added to the codon containing the mutation, but
it will shift every reading frame for every codon after that and cause entirely different amino acids to be added. This
means you will get an entirely different, and probably non-functional, protein expressed. An example of a disease
caused by a frameshift mutation is Cystic Fibrosis. The mutation occurs on the CFTR gene and causes affected patients
to have abnormally thick mucus, resulting in frequent lung infections and a shortened life span.
IMAGE 5.12 Frameshift mutation resulting in Cystic Fibrosis
Learn more about Cystic Fibrosis by visiting
the National Institute of Health Website.
67
This is another example of what can happen as the result of a frameshift mutation. In this example, a G was deleted.
Again, this causes a shift in the reading frame, and notice that the result is that a stop codon was added. Do you remember what happens when the ribosome reads a stop codon? That’s right! It terminates translation. So in this example, you will get a truncated and probably non-functional protein. A number of diseases have been linked to mutations
that cause premature termination of translation, including breast cancer, polycystic kidney disease, and muscular dystrophy. Mutations can be deleterious when they are the cause of human genetic diseases, but mutations are also the
basis of human genetic variation.
IMAGE 5.13 Frameshift mutation resulting in early termination of protein synthesis
68
Chapter 5 Review
Extend Your Knowledge
1. Use the Internet to find out how x-ray crystallography is
used to determine the 3D shape of proteins using this
NIGMS publication titled “The Structure of Life”.
Test Your Knowledge
REVIEW 5.1
2. Explain the relationship between structure and function
in relationship to HIV and the glycoprotein 120.
Question 1 of 18
Enzymes
A. bind to substrates
B. rely on proper folding
C. are proteins
D. depend on 3D shape
E. are made up of amino acids
3. Go to the RCSB Protein Data Bank. Search for a protein that has biological significance. Share its structure
and relevance with your peers. Label the protein structure levels that are visible.
4. Explain how these terms are related: proteins, antibodies, antigen, epitope, and ELISA.
Apply Your Knowledge
Lesson 5.1
DNA to Disease
Lesson 5.2
Human Genome
5. Identify the enzyme and possible treatments for the disease phenylketoneuria (PKU).
6. List 3 commercially developed enzymes that you currently use in everyday life . List the companies that
make these enzymes.
7. What environmental factors could render a protein unfunctional, to loose its 3D shape.
8. How do scientist use proteins to develop vaccines? Visit
this NIGMS webpage to learn more.
69
PODCAST 5.1 Proteins
PODCAST NOTES
Protein Structure
70
CHAPTER 6
MATH FOR THE LAB
A protein called tubulin (green) accumulates in the center of a nucleus (outlined in pink) from an aging cell. Normally, this protein is kept out of the nucleus with the help of gatekeepers known as nuclear pore complexes. But a
new study shows that wear and tear to long-lived components of the complexes eventually lowers the gatekeepers’ guard. As a result, cytoplasmic proteins like tubulin gain entry to the nucleus while proteins normally confined to
the nucleus seep out. The work suggests that finding ways to stop the leakage
could slow the cellular aging process and possibly lead to new therapies for
age-related diseases. Courtesy of cell biologists Maximiliano D’Angelo and
Martin Hetzer, Salk Institute.Featured in the February 18, 2009, issue of Biomedical Beat.
Courtesy: National Institute of Health
Significant Figures
It is important to make accurate measurements and calculations in the cell culture laboratory. Furthermore, it is
necessary to record measurements and calculations correctly so that the accuracy of the measurement is reflected in the number recorded. No physical measurement is exact; every measurement has some uncertainty.
The recorded measurement should reflect that uncertainty. One way to do that is to attach an uncertainty to
the recorded number. For example, if a bathroom scale
weighs correctly to within one pound, and a person
weighs 145 lbs, then the recorded weight should be 145 +
1 lbs. The last digit, 5, is the uncertain digit, and is named
the doubtful digit. Complete Review 6.1 to see how much
you remember about significant figures.
REVIEW 6.1 Significant Figures
Question 1 of 6
Zeros are always labeled as significant of the number has a decimal in it.
A. True
B. False
IMAGE 6.1 Significant Figures
Check Answer
72
A way to indicate uncertainty of measurement is to use of
significant figures. The number of significant figures in a
quantity is the number of digits that are known accurately
plus the doubtful digit. The digit is always the last digit in
the number. Significant figures in a measurement
• apply to measurements or calculations from measurements and do not apply to exact numbers.
• are independent of the location of the decimal point
• are determined by the measurement process and not
the units
that you don’t add a systematic error to your data. To
keep track when to round up and when to round down,
the rule of thumb is to always round to an even number in
the remaining doubtful digit. For example, if a measurement on a balance with a + 0.01 g accuracy is used to
measure 4.895 g, you should record 4.90 g. If it reads
4.885 g, you should record 4.88 g as your data. View Interactive 6.1 to review the rules when using significant figures
INTERACTIVE 6.1 Significant Figures
For example, a balance can weigh to + 0.01 g. A sample
weighs 54.69 g. The doubtful digit is 9.
When an answer given has more numbers than significant, then the last number must be rounded off. If the
first digit to be dropped is <5, leave the doubtful digit before it unchanged. If the first digit to be dropped is >5,
then you round upward by adding a unit to the doubtful
digit left behind. For example, a student using the balance above measures 4.688 g. The correct number will be
4.69 g.
If there is only one digit beyond the doubtful digit in your
number, and that digit is exactly 5, the rule is to round it
down half the time and to round it up half the time so
73
SIGNIFICANT FIGURE REVIEW
Need More Review?
Webpage 6.1.1 Khan Academy:
Significant Figures
Practice Problems:
1. Generate a number with
a. 3 sig figs
b. 5 sig figs and a decimal
c. 2 sig figs, 2 non-sig fig zeros and a decimal
d. 2 sig fig zeros without a decimal
e. 2 sig-fig zeros with a decimal
Solve the following and report your answer with the
correct number of significant figures and units.
Test Your Knowledge:
•Significant Figure Practice
•Significant Figure Drills
2. 16.0 g + 3.106 g + 0.8 g (from a balance that
weight to + 0.1 g)
3. 9.002 m - 3.10 m (from a meter stick that measures to the nearest cm)
4. Determine the density of a cube that measures
10.0 cm on each side and occupies a volume of
30.0 mL. (report your answer with correct significant figures, note measurements given are reported to the doubtful digit)
74
Scientific Notation
Scientific notation (more commonly known as standard
form) is a way of writing numbers that are too big or too
small to be conveniently written in decimal form. Scientific notation has a number of useful properties and is
commonly used in calculators and by scientists, mathematicians and engineers. Some numbers are so huge (like
the mass of the sun=1.98892 × 1030 kilograms) that writing a number with thirty or so digits is difficult to manage. There are some numbers so small that we have the
same problem (the mass of an electron is 9.10938188 ×
10-31 kilograms). Scientific notation is actually clearer
and simpler to write in these two cases. Complete Review
6.2 to see how much you remember about scientific notation.
IMAGE 6.2 Scientific notation is a way to write very large and very
small numbers.
REVIEW 6.2 Scientific Notation
Question 1 of 5
Represent the number 5346 in correct scientific notation.
A. 5.34 X 10 2
B. 5.34 X 10-3
C. 5.34 X 103
D. 5.3 X 103
Check Answer
75
If your first try at Review 6.2 didn’t go so well, view materials in Interactive 6.2 on the rules and uses of scientific notation.
INTERACTIVE 6.2 Scientific Notation
76
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION REVIEW
Need More Review?
Practice Problems
1. Express the following numbers in scientific notation.
Khan Academy
Scientific Notation
a. 30,105
= b. 0.000292 =
c. 8,870000,000 =
2. Express the following numbers in regular notation.
d. 5.45 x 103 =
e. 0.0067 x 10-3 =
f. 5.67 x 106 =
3. Solve:
Test Your Knowledge:
Scientific Notation Drills
g. (5.4 x 10-8) + (6.6 x 10-9) =
h. (4.4 x 105) - (6.0 x 106) =
i. (0.10 x 105)(4.9 x 10-2) =
j. (5.2 x 10-3 ) ( 2.4 x 102 )=
77
Metric System
Now that you understand about significant figures and
scientific notation, let’s move on to talk about the international system of measurement. Did you know that
prior to the 1800s the system of measurements varied
from country to country and depended on the body
parts of the ruling monarch. For example, a foot was
the length of the ruling monarch’s foot. In 1793 a consortium of French scientists gathered to come up with
an international system of measurements. This is what
we call the SI system of measuring, or the metric system. The SI unit of length is the meter, the SI unit of
mass is the gram, the SI unit of volume is the liter, the
SI unit of temperature is degrees celsius, and the SI unit
of time is the second (Image 6.3). Complete Review 6.3
to see what you remember about the metric system.
REVIEW 6.3 Metric System
Question 1 of 10
The prefix centi means
A. 1/100th
B. 1/10th
C. 100
D. 10
IMAGE 6.3 SI Units
Check Answer
78
Powers of 10
The metric system is very useful because it is based on units of 10. In Image 6.4, you can see that units larger than the
base include the kilo, which is 1000 times bigger than the base unit, Mega which is a million times larger, and giga
which is one billion times larger. Conversely, the units smaller than the base include the deci, which is 10 times
smaller or one tenth the size of a base unit. Centi is 100 times smaller, milli is 1000 times smaller, and micro is a million times smaller. We most frequently work on the micro scale in the biotechnology lab. You will get very comfortable converting between milli and micro units. So, how do you do this conversion?
IMAGE 6.4 Metric Chart
79
Metric Conversions
Well, because the metric system is based on units of 10, it is mathematically as simple as multiplying and dividing by
factors of 10. Practically it’s as simple as just moving the decimal the correct number of places to the left or the right.
One way to know how far to move the decimal is to draw a metric line as the one shown here with the base unit in the
center and mark off 6 units to the left and right of the base unit. To convert between units, you simply count the number of lines between units and move the decimal that number of places. For example in Image 6.5, to convert 3 milligrams to micrograms, you will have to move three lines to the right; that means you move the decimal over three
places to the right, and 3 mg becomes 3000 ug. The example in Image 6.5 shows how to convert 3 liters to kiloliters.
You will need to move 3 lines to the left which means you need to move your decimal 3 places to the left, and 3 L becomes 0.003 kL.
IMAGE 6.5 Converting in Metrics
One way to know where to place the decimal is to draw a "metric line" with the basic unit in the center,
marking off six units to the left and six units to the right.
To convert from one unit to another, simply count the number of places to the left or right and move the
decimal in that direction that many places.
80
METRIC SYSTEM REVIEW
Need More Review
Khan Academy
The Metric System
Practice Problems
1. Convert the following:
a. 2500g=______ kg
b. 0.602 L=_____ µl
c. 45 ml=_____ L
d. 250 µl=_____ml
e. 100µl=_____L
2. Write the abbreviation for the following:
f. ml
g. µl
h. g
i. kg
Test Your Knowledge
•Volume Conversion Practice
•Mass Conversion Practice
•Metric Conversion Drills
3. Which is greater?
j. 20µg or 20g
k. 100L or 100ml
l. 4cm or 4mm
m. 63 cm or 6m
n. 1500ml or 1.5 L
o. 5g or 508 mg
p. 3.6 m or 36 cm
81
Making Solutions
A common task in a biotechnology lab is preparing solutions. What exactly is a
solution? A solution is a mixture of what is dissolved (the solute) and the dissolving medium (the solvent). For example, if you are making a flavored drink mix,
the colored sugar is the solute and the water in the pitcher is the solvent. The concentration of a solution is the ratio of the amount of solute to solvent (Image 6.6).
It is necessary to prepare solutions with the correct concentration, or you can destroy months of hard work in a biotechnology lab.
IMAGE 6.6 A Solution
•A solution is a homogeneous mixture of one substance (the solute) dissolved in another substance
(the solvent).
•Concentration is a ratio of the amount of solute to
the amount of solvent.
82
Molarity
Molarity is the most common unit of concentration. You
will often be asked to prepare a given molarity of solution.
What does molarity mean? Well, it tells you the number
of moles of solute in a liter of solvent.
So your next question is probably “what is a mole”? Well,
it’s not the furry animal wearing sunglasses in the previous slide; it is actually the SI unit of number of particles
in one gram of substance. It is a chemistry term that can
be used to calculate the formula weight of a substance. In
fact, formula weight is often called molar mass. The forIMAGE 6.7 Calculating Moles
Units of Concentration
! A mole is the SI unit of number of particles and
can be used as an expression of the molecular
weight of a substance.
mula weight of an element is recorded on the periodic table. For example, the formula weight of sodium is 22.990
grams/mole (Image 6.7).
Molar Mass
To calculate the molar mass of a compound, you simply
add the formula weights of the individual elements. So in
this example, you add the formula weight of sodium
(22.990) with the formula weight of chlorine (35.453) to
tell you that the molar mass of salt (NaCl) is 58.443
grams/mole (Image 6.8).
IMAGE 6.8 Calculating Molar Mass
Units of Concentration
! The molar mass of a compound can be calculated
by adding the molar mass of the individual
elements.
The formula weight of an
element is expressed as
grams/mole.
22.99 + 35.45 = 58.44 g/mol
Copyright © Texas Education Agency 2012. All rights reserved.
Copyright © Texas Education Agency 2012. All rights reserved.
83
You have to know the formula weight of a compound if
you are going to prepare the correct concentration of a solution with that compound. The formula (grams = molarity x liters x molar mass) is used to tell you how much of a
compound to use to make a solution with a specific concentration.
Sample Problem
How many grams of NaCl would you need to prepare
500 mL of a 1 M solution?
g = M x L x molar mass
g = (1mol/L) (0.5L) (58.44g/mol)
Formula used in making solutions:
g=grams
M=Molarity
L=liters
molar mass=determine using
the periodic table
g = 29.22 g
If you wanted to make 500 milliliters of sodium chloride with a concentration of 1 M, how much of the compound would you use? Remember that Molarity actually stands for moles per Liter. That means you are going to have to convert 500 milliliters to liters. That
means 500 milliliters is 0.5 L.
According to the formula, the number of grams needed
will be 1M x 0.5L x 58.44 g/mol. After canceling units
and multiplying these three numbers together, you
should get the answer 29.22g.
84
Preparing the Solution
Your electric balance goes to 2 decimal places, as seen in Image 6.9, that means that you will weigh out 29.22 grams of
NaCl and add 0.5 L or 500 milliliters of water. When making a stock solution, we usually dissolve the solid in about
two-thirds volume of water. So that means we would dissolve our 29.22 g of NaCl in only about 300 mls of water and
stir. When it is completely dissolved, we would transfer the solution to a graduated cylinder and bring it to the final volume of 500 milliliters. Review this procedure in Image 6.9. Check your knowledge by answering the questions in the
light blue boxes.
IMAGE 6.9 Preparing 1M NaCl solution
Where did the number
29.22 g come from?
Could you use a beaker
instead of a graduated
cylinder?
Why only add 300 ml of
water, when the question
ask you to make 500ml?
85
SOLUTIONS REVIEW
Need more Review?
Solution Practice
Practice Problems:
1. Determine the formula mass for NaOH?
2. How many grams of NaOH would you need to
make 500ml of a 2M solution?
3. Using a flow chart, explain in detail how you
prepare the above solution.
Test Your Knowledge:
REVIEW 6.4 Solutions
Question 1 of 10
Determine the molar mass of MgCl2?
A. 59 g/mol
B. 203.21 g/mol
C. 95.11 g/mol
4. Predict what would happen to the Molarity of
a solution if your solute was dissolved in exactly the amount of volume requested.
5. Which is more concentrated:
a. 5 M or 7.12 M
b. 0.5 M or 0.1 M
c. 100 µM or 1M
D. 72.6 g/mol
6. Explain the relationship between solute and
solvent as the molarity of a solution increases.
7. What mass of sugar is needed to make a 5%
solution?
86
Dilutions
Great! Now that you’ve made your one molar stock solution of sodium chloride, you may need to dilute it to a different
concentration as a working solution. The formula C1V1 = C2V2 is used to figure out this dilution. C2 is the concentration of the new solution you want to make and V2 is the volume of that solution you want to make. C1 is the concentration of your stock solution. The question is “how much of that stock do you need to make your dilution?” That’s why
you will usually be solving for V1.
DILUTING SOLUTIONS
! Once you have made a stock solution, you often will
need to dilute it to a working concentration.
! To determine how to dilute the stock solution, use the
formula
C1V1 = C2V2
C1
C2
V1
V2
– concentration of stock
- concentration of diluted solution
– volume needed of stock
– final volume of dilution
Copyright © Texas Education Agency 2012. All rights reserved.
87
Practice Problem:
DILUTING SOLUTIONS
! How many milliliters of a 1 M stock solution of NaCl are
needed to prepare 100 ml of a 0.05 M solution?
C1 V1 = C2 V2
(1) V1 = (0.05)(100)
V1= 5 ml
You want to make 100 milliliters (that’s your
V2) of a 0.05 M sodium chloride solution
(that’s your C2) from a stock solution with a
concentration of 1M (that’s your C1); how
much of that stock solution will you need
(that’s your V1)?
So to solve for V1, let’s plug our numbers in
to the formula and see. Solving for V1
means we have to multiply 0.05 by 100 and
divide by 1. That gives us an answer of 5 milliliters. That means we will use 5 milliliters of
our stock solution. Can you guess how much
water we add to that 5 mls to dilute it?
Copyright © Texas Education Agency 2012. All rights reserved.
We wanted a final volume of 100 mls, so
100-5 means we will add 95 mls of water to
produce our final product of a 0.05 M solution of sodium chloride.
88
DILUTIONS REVIEW
Need More Practice?
Preparing Dilutions Practice
Test Your Knowledge
REVIEW 6.5 Dilutions
Practice Problems
1. Organize the following units into 3 columns:
mass, concentration or volume
a. g/mol
b. M
c. 10X
d. mg
e. mg/mL
f. mol/L
g. mM
h. 25%
i. g/mL
j. L
k. g
Question 1 of 6
You want to make 50 mL of 0.15 M calcium chloride (CaCl2) from a 2.0 M stock solution. What is C1?
A. 50 mL
2. How would you prepare 100 mL of a 3 M HCl solution?
B. 0.15 M
C. 2.0 M
D. unknown
3. Describe how to prepare 50 ml of a 3 mg/mL protein solution.
4. How would you prepare 2 liters of a 1X TAE
buffer from a 50X TAE buffer stock?
5. How would you make a 50 mL solution from a
50mM stock solution of NaCl.
89
Chapter 6 Review
Test Your Knowledge
Reviews are found at the end of
each section in this Chapter
•Review 6.1
Extend Your Knowledge
1. Using an ipad app, whiteboard podcast
a section of this chapter. Include example calculations and how this skills are
applied in the biotechnology lab.
•Review 6.2
2. Using an ipad review system, create a
math review for your classmates. All review materials must be original.
•Review 6.3
•Review 6.4
•Review 6.5
Apply Your Knowledge
Lesson 1.6 A
Math Review
Lesson 1.6 B
Using Excel
Lesson 1.6 C
Solutions and
Dilutions
90
7
THE BIOTECH LAB
The Biotechnology Lab
Welcome to your first course in biotechnology! This
course will emphasize its laboratory component to reflect
the importance of your training in biotechnology skills.
Keep in mind as you work your way through this manual
the specific purposes in each exercise. They will prepare
you for your first job in a biotechnology laboratory, so
keep a careful record of your experience. If you carefully
document and archive your work, this information will be
easy for you to access later and your experiences will be
more valuable in your later work. Explore the Biolink careers website below to find out degrees, types and duties
associated with the hundreds of job opportunities available in the filed of biotechnology.
Biolink Career Center
Click on the image to visit
During your lab practices, you will:
• Develop the basic laboratory techniques of a
biotechnology or bioscience lab
• Supplement and enrich the lecture portion of
the course, which deals predominantly with
biotechnology techniques
• Develop critical thinking skills in the students
• Encourage teamwork and accountability
among the students
• Practice accuracy in calculations and in writing
scientifically
• Develop multitasking skills
• Encourage students to take charge of their
learning
• Learn the responsibilities associated with working in a company
92
Biotechnology Techniques and Skills
The State of Texas has adopted the Washington Skill Standards for Biotechnology. The Austin Community College Biotechnology Program has formally adopted and applied these standards to its program and is recognized by the Texas
Skill Standards Board (www.tssb.org). Each course in the Biotechnology Program fulfills a specific set of skill standards.
The skill standards applied to Introduction to Biotechnology in Texas are shown below.
93
Safety
Biotechnology laboratories are equipped with supplies and equipment that may pose a hazard if used carelessly and it
is important that you learn how to handle them properly. It is often the responsibility of a biotechnician to make sure
that safety rules are followed, and anyone working in a laboratory must pay attention to what they are doing and use
common sense to avoid hazardous situations.
While the your high school science safety rules are designed to provide protection to you while working in the laboratories, you must become self-sufficient
in protecting yourself in your future jobs in the biotechnology industry. In addition, lab technicians are frequently entrusted with ensuring compliance
with safety precautions in the biotechnology workplace. Refer to the documents below to complete your safety training. Lesson 7.1 A Training
the Tech
Sample Safety Rules
and Contracts
Biotechnology Safety
and Security Manual
General Lab Safety Guidelines
•Never eat or drink in the lab.
•Wear splash proof goggles and
avoid wearing contact lenses.
•Wear gloves and assume all biological material is infectious.
•Keep work areas free of clutter.
•Keep long hair pulled back.
•Do not wear open-toed shoes.
•Clean up work stations and
wash hands before leaving the
lab.
94
Equipment
Throughout your biotechnology course,
you will learn to use, calibrate and troubleshoot many pieces of equipment used
in biotechnology labs, and you will be
making a variety of reagents. We will explore the pieces of equipment in the figure to the right. These are basic pieces of
equipment commonly used in the biotechnology lab. Advanced equipment will be
explored in future chapters.
95
Electric Balance
One of the most common types of equipment used in any science laboratory is the electronic balance. Electronic balances measure the mass, or weight, of a substance. The standard unit of mass is the gram which is approximately the
weight of a small paperclip. Balances vary in the minimum and maximum measurements that they can perform. Often
you can find those amounts by looking at the sides of the balance. This tabletop balance measures to .01 grams. Click
on Video -.- image to view the video labeled “How to use the Electronic Balance”.
Video 7.1 How to use the
Electric Balance
IMAGE 7.1 Electric Balance
•Can be tared to zero and
used to determine the mass
of a sample.
•Provides a digital readout
and usually has a sensitivity to +/- 0.01 grams
96
Micropippetter
If you want to measure small volumes, such as micro
liters, you will need to use an instrument called a micropipette. A microliter is a millionth of a liter or a thousandth of a milliliter. Micropipettors come in a variety
of brands and sizes, but all are adjustable and all are
used with plastic tips. Click on the Video -.- image to
view “How to Micropipette.”
Video 7.2 How to Micropipette
IMAGE 7.2 Micropipetter
•Used to accurately transfer very
small volumes (usually less than one
milliliter, and as little as 0.1 microliters)
•Adjustable for measuring different
volumes and used with disposable
plastic tips
97
Gel Electrophoresis
Gel electrophoresis is a process that uses an electric current, running through a gel box,
to move and separate molecules through a gel material. The gel material acts as a sieve
and separates molecules based on their size, shape, or charge. When current is applied,
positively charged molecules move to the negative electrode (black end), and negatively
charged molecules move to the positive electrode (red end). View the videos labeled
“Pouring an Agarose Gel” and “Preparing an Agarose Gel” by clicking on the images to
the right.
IMAGE 7.3 Electrophoresis
A technique used to separate molecules in a
gel matrix when subjected to an electrical
field
98
Video 7.3 Preparing an Agarose
Gel
Video 7.4 Pouring an Agarose
Gel
Microcentrifuge
Centrifuges are often used to separate particles in a liquid medium. Because of their high rotation rates, centrifuges are
delicate and can break easily so proper use is very important. The type of centrifuge shown here will spin down samples with volumes less than 2 ml. Click on the Video 7.5 “How to use a Microcentrifuge” to a view a video demonstration.
Video 7.5 How to use a Microcentrifuge
IMAGE 7.4 Microcentrifuge
•Spins at a high speed and
can be used to separate
particles in a liquid medium
•Holds tubes up to about 2
ml
99
pH Meter
A pH meter is a very important piece of equipment in a biotechnology lab because most solutions must have a carefully
controlled pH. A pH meter is an electronic instrument used to measure the pH of a liquid. The pH is a number that
tells you how acidic or basic the liquid is and is determined by measuring the concentration of hydrogen ions in solution. A typical pH meter consists of glass electrode (or probe) connected to an electronic meter that measures and displays the pH reading. View Video -.- labeled “Using the pH Meter” by clicking on the image.
Video 7.6 Using the pH meter
IMAGE 7.5 pH Meter
•Most solutions in a biotechnology
lab must have a carefully controlled pH.
•A pH meter is a volt meter that
measures the concentration of hydrogen ions in solution.
100
Organization
One of the benefits of taking a biotechnology course high
school students is that the job market for biotechnology is
continuing to grow. Now that you are familiar with the
kinds of equipment a biotechnologist uses, let’s look
around a typical biotechnology company and see what
kinds of jobs are available in the industry. There are over
1500 biotech companies in the US, and the industry employs over 200,000 people. The exact organization of a
biotechnology company depends on what type of company it is: whether it is marketing a service or a product,
whether it is marketing agricultural, medical, environmental, forensics, or research products. Biotech companies also vary in size, but most share a similar organizational structure. Solve Interactive 7.1 to see the major
component that make up a biotechnology company. The
remainder of this section will explore each of these in
more depth.
INTERACTIVE 7.1 Solve the puzzle
How are biotechnology companies organized?
101
RESEARCH and DEVELOPMENT
•R&D is an organizational unit that develops ideas for products.
•R&D is directly involved in designing and running experiments to
see if ideas are feasible.
•R&D is responsible for developing promising ideas into marketable products.
Development of a new biotech product is a long and expensive process, and it all begins with the Research and Development department. This department researches ideas for new products. The potential product then goes through a period of development during
which the idea is transformed into an actual workable and, most importantly, marketable product. In response to the eGov Act of 2002
Section 207, the R&D Dashboard web site provides an initial look at
U.S. Federal Investments in Science and Research from two agencies; the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the National Science Foundation (NSF) from years 2000-2009. Visit the website to
see where and how the federal government supWebpage: R&D Dashport R&D in your area.
board
Federal investments in
R&D database.
102
PRODUCTION and MANUFACTURING
•This department manufactures products that
have been given to them by R&D.
•Production often involves scale-up of protocols.
•Provides routine cleaning, calibration, and
conducts maintenance of equipment.
The procedure or protocol that has been developed by R&D for making this new product is
then handed over to the production department. The protocol goes through rigorous testing and modifications so that it can be scaled
up to larger quantities. It would be analogous
to using a recipe designed to feed a family of
four and modifying it to cater a banquet for
200 people. Modifications must be made so
that the product is made in a consistent, reproducible, and economically efficient way. The
production department is also responsible for
the routine maintenance and calibration of the
equipment used to produce the product.
103
QUALITY ASSURANCE
•Monitors and checks final products for quality
before they are sent to the consumer
•Compares data to established standards
•Maintains rigorous documentation
As a product moves through its lifecycle from development into production, the tasks of the quality control
(QC) and quality assurance (QA) departments mature
along with it. Quality Control is the department that is responsible for maintaining the quality of the product. A
QC technician tests a sample from every lot before it is
sent out to ensure the customer receives a quality product. The Quality Assurance department plays a key role
during development and production of a new product.
QA monitors all of the paperwork associated with a product to ensure it is complete and accurate. QA is also responsible for investigating and correcting potential problems and assuring all procedures adhere to the company’s
standard requirements.
104
SUPPORT SERVICES
•Support departments fill and package bulk products in
individual containers for customer use.
•Metrology ensures instruments are operating properly.
•Facilities technicians maintain critical day-to-day functions such as housekeeping and repairs.
There are a number of support departments that are critical to the lifecycle of a new biotech product. Once the
product has been made in the production department, it must be dispensed into individual containers for customer use, packaged, and shipped to the customer. There are also numerous employees at biotech companies
that maintain and calibrate equipment and manage repairs and housekeeping duties. With out each of these employees, the company could not produce a successful product.
105
BUSINESS SERVICES
An amazing new product amounts to
nothing if it is not profitable for the
company. Employees in business
services are responsible for marketing and selling the product to new clients. An understanding of the science behind the product they are selling is essential to a successful marketing campaign. The accounting department oversees the company’s finances and is often involved in raising funds from partners or venture
capitalists seeking to invest in a biotech company. Finally, a good customer service department is critical
to a successful company. This department answers all customer inquiries
and complaints about the product
and also addresses technical questions about the use of the product. Webpage: BIOHOUSTON
Visit the webpage titled BioHouston
for an example of a plethora of companies coming together to support
the biotechnology sector.
106
REGULATORY SERVICES
Most products from biotech companies
are very highly regulated by three government agencies, the FDA, the USDA, and
the EPA. A biotech company’s Regulatory
Affairs department is responsible for ensuring compliance with all federal regulations. Depending on the product being
manufactured, it can be regulated by one
or all three government agencies. The
FDA regulates genetically modified food
and all new drugs, therapies, and medical
diagnostic tests. The USDA regulates genetically modified meat, poultry, eggs and
plants. The EPA monitors the effects of genetically modified organisms on the environment. These agencies mandate strict
adherence to federal guidelines and if a
company does not comply, it can be fined
or even shut down.
107
Chapter 7 Review
Test Your Knowledge
REVIEW 7.1
Question 1 of 25
You forget to “tare” the electric balance. How might this affect your data?
A. Your mass will be a negative number.
B. Your mass will be larger than it really is.
C. You will only be able to take a single measurement.
D. The scale will only read zero.
Apply Your Knowledge
Lesson 1.7A
Safety and Equipment Training
Lesson 1.7B
The Lab Notebook
Lesson 1.7C
Micropipetting
Lesson 1.7D
Calibrating Equipment
Extend Your Knowledge
1. Use the Internet to find a news story related to a
lab accident that occurred in the science laboratory. Suggest a way this accident could have been
avoided.
2. What kind of degrees are offered in the biotechnology industry? Visit the Bio-link site: Degrees . Share
local programs with your classmates. Choose at
least one AS, one BS, one certificate program and
one advanced degree program.
3. Learn about more specialized biotechnology equipment by visiting this Bio-link site. Record any equipment found in your lab that is not discussed in this
section. What is this equipment used for?
4. Where are biotechnology companies located? Visit
the Bio-link site: Biotechnology Companies. List several local companies and their main focus of industry.
5. What are some biotechnology jobs? Visit the Biolink site: Careers. Chose 3 jobs that interest you
and share details with your classmates. Be sure to
list education requirements, salary range, main duties and why you chose that job.
6. What is an SOP and why are they important?
What does SOP stand for? Give an example by
writing and SOP for one of the equipment videos
you viewed in this section.
7. Where in the United States are most biotechnology
companies located? Why do you think that is?
108