Do Blogs Matter?
Weblogs in American Politics
Laura McKenna, Ph.D.
Teachers College, Columbia University
Antoinette Pole
CUNY, Graduate School & University Center
American Political Science Association,
Annual Meeting
Chicago, IL, September 2004
Abstract
A relatively nascent phenomenon, weblogs commonly known as blogs, hold
tremendous potential to change American politics. To date, little has been written on this
topic apart from some preliminary research that investigated the relationship between
this new form of media communication and older more traditional forms of media. This
paper assesses whether or not writing a weblog is a form of political participation and
whether or not weblogs are a viable vehicle through which to augment political
participation.
Selecting for the most popular political weblogs, we study bloggers and their opinions
about writing weblogs as it relates to politics, political discourse and political
participation. Data for this paper was generated through an e-mail survey that was sent
to bloggers in June 2004. Initial findings from this research suggest that blogs can
potentially play an important role in improving political participation giving individuals an
additional voice in the political process.
1
New technology challenges us to reexamine our old definitions, to test them
anew and perhaps to rewrite the definition itself. The Internet has reshaped American
life and shifted the political landscape. According to a study undertaken by the Pew
Internet & American Life Project in May 2003, more than 53 million Americans have
used the Internet to publish their thoughts, respond to others, post pictures, share files
and otherwise contribute to the explosion of content available online (Lenhart, Horrigan
and Fallows 2004). The Internet has also become a forum for political discussion and
organization. Interest groups now can publicize events on websites. Listservs and email trees keep individuals abreast of political action more cheaply than the standard
mail service. Candidates reach out to their supporters in a more efficient manner
(Scheiber 2003; Lizza 2003). Legislators and constituents communicate through e-mail
and websites on a more regular basis (Pole 2004).
One segment of the Internet that seems to hold some promise for democratic
politics is weblogs. Political weblogs or blogs are a new form of political participation,
which also reinforce more traditional forms of participation. Weblogs or blogs are web
pages that are regularly updated, operated by one person or a small group of people
and developed for little to no cost. Individual entries or posts are chronologically
updated like a diary with the most recent posts viewed first. Blogs require little
knowledge of programming to operate. Many contain a list of other blogs on their
sidebar, also known as a blogroll and many archive older entries.
Our paper examines the impact of political weblogs on political participation.
Though blogs contain information on a plethora of topics, this paper focuses on blogs
with a political perspective. We examine the writers of these weblogs, their
2
demographics, their interaction with other bloggers and their readers and their potential
impact on political debate.
While some scholars see great promise for democracy in the Internet, others fear
that this new medium will contribute to America’s growing individualism and isolation.
Our findings suggest that blogs do foster a great deal of political interaction among
individuals. It is a new form of political participation. In addition, blog writers are
increasingly encouraging their readers to participate in more traditional forms of political
participation, such as contributing money for campaigns and attending party
conventions. These findings suggest that blogs can only strengthen democracy.
Overview of the Political Blogs
Weblogs date back to the early 1990s, but it was not until 1999 that they
developed their signature look of multiple daily entries in reverse chronology, blogroll or
links to other favorite blogs, archives of past content and often times a comment
section. It was also in 1999, that the free “Blogger” software became readily available.
After September 11, 2001, blogs multiplied exponentially as individuals rushed to
describe their personal experiences and to find an outlet for their heightened political
awareness (Scott 2004). Technorati tracks as many as 2.5 million blogs, though a small
fraction are regularly maintained.1
1
A 2003 Perseus study found that there are 4.12 million blogs, but it also found that most were little seen
and quickly abandoned (Business Wire 2003). Furthermore, only 106,579 blogs were updated on average
at least once a week. Fewer than 50,000 were updated daily. Another study by the Pew Internet &
American Life Project (Lenhart, Horrigan and Fallows 2004) found that two percent of Americans maintain
blogs and of the two percent, only 10 percent update their material daily. The authors of the Perseus
study predicted that 10 million blogs would exist by 2004. “According to the Perseus survey, the typical
blog is written by a teenage girl who uses it twice a month to update her friends and classmates on
happenings in her life. It is written very informally with slang spelling, yet not as informal as instant
messaging conversations” (Business Wire 2003).
3
Blogs have begun to attract a wide readership. Eleven percent of Americans
have read blogs and one-third of those readers have posted comments (Lenhart,
Horrigan and Fallows 2004). Blog readers tend to be well read, politically active and
cyber-active (Copeland 2004). The top ten blogs receive 200,000 visitors per day,
though few blogs regularly attract that much attention.2
Many weblogs focus exclusively on politics, though writers cover a variety of
topics from religion to a teenager’s struggle with weight loss. A few of the political blogs
have been run by political candidates. The most successful of those efforts was Howard
Dean’s BlogforAmerica. The Dean campaign operated a highly successful blog in the
Spring of 2004 masterminded by Joe Trippi. The blog helped propel his campaign until
Dean self destructed in Iowa. Dean’s experience demonstrates some limits of the
candidate blogs; the candidate must be also able to appeal to traditional media properly,
as well as to blog readers. Some political blogs are organized by political magazines or
newspapers, such as the New Republic and Washington Monthly. Most blogs however
are operated by individuals who are not associated with a candidate, party or
publication.
Entries or posts to blogs are often rebuttals to assertions made by journalists,
politicians and other public figures. Links are provided to other blogs, to speech
transcripts, academic studies and articles in the mainstream press. Some posts merely
excerpt a passage from an article and speech with only a note to their readers to check
it out. Other posts are full essays.
2
According to an article in the New York Times, most blogs receive very few visitors. “A few blogs have
thousands of readers, but never have so many people written so much to be read by so few. By Jupiter
Research's estimate, only 4 percent of online users read blogs” (Hafner 2004).
4
Some political bloggers respond to articles in the mainstream press or highlight
issues that have gotten little attention, because of bias or neglect. For example, many
political webloggers in the spring of 2004 felt that the mainstream media paid too much
attention to the abuses at Abu Ghraib prison, while spending little ink on the Berg
beheading. Similarly, political webloggers take much credit for directing media attention
to Trent Lott’s comments at Strom Thurmond’s birthday celebration and even providing
the media with research, which then led to his resignation as the Senate majority leader
in 2002 (Scott 2004). Many of the political bloggers see themselves as both tools for the
media, as well as media watchdogs.3
In addition to watching over the media, political blogs also debate political
matters with each other and their readers. Blog writers respond to arguments made by
other bloggers, who then respond to their posts. Others join in, either through the
comment sections or in their own blogs, where they debate the benefits of Florida’s
voucher program or the merits of Kerry’s proposal for working mothers. Political
discussion is carried on through hyperlinks though the discussants are miles away.
Blog writers also encourage their readers to participate in politics both online and
offline. Some blog writers gather campaign contributions from their readers. Other
writers have run advertisements on their weblogs sponsored by political candidates who
seek donations.4 Occasionally, political weblogs organize their readers by having them
3
The political blogs frequently maintain that the mainstream press is biased and that blogs influence the
media. Of course, these simultaneous beliefs are contradictory. If the media is biased strongly to the right
or to the left, then the media would not be receptive to alternative views found in the blogs.
4
In 2004, Kentucky Democrat Ben Chandler bought $2,000 in ads on blogs, and the ads raised nearly
$80,000 in contributions (Lillkvist 2004).
5
sign a petition.5 Finally, some bloggers alert their readers to upcoming votes in
Congress or political rallies.
Significance
To date, there has been little systematic examination of weblogs because blogs
are a relatively nascent phenomenon. Yet, such research is merited for a number of
reasons. First, weblogs have begun to attract great numbers of people. As mentioned
previously, between two and four million weblogs exist (Lenhart, Horrigan and Fallows
2004). In addition, the most popular political blogs receive as many as 200,000 readers
per day. Instapundit, authored by Glenn Reynolds, a law professor at the University of
Tennessee, had nearly four million visitors in July 2004. With millions of readers and
writers, weblogs have the potential to shape politics, political discourse and political
participation.
Second, weblogs are arguably a major departure from the status quo. Blogs
provide a forum for new voices to express their political views without university or press
credentials. Also, weblogs are inexpensively created and maintained, which expands
the number of people able to publicly express their views. Within the blogosphere,6
there is a unique interaction between lay people and academics and other experts
(Dunlop 2003).7 The range of political topics and discourse is vast and arguably very
5
An example of a post that asks readers to sign a petition can be found at Crooked Timber
(http://www.crookedtimber.org/archives/001832.html).
6
The blogosphere is defined as the intellectual space shared by writers and readers of the weblogs.
7
A 2003 Perseus study found that there are 4.12 million blogs, but it also found that most were little seen
and quickly abandoned (Business Wire 2003). Furthermore, only 106,579 blogs were updated on average
at least once a week. Fewer than 50,000 were updated daily. Another study by the Pew Internet &
American Life Project found that two percent of Americans maintain blogs and of the two percent, only 10
percent update their material daily. The authors of the Perseus study predicted that 10 million blogs would
exist by 2004. “According to the Perseus survey, the typical blog is written by a teenage girl who uses it
6
impressive in light of the decline in civic participation argued by Putnam (2000). Not only
do bloggers have an opportunity to write, but many bloggers have thousands of regular
readers. An exchange of ideas through e-mail or posts to the comment section of blogs
acts to facilitate discussion between the writer and reader and/or the writer and the
community of readers. Disenfranchised individuals who do not feel that their views are
represented by one of the major political parties might turn to weblogs as means of
expressing their views. Weblogs have the potential to democratize political discourse.
Third, weblog research can shed light on two major scholarly debates. One
debate centers on the decline of American political participation. Blogging may be a new
form of political participation, which is far more robust than traditional methods of
participation. The other scholarly debate centers on the political promise of the Internet.
Does information technology further isolate Americans or does it provide new virtual
communities? Research on blogs would also help to answer this question. The following
section expands on the relevant literature.
Literature Review
We rely upon two distinct bodies of literature to discuss the impact of weblogs on
political participation: information technology and government and political participation.
Our hypotheses, outlined in the next section, are drawn from the literature.
Prior research on information technology and government can be divided into two
camps, the optimists and the pessimists. Authors in the former camp, Grossman (1995),
Browning (1996), Bennett and Fielding (1999), and Barber (1984), assert that
twice a month to update her friends and classmates on happenings in her life. It is written very informally
with slang spelling, yet not as informal as instant messaging conversations” (Business Wire 2003).
7
information technology strengthens democracy in the US. Grossman states that we are
entering into the “electronic republic” or the “third transformation” where citizens will
become directly involved in decision-making, thereby having more control in
government. Grossman only provides evidence, from television, regarding how
information technology is transforming government (Grossman 1995). Whether
Grossman’s concept of the “electronic republic” is applicable remains to be seen.
Browning (1996), and Bennett and Fielding (1999) examine the impact of information
technology on voting and advocacy issues. They find that the Internet is an important
democratizing mechanism that can lead to increased participation by individuals and
groups that were previously prevented from participating (Browning 1996; Bennett and
Fielding 1999). Although Browning, and Bennett and Fielding focus on voting,
campaigns and advocacy issues, their work is nevertheless important because it
establishes the importance and potency of the Internet in politics from an empirical
perspective.
In contrast, the pessimists, Davis (1999), Abramson, Arterton and Orren (1988),
Wilhelm (2000) and Bimber (2003), argue that information technology will not
necessarily improve the prospects for political participation and democratization. Davis
(1999) and others assert that technology will not improve democracy because the
individuals who currently dominate the media will also dominate the Internet’s
presentation of news and information. Davis shows how the Internet has been taken
over by players who already run or own other forms of mass media. Existing players
have learned not only how to use the Internet to maintain power, “but to prevent the
very diffusion of power to other players the Internet is supposed to encourage” (Davis
8
1999, p.7). Davis finds that information via the Internet does not necessarily make
individuals any more well-informed or politically engaged. Bimber (2003) contends that
the Internet will not necessarily improve democracy, worsen democracy or make a
difference in many instances. The Internet only changes how democracy is practiced.
The author maintains that the Internet will not induce disengaged individuals instead it
facilitates communication and organization among those that are already interested and
engaged in politics (Bimber 2003). Our study examines the demographics of blog
writers to evaluate the democratic opportunities of this new medium.
Also pessimistic, Sunstein (2001) cautions his readers about the dangers of the
Internet. Sunstein (2001) asserts that the Internet leads to “cyberbalkanization” or to
creation of insular, politically homogenous communities. Unlike the real world, people in
the Internet can isolate themselves from other political points of view and avoid
productive debates. Bloggers have called this “cocooning.” Bimber also worries that the
Internet fragments people into like-minded groups (Harmon 2004). Our study merely
assesses the dialogue between weblog writers and readers and we take a value neutral
approach to the content of discussion.
In our study we measure whether writing a weblog is a form of political
participation and whether the definition of political participation can be expanded to
include this activity. Political theorists have described political participation as people
talking and acting in the public realm with the aim of coming to agreement about
community affairs. The classic example of active participation is a New England town
hall meeting where all citizens came together to make decisions based on their selfinterest, values and the community good (deTocqueville 2004). Others look back to the
9
Athenian polis as another place where there was maximum participation (Arendt 1998).
Not only does participation lead to new policies and decisions, but it also strengthens
the social and political skills of each individual. Feelings of political efficacy grow as a
result of participating. Participation also offers a protection from arbitrary decisions of
leaders. Carole Pateman writes, “…it is only if the individual has the opportunity directly
to participate in decision making…he can hope to have any real control over the course
of his life or the development of the environment in which he lives” (Pateman 1970,
p.110).
Analyses of political participation are typically narrow in scope, focusing on
voting, and do not pay attention to other modes of participation including contacting an
elected official, writing letters, signing a petition and attending a rally. Several authors
(Verba, Schlozman and Brady 1995; Putnam 2000; and Ridlen Ray 1999) examine
political participation in the United States, and they develop expansive explanations of
political participation not limited to voting. Verba, Schlozman and Brady (1995) for
example, identify a number of activities they consider to be political participation
including voting, undertaking campaign work, making campaign contributions,
contacting government officials and protesting. Contact with an elected official ranked
third in terms of political activity, after voting and being affiliated with a political
organization (Verba, Schlozman and Brady 1995). According to the authors,
Meaningful democratic participation requires that the voices of citizens in
politics be clear, loud and equal: clear so that public officials know what
citizens want and need, loud so that officials have an incentive to pay
attention to what they hear and equal so that the democratic ideal of equal
responsiveness to the preferences and interests of all is not violated
(Verba, Schlozman and Brady 1995, p. 509).
10
Our study seeks to examine whether writing a weblog should be included amongst more
traditional definitions of political participation, such as voting and attending a rally.
To varying degrees several authors (Ridlen Ray 1999; Putnam 2000; and Davis,
Elin and Reehr 2002) discuss the notion of the Internet as a community that potentially
builds and reinforces social connectedness and ultimately leads to increased political
participation. While Putnam argues that almost every form of community involvement
has declined in recent years, he suggests that the Internet may reverse this trend and
improve civic engagement and social connectedness (Putnam 2000). Putnam, does
however, worry that the Internet could lead to greater the political polarization (Harmon
2004). More certain that the Internet has great potential to increase political participation
and community, Ridlen Ray asserts that the Internet has led to increased social
connectedness that has improved interactions and participation in associational life
(Skocpol and Fiorina 1999). According to the author, “information sharing and interest in
affiliation prompts involvement in politics and augments the political skill of the
individual.” The ties between individuals and technologies vary from weak to strong and
associational life has changed with the advent of new technologies. Valuing both
individualism and social connectedness the author says Americans will continue to
balance these values as they apply technology to their individual and associational lives
(Skocpol and Fiorina 1999). Finally, Davis, Elin and Reehr (2002) also view the Internet
as a community that can lead to increased civic engagement. According to the authors
there are two types of Internet communities have evolved. The first type develops online
and is maintained online, while the second type develops online and is sustained offline.
Studying the most popular political weblogs, we evaluate whether this subset of
11
weblogs fosters political participation, in addition to assessing how readers urge their
readers to participate online and offline.
Questions & Hypotheses
Our primary research question was, do political weblogs increase political
participation? The following is a list of questions and hypotheses that guided our
research:
1. Do bloggers include individuals who are disenfranchised and currently marginalized
by politics and the political system?
Hypothesis 1: Blogging probably does not bring in many nonvoters, the poorly
educated, the economically deprived and/or minorities, because of the lack of
access to technology, the education to navigate the technology and the time to
pursue an activity without monetary compensation. Bloggers, especially those
whose websites are highly trafficked, were already probably moderate participators
before they began their website. We expect that bloggers have a higher than
average level of education with a professional career in education, journalism or
politics.
2. Is blogging a form of political participation?
Hypothesis 2: The act of writing and thinking about politics and sharing one’s views
with others is participation. There is a great deal of debate among different bloggers,
though it may only be with like-minded bloggers. It is an educative process, as the
blogger becomes more aware of current events. Blogging needs to be included
12
among other more traditional forms of participation, such as voting, attending rallies
and signing petitions.
3. Do weblogs encourage reader participation? What kinds of participation do bloggers
encourage: online participation or more traditional forms of participation that occur
offline?
Hypothesis 3: Some blogs are very involved in fostering participation among blog
readers. The primary means for reader participation is through the comment section.
Increasingly, blogs are encouraging readers to participate in politics through
conventional and more traditional means that do not require Internet access.
4. Does blogging turn moderate participators into more intense participators (in terms
of traditional definitions of participation)?
Hypothesis 4: The experience of daily writing and discussion of politics among
other bloggers and with readers causes one to participate more actively in the
process. There is a transformative quality to blogging. Bloggers typically engage in
between two to three forms of political participation prior to writing a weblog. Later
they engage in more than three.
5. Is blogging a means for individuals to participate who feel that their unique political
views are not represented by the current political organizations/parties?
Hypothesis 5: It is difficult to participate, without the support of an organized group.
Blogging enables one to find a like-minded group of people that may not exist in the
13
public sphere. For example, a Catholic, pro-gay marriage, libertarian might not feel
at home in either a mainstream political party or an organized interest group. A blog
would allow him the opportunity to express his unique political views. Though
blogging might not provide an outlet for low participators or the poorly educated, it is
an outlet for the political nonconformist.
Methodology: Research Design & Data Collection
Our research is primarily exploratory, since few researchers have systematically
examined the intersection between weblogs and politics. It is also explanatory since we
attempt to explain whether or not blogging is a form of political participation. Based on
survey research, a cross-sectional design is employed. The unit of analysis is weblog
writers.
During the first week of June 2004 we compiled a convenience sample, selecting
the top 125 political weblogs using the rankings from four websites: Blogstreet
Rankings, Truth Laid Bear Ecosystem, Technorati Top 100 and The Truth Laid
Bear.8 Typically, weblog rankings are based on popularity. Popularity among bloggers is
determined by the number of links to an individual’s weblog, while popularity among
readers is determined by the number of unique hits a blogger receives.9 For the
purposes of our study, we included weblogs that appeared on at least two of the four
top rankings in our final sample. Rankings of the top weblogs are imperfect. For
8
We individually viewed each weblog to determine whether or not the weblog had a political orientation,
with posts that pertained to politics, political discourse, public policy or current events. To further ensure
that the weblogs that were selected adhered to these criteria the first survey question (see Appendix A)
acted as a filter, asking bloggers whether or not their site had a political orientation.
9
We chose the most popular blogs rather than compiling a random sample for several reasons. These
bloggers are more experienced. They have found a way to use blogging most effectively. Other bloggers
are imitating their methods. It is important to remember that we are examining an elite set of bloggers and
that our findings may not pertain to all bloggers.
14
example, Blogstreet Rankings, Truth Laid Bear Ecosystem and Technorati Top 100
compile their rankings based on how frequently an individual weblog is linked to another
weblog. In contrast, Truth Laid Bear compiles its rankings based on the number of hits
or visits each weblog receives. With the installation of software called Sitemeter, hits or
visits to a weblog are tallied, however, not all bloggers use Sitemeter to track the
number of hits. In addition, Sitemeter often underestimates the number of hits bloggers
receive. While the existing ranking of weblogs is not completely satisfactory, we were
able to find commonalities by merging the four lists.
In June 2004 we generated a 27-question survey (Appendix A), which was sent
to 63 of the top bloggers writing weblogs with a political orientation. All surveys were
sent via e-mail since mailing addresses are rarely listed on weblogs. A reminder was
sent via e-mail approximately three weeks later. To increase the response rate,
bloggers who returned the survey were promised a copy of our paper. A total of 28
bloggers returned the survey, yielding a 45 percent response rate. Our response rate is
quite good, as many scholars suggest that the upper limit to be expected from the
general population is 50 percent. According to Goyder (1985), the number of follow-ups
and the salience of the topic are key predictors of response rates. We suspect that the
saliency of this issue is a key factor in the high response rate.
Findings
The Elite Blogger?. Studying the most popular political weblogs, we wanted to know
who writes political weblogs. Are bloggers disenfranchised and currently marginalized
by politics and the political system? According to the data, the 28 bloggers who
15
responded to our survey are largely white, well-educated males. Similar to findings from
the Content Creation Online study (Lenhart, Horrigan and Fallows 2004), which found
that 77 percent of bloggers are white; almost 80 percent of the most popular political
bloggers (22 out of 28) identified themselves as white. According to the data, bloggers
range in age from 21 to 58 and the average age of the bloggers that we surveyed is 37.
While findings from the Content Creation Online study show that 49 percent of all
bloggers are women, only seven percent of the most popular political bloggers are
female and over 86 percent of weblogs are written by men.10 In terms of education, 50
percent of respondents (14 out of 28) earned a bachelor’s degree and another 40
percent of bloggers (11 out of 28) earned an advanced degree. Not surprisingly, our
sample of the most popular political bloggers is slightly more educated than other
bloggers (Lenhart, Horrigan and Fallows 2004). The occupation of bloggers from our
sample varies ranging from Camp Directors to consultants. A significant number of
political bloggers, 11 out of 28, reported they are writers and another three bloggers
said they are professors.
A majority of respondents have been writing their weblogs for over two years.
According to the data, 36 percent of writers (10 out of 28) spend between one to two
hours writing their weblogs and another 32 percent of writers (9 out of 28) spend
between three to five hours a day writing their entries. While a majority of writers spend
less than five hours a day writing, 72 percent of respondents (20 out of 28) said that
they submit entries to their weblogs several times a day. This does not include time
devoted to reading other blogs, answering e-mail and maintaining their weblog. A
majority of respondents read more than 10 blogs on a regular basis. Clearly the amount
10
Eight percent of respondents declined to indicate their gender.
16
of time bloggers spend writing and reading on a daily basis demonstrates a certain level
of dedication and commitment.
Is Blogging Political Participation?. The principal question our study asks is whether
writing a weblog is a form of political participation. Bloggers were quite certain that
blogging is a form of political participation. According to the data, 27 out of 28 bloggers
reported that blogging is indeed a form of political participation. In response to an open
ended question which asked, “What impact do you feel your weblog has had on political
life and political discourse?” one blogger wrote, “My blog has attracted an online
community of several hundred regular commentators, who seem to find companionship
and derive a sense of belonging from their participation.” Similarly other comments
included adding more voices outside the established system, increasing political
activism and exposing readers to new ideas and information outside of mainstream
media.
Political theorists who discuss political participation stress that participation
makes people feel that they have more influence on politics and political discourse.
Bloggers certainly feel that way about their efforts. When we asked bloggers whether
they had much more, somewhat more, the same, somewhat less or much less influence
on politics or political discourse as a result of writing their weblog, over half of all
respondents (15 out of 28) reported that they have much more influence on politics or
political discourse as a result of their writing a weblog. Another 43 percent of bloggers
said they have somewhat more influence on politics or political discourse because of
their weblog.
17
Bloggers Foster Online & Offline Participation. Not only did we attempt to assess
whether writing a weblog is a form of political participation, but we also set out to
determine whether or not bloggers encourage their readers to participate and if writers
encourage their readers to participate, we wanted to know how readers were
encouraged to participate. By virtue of their design, there are several ways that weblogs
facilitate participation. The primary way readers participate is through the comment
section, which allows readers to post comments about a writer’s post. Eight-two percent
of respondents (23 out of 28) reported that their website contains a section for
comments. In this regard weblogs potentially facilitate political discourse and an
exchange of political ideas, similar to an online version of a town hall meeting.
According to the data, between two to 2,500 comments are posted to weblogs on a
daily basis. The average number of comments writers receive totals 214 with a modal
value of 30 comments per day. In addition to a section for comments, a second method
of participation is through e-mail. We observed that almost every weblog contains the
writer’s e-mail address, which invites private interactions between blog writers and
readers.
A third perhaps indirect way that weblogs potentially facilitate participation is
through blogrolls. Blogrolls are links to other weblogs found on the sidebar of almost
every blog. According to the data, all bloggers asserted that they do indeed have links
to other weblogs that have a political orientation. On average, political bloggers provide
links to approximately 100 weblogs with a modal value of 50 blogrolls. The blogosphere
is a tight-knit community, and blogrolls allow writers to provide their audience with links
to other bloggers. A blogroll identifies the members of the writer’s blogging community.
18
Table 1
Online Activities Writers
Ask Readers to Engage In
Visit other weblogs
Visit other websites
Send comments to the writer’s weblog
Frequency
26
25
20
Percent
92.9
89.3
71.4
Note: N for bloggers = 28
Finally a fourth way that bloggers can facilitate political participation is by
providing links to other weblogs and other websites, in addition encouraging readers to
e-mail other bloggers (Table 1). Over 95 percent of respondents said that they link to
other political bloggers. Typically, each post to a weblog contains at least one link to
another blogger though this varies. This suggests that bloggers are not only concerned
with their own views, but that they are engaged in a dialogue with other bloggers.
Almost 90 percent of bloggers encourage their readers to visit other weblogs and to visit
other websites, while close to three-quarters of respondents ask their readers to
write/send comments to their own weblog. The data also show that 40 percent of
bloggers (11 out of 28) said that they encourage their readers to write or send
comments to someone else’s weblog. Blog writers clearly are encouraging their readers
to participate in the general dialogue within the blogosphere.
Table 2
Other Activities Writers
Ask Readers to Engage In
Contact an elected official
Sign a petition
Donate money to a campaign
Attend a rally
Note: N for bloggers = 28
19
Frequency
14
9
8
7
Percent
50.0
32.1
28.6
25.0
While we do not examine whether weblogs have replaced more traditional forms
of political participation, we found that bloggers do use their weblogs to promote more
traditional forms of political participation from raising money to encouraging readers to
vote, much of which occurs offline. As indicated in Table 2, a majority of bloggers urged
their readers to contact elected officials. Fewer bloggers said they encourage their
readers to donate money to a campaign, to sign a petition or to attend a rally. A majority
of bloggers also use their weblogs to raise money, to announce an event and to
encourage readers to send e-mail/letters to elected officials. In contrast, fewer bloggers
Table 3
Forms of Political Participation
Pre-Blogging
96%
(27)
75%
(21)
75%
(21)
36%
(10)
54%
(15)
50%
(14)
50%
(14)
Voted
Attended a rally/protest
Sent e-mail/letters to elected officials
Attended a political fund raiser
Worked on a campaign
Contributed to a campaign
Attended a party or local community
meeting
Post-Blogging
86%
(24)
39%
(11)
68%
(27)
18%
(5)
18%
(5)
32%
(9)
36%
(10)
Note: N for bloggers = 28; Numbers in parentheses denote sample size.
use their weblogs to provide free advertising or paid advertising for a candidate or to
encourage their readers to vote or to register to vote. Though only a minority of bloggers
use their weblogs to engage in the previously mentioned activities, the potential
influence of the blogger is significant with average readerships varying from hundreds to
thousands. One blogger remarked, “We have around 15,000 readers a day, cover
20
politics from a wide variety of perspectives and philosophies, I am certain our readers
are more informed than they would be if we didn’t exist.” The data supports the
hypothesis that blogs encourage online and offline interactions.
Blogging as Transformative. We also wanted to know whether blogging turned
moderate participators into more intense participators (in terms of traditional definitions
of participation). We asked bloggers to indicate what activities they participated in prior
to writing a weblog and after developing a weblog. As noted in Table 3, it appears that
bloggers were engaged in more activities prior to blogging. This is somewhat misleading
however, since we do not control for time prior to blogging and most bloggers have only
been blogging for two years. Yet another reason there may be a drop-off in postblogging involvement is because until now little else has been going on. Respondents
might partake in more traditional forms of political participation this fall with the
impending presidential election. Alternatively, blogging requires time that writers would
have spent engaging in other forms of participation. Blogging might satisfy their need to
speak out, so other forms of participation are deemed unnecessary. Finally, some
writers might feel that blogging is more effective than other means of participation.
Despite what appears to be a drop-off in participation, blogging makes one more
knowledgeable about politics. According to the data, over half of all respondents said
they are much more knowledgeable about current political events and policy issues and
43 percent of bloggers reported that they are somewhat more knowledgeable about
current political events and policy issues. Blogging increases feelings of efficacy (the
feelings that one can make a difference). We also asked bloggers if they felt that they
have more or less influence on politics and political discourse. Sixty percent of
21
respondents (17 out of 28) said that they have much more influence on politics and
political discourse as a result of writing their weblog. Almost 30 percent of bloggers
reported that they have somewhat more influence on politics and political discourse.
When asked in an open-ended question what impact their weblog has had on political
life and political discourse, several respondents underscored the above findings. One
blogger wrote,
On a small scale, I think we’ve hopefully made some of our readers more
thoughtful and more informed about some of the major issues of the day.
On the larger scale, a number of government staffers and writers/editors
at major media outlets read our blog, so if we’re able to have an influence
on them, then we have an influence via them.
Table 4
Political Orientation of Weblogs
Liberal
Centrist
Conservative
Libertarian
Socialist
Other
Total
Frequency
Percent
5
4
6
3
1
9
28
17.9
14.3
21.4
10.7
3.6
32.1
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
17.9
32.1
53.6
64.3
67.9
100.0
100.0
Note: N for bloggers = 28
Blogging: An Outlet for the Unrepresented?. Finally, we also assessed whether blogging
is way for individuals to participate who feel that their unique political views are not
represented by political parties and interest groups. We asked bloggers to describe the
political orientation of their weblog. The data show that bloggers are relatively evenly
dispersed across the political spectrum (Table 4). There does not appear to be much
support for the claim that the blogosphere is primarily conservative. Significantly, a
plurality of bloggers, 32 percent, identified themselves as other, suggesting that they do
22
not identify with any of the more traditional ideologies.11 This adds some credence to
our hypothesis that blogging serves an outlet for those who do not strongly identify with
any of the dominant political ideologies.
We also suspected that individuals wrote weblogs because their views are not
represented by a major political party. Only seven percent of respondents (2 out of 28)
indicated that their views are very much represented by a major political party or interest
group. Nearly 80 percent of bloggers (22 out of 28) claim their views are somewhat
represented by a major political party and 14 percent of bloggers (4 out of 28) reported
that their views are not at all represented by a major political party. When asked in an
opened-ended question why they developed a weblog, bloggers gave a myriad reasons
from 9/11 to the 2000 election debacle. Among those who reported that they began
writing because of the 2000 election, some said that they were motivated by partisan
politics. For example one individual wrote,
I got really angry during the 2000 election at the horrible biased job the
media did in covering Florida. The breaking point for me was when I was
watching a show on CNN and an e-mailed comment from a listener came
in suggesting that “Bush should conceded.” That was the moment I
decided to put together a conservative web page although I didn’t actually
get RWN off the ground until several months later.
While none of the respondents indicated that they were searching for like-minded
individuals, this might be an added benefit of blogging. A few bloggers noted that they
wished to express their own views about politics and writing a weblog allows them to do
this.
11
Three respondents selected more than one category when asked to describe the political orientation of
their weblog. These cases were recoded as other.
23
Conclusion: The Political Promise of Weblogs
The findings from our research suggest that weblogs play a positive role in
furthering participation and strengthening democracy in America. We found that
blogging has not attracted new voices, lending support to the pessimists who argue that
the same elite who traditionally monopolize political dialogue control the dialogue on the
Internet. Despite this limitation, writing a weblog is a new form of political participation.
In an era of declining political participation, weblogs hold promise as a new form of
community, one not bound by location. In this regard, the Internet potentially has the
power to revitalize American democracy. We test five hypotheses, all of which are
confirmed except one.
First, we hypothesized that blog writers were not marginalized by the political
system prior to starting their blog. As we expected, the data show that bloggers are
highly educated, white men who participated in more traditional forms of offline politics
prior to writing their weblogs. A majority of bloggers are concentrated in occupations
related to writing and education. Though the Internet offers great potential for non-elites
to break through the barriers that the elite have erected to monopolize political
discourse, few non-elites have taken advantage of this opportunity. At least at this point
in time, there has been no revolution of idea makers, as predicted by several scholars
(Barber 1984; Grossman 1995; Browning 1996; and Bennett and Fielding 1999). While
there is ample dialogue about politics and political discourse via blogging, our findings
confirm the work of Davis (1999) and Bimber (2003) who maintain that the Internet does
not bring in new voices.
24
Second, we hypothesized that writing a political weblog is a form of participation.
The data support this hypothesis. An overwhelming number of respondents said
blogging is a form of political participation. Moreover, a majority of bloggers indicated
that they have much more influence on politics and political discourse as a result of
writing a weblog. In addition, blogging is an educative process, as the blogger becomes
more aware of current events. Blogging is also empowering, as the blogger feels more
influential over political events. The dialogue and the educative and empowering nature
of this enterprise certainly places blogging alongside other acts of political participation,
such as attending rallies or party meetings. Though this discourse might only occur
within groups that hold a similar political perspective, a political rally is also politically
homogenous. If there is, as Putnam maintains, an overall decline in political and
community connectedness in America, blogging may be replacing other forms of
community.
Third, we expected bloggers to encourage their readers to participate both online
and offline. While we expected readers to participate through the comment section, we
found that writers also facilitate participation through blogrolls and links to other weblogs
and websites. Our study demonstrates that dialogue between writers and readers, as
well as between bloggers, is very robust with multiple links to other weblogs, heavy use
of the comment section and a list of fellow bloggers identified in blogrolls. While the
primary means of participation is online, there is a moderate amount of offline
participation occurring as well. The data provide some evidence that bloggers
encourage their readers to vote, to write to public officials, to sign petitions, to donate
money to campaigns and to attend rallies. More traditional modes of participation that
25
occur offline may lead to face-to-face contact that is often missing from online
discussion. This development is extremely significant. It will be interesting to study
whether this activity increases in the coming years.
Our fourth hypothesis was disconfirmed. The data does not support the
hypothesis that blogging turns moderate participators into more intense participators.
Surprisingly, our data revealed a slight drop in traditional forms of participation by
bloggers. In fact, most bloggers were more politically active prior to starting their weblog
than we expected. As previously mentioned, we found that writing a weblog was
transformative in other ways. Bloggers indicated that they are more knowledgeable
about current events. However, there was no evidence that bloggers became more
involved in more traditional forms of participation as a result of their weblog activities.
Lastly, we found that the data largely supports the hypothesis that blogging is a
means for individuals to participate who feel that their unique political views are not
represented by a major party or interest groups. We asked respondents to describe the
political orientation of their weblog and while the data was relatively evenly dispersed
across the political spectrum, a plurality of respondents identified the political orientation
of their weblog as other. Furthermore, we found that many bloggers do not feel that a
major party or interest group entirely represents their views. Blogging may provide an
outlet for the political nonconformist. However, no blogger said that this was the primary
reason that he started blogging.
Based on our findings we are cautiously optimistic about the impact of blogging
on politics. Certainly, there is a significant amount of dialogue occurring online. Most
political bloggers are interacting with their readers and almost all political bloggers are
26
interacting with other political bloggers. There is a discussion of political issues, some
attempt to come to conclusions and a goal of making a political difference. In this way,
the blogosphere resembles a virtual community or town hall meeting. There is also
some movement to influence politics offline. However, blog writing has not
democratized political discourse; weblog writers are a relatively advantaged group.
While the act of writing and reading weblogs occurs in the privacy of one’s home
or office, perhaps a virtual community can be as vital as a community bound by
location.12 Any community involves a give and take of opinions and growth by the
participants. Perhaps it is time to expand our understanding of how political dialogue will
occur in an era of technology.
12
At least one political theorist, Hannah Arendt, maintained that a political community did not have to be
rooted by location. She wrote, “The polis, properly speaking, is not the city-state in its physical location; it
is the organization of the people as it arises out of acting and speaking together and its true space lies
between people living together for this purpose, no matter where they happen to be. “Wherever you go,
you will be a polis”: these famous words became not merely the watchword of Greek colonization, they
expressed the conviction that action and speech create a space between the participants which can find
its proper location almost any time and anywhere” (Arendt 1998, p.198-199).
27
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Appendix A
Survey of Political Participation by Bloggers
This survey assesses political participation by individuals who write weblogs. Please place an X
next to the choice(s) that best answer the question.
1. Does your weblog have a political orientation, where you discuss politics, political
discourse, public policy or current events?
_____ yes
_____ no
_____ don’t know/refuse
_____ not applicable
2. How would you describe the political orientation of your site?
_____ liberal
_____ centrist
_____ conservative
_____ libertarian
_____ socialist
_____ other ____________
_____ don’t know/refused
_____ not applicable
3. To what degree do you feel your views are already represented by a major political party
or interest group?
_____ very much
_____ somewhat
_____ not at all
_____ don’t know
_____ not applicable
4. How long have you had a weblog?
_____ 1-6 months
_____ 6-12 months
_____ 1-2 year
_____ over 2years
5. On average, how many hours a day do you spend writing your weblog?
_____ less than 1 hour
_____ 1-2 hours
_____ 3-5 hours
_____ more than 5 hours
_____ don’t know
_____ not applicable
31
6. On average how many weblogs, apart from your own, do you read on a regular basis?
_____ 1 to 3
_____ 4 to 7
_____ 8 to 10
_____ more than 10
_____ don’t know
_____ not applicable
7. How frequently do you post to your weblog?
_____ several times a day
_____ about once a day
_____ 3-5 days week
_____ 1-2 days a week
_____ every few weeks
_____ less often
_____ don’t know/refused
8. Does your weblog contain a section for comments other than your e-mail address?
_____ yes [If yes, answer question 8A]
_____ no [If no, proceed to question 9]
_____ don’t know/refuse
_____ not applicable
8A. If your weblog contains a comment section, on average how many comments do
you receive on a daily basis? ____________
9. Does your weblog have links to other weblogs that have a political orientation?
_____ yes
_____ no
_____ don’t know/refuse
_____ not applicable
10. How many links do you have on your sidebar or blogroll that link readers to other
weblogs?
___________
11. On average, how many links to other weblogs appear in each post? ______
12. Does your weblog encourage your readers to engage in any of the following activities
(either on-line or off-line): (Please check all that apply.)
_____ visit other weblogs
_____ visit other websites
_____ contact an elected official
_____ donate money to a campaign
_____ sign a petition
_____ attend a rally
_____ write/send comments to your weblog
32
_____ write/send comments to someone else’s weblog
_____ other ____________________________
_____ don’t know
_____ not applicable
13. Do you feel writing a weblog is a form of participating in politics?
_____ yes
_____ no
_____ maybe
_____ don’t know/refuse
_____ not applicable
14. Do you think your weblog has led to an exchange of ideas among other individuals
inside or outside the blogosphere? (Blogosphere is defined as the intellectual space
shared by writers and readers of weblogs.)
_____ yes
_____ no
_____ maybe
_____ don’t know/refuse
_____ not applicable
15. Have you used your weblog to do any of the following activities? (Please check all that
apply.)
_____ to raise money
_____ to provide free advertising for a candidate
_____ to provide paid advertising for a candidate
_____ to announce an event (peace rally, public meeting, etc.)
_____ to encourage readers to send e-mail/letter to an elected official
_____ to encourage readers to vote or register to vote
_____ other ________________________________
_____ don’t know
_____ not applicable
16. Prior to developing your weblog, please indicate whether you have undertaken any of
the following activities? (Please check all that apply.)
_____ voted
_____ attended a rally, protest or march
_____ sent e-mail or letters to elected officials
_____ attended a political fund raiser
_____ worked on a campaign
_____ contributed to a campaign
_____ attended a party or local community meeting
_____ other________________________
33
17. Have you engaged in the following activities, after the development of your weblog?
(Please check all that apply.)
_____ voted
_____ attended a rally, protest or march
_____ sent e-mail or letters to elected officials
_____ attended a political fund raiser
_____ worked on a campaign
_____ contributed to a campaign
_____ attended a party or local community meeting
_____ other _______________________
18. Do you feel that you are much more, somewhat more, the same, somewhat less, or
much less informed about current political events and policy issues?
_____ much more
_____ somewhat more
_____ the same
_____ somewhat less
_____ much less
_____ don’t know/refused
_____ not applicable
19. Do you feel that you have much more, somewhat more, the same, somewhat less, or
much less influence on politics or political discourse as a result of your weblog?
_____ much more
_____ somewhat more
_____ the same
_____ somewhat less
_____ much less
_____ don’t know/refused
_____ not applicable
20. Why did you develop a weblog?
21. What impact do you feel your weblog has had on political life and political discourse?
Demographic Questions
22. My weblog address is: _____________________________
23. My occupation is _______________
24. My age is _____________
34
25. My highest degree completed is:
_____ High school
_____ BA/BS
_____ Masters/MBA
_____ JD
_____ Ph.D.
_____ Other _____________
26. My race is:
_____ White
_____ Black
_____ Hispanic
_____ Asian
_____ other _____________
_____ refused
27. I am:
_____ male
_____ female
_____ refused
35