Table of Contents
Profile ________________________________________________________________ 5
Introduction _______________________________________________________________ 5
Geography ___________________________________________________________ 13
Geographic Regions and Topographic Features _________________________________ 13
Climate __________________________________________________________________ 14
Rivers ___________________________________________________________________ 15
Population and Cities_______________________________________________________ 16
Environmental Concerns____________________________________________________ 20
Natural Hazards___________________________________________________________ 22
History ______________________________________________________________ 23
Overview _________________________________________________________________ 23
Origins___________________________________________________________________ 23
Kochosŏn_________________________________________________________________ 24
Paekche, Kaya, and Silla ____________________________________________________ 24
Koguryŏ and the Three Kingdoms ____________________________________________ 25
Impacts of the Three Kingdom Era ___________________________________________ 25
Unified Silla Dynasty and Parhae_____________________________________________ 26
Chinese Influences _________________________________________________________ 26
Period of the Later Three Kingdoms __________________________________________ 27
Koryŏ____________________________________________________________________ 27
Mongol Invasions __________________________________________________________ 28
The Demise of Koryŏ _______________________________________________________ 29
Early Chosŏn _____________________________________________________________ 30
King Sejong_______________________________________________________________ 30
The Imjin War ____________________________________________________________ 31
The Manchus _____________________________________________________________ 31
Isolation__________________________________________________________________ 32
Confrontation _____________________________________________________________ 32
Foreign Influence __________________________________________________________ 33
The End of Chosŏn_________________________________________________________ 34
Japanese Colonization ______________________________________________________ 34
World War II _____________________________________________________________ 35
Formation of North Korea __________________________________________________ 36
The War and Its Immediate Aftermath ________________________________________ 37
Cult of Personality _________________________________________________________ 37
Military Build-Up and Economic Decline ______________________________________ 38
Succession ________________________________________________________________ 39
North Korea Today ________________________________________________________ 40
Economy _____________________________________________________________ 41
Introduction ______________________________________________________________ 41
Industry and Manufacturing ________________________________________________ 41
Agriculture _______________________________________________________________ 42
Banking and Currency _____________________________________________________ 43
Trade ____________________________________________________________________ 44
Investment________________________________________________________________ 45
Energy and Mineral Resources_______________________________________________ 47
Standard of Living _________________________________________________________ 48
Tourism __________________________________________________________________ 49
Transportation ____________________________________________________________ 50
Business Outlook __________________________________________________________ 51
Society_______________________________________________________________ 53
Introduction ______________________________________________________________ 53
Ethnic Groups and Language ________________________________________________ 53
Religion __________________________________________________________________ 54
Cuisine___________________________________________________________________ 55
Traditions: Celebrations and Holidays ________________________________________ 56
Arts _____________________________________________________________________ 57
Traditional Dress __________________________________________________________ 58
Folk Culture and Folklore___________________________________________________ 59
Sports and Leisure _________________________________________________________ 60
Gender Issues _____________________________________________________________ 61
Security ______________________________________________________________ 63
Introduction ______________________________________________________________ 63
Military and Internal Security _______________________________________________ 63
U.S.–North Korean Relations ________________________________________________ 65
Relations With Neighboring Countries ________________________________________ 66
Terrorism ________________________________________________________________ 69
Issues Affecting Security ____________________________________________________ 71
Profile
Introduction
“Through energetic ideological and theoretical activities, [Great Leader Kim
Jong Il] systematized Comrade Kim Il Sung’s revolutionary ideology into the
ideology, theory, and methodology of Juche, developing it to be the immortal
revolutionary banner of the era of independence.”
From “Kim Jong Il: Brief History”
Juche 87 (1998)1
Since the end of World War II, the Korean Peninsula has been divided into two countries
along a boundary that initially was the 38th parallel. The boundary is now defined by a
narrow ribbon of land known as the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), which is often described
as the most militarized national boundary in the world.
To the north of the DMZ lies the Democratic People’s
Republic of Korea, more commonly referred to as North
Korea. In an era of global interrelated economies and
worldwide communications via the internet, North Korea
remains one of the world’s most isolated societies. The
philosophical underpinning of this insularity is the
national creed of chuch’e (also translated as juche), a
politically flexible ideology first outlined by former
North Korean President Kim Il Sung, which is sometimes given the shorthand description
of “self-reliance.” However, to the extent that chuch’e translates as “self-reliance,” it is
strictly at the macro or state level, not at the individual level.2 In the chuch’e model of the
North Korean state, the supreme leader (suryŏng) is the most important part of the socialpolitical body. The supreme leader directs the masses via the Korean Worker’s Party
(KWP), much as the brain controls the rest of the body via the central nervous system.3
Political, economic, and military independence in this model are not only necessary, but
they are mutually interdependent.
In practice, however, North Korea’s long-suffering economy has forced the Kim regime
to become highly dependent on its neighbors for aid and limited investment—most
notably, South Korea and China. As the country’s socialist economy has made halting
1
Democratic People’s Republic of Korea. “Leaders Biographies: Biography of the Great Leader Kim Jong
Il.” No date. http://www.korea-dpr.com/library/103.pdf
2
Monash University Arts. Ford, Danton R. (Kyungnam University). “Democratic Capitalism and Juche:
Common Values and Challenges” (paper presented at the Second Biennial Conference of Korean Studies,
Association of Australasia. Monash University. 24–25 September 2001.
http://arts.monash.edu.au/korean/ksaa/conference/32dantonford.pdf
3
GlobalSecurity.org. “Revolutionary View of the Leader.” 2009.
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/dprk/suryong.htm
moves toward capitalist enterprises, the chuch’e message has been reinterpreted to place
greater emphasis on songun (“military first”), raising the economic and political roles of
the Korea People’s Army (KPA) at the expense of the more ideological KWP.4 As an
indication of the importance of the military in North Korea, the title of the nation’s leader,
Kim Jong Il, is not President, but rather Chairman of the National Defense Commission.
Facts and Figures5
Location:
Eastern Asia, northern half of the Korean Peninsula
bordering Korea Bay and the Sea of Japan, between
China and South Korea.
Area:
120,540 sq km (46,541 sq mi)
Border Countries:
China 1,416 km (880 mi), South Korea 238 km (148 mi), Russia 19 km (12 mi)
Natural Hazards:
Late spring droughts are often followed by severe flooding; occasional typhoons occur
during the early fall.
Climate
Temperate with rainfall concentrated in summer.
Environment—Current Issues:
Water pollution; inadequate supplies of potable water; waterborne disease; deforestation;
soil erosion and degradation.
Population:
23,479,088 (July 2008 est.)
4
Brookings Institution. Vorontsov, Alexander V. “North Korea’s Military-First Policy: A Curse of a
Blessing?” 26 May 2006. http://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2006/0526northkorea_vorontsov.aspx
5
Information in this section comes from the following source: Central Intelligence Agency. CIA World
Factbook. “Korea, North.” 5 February 2009. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-worldfactbook/geos/kn.html
Median Age:
32.7 years (2008 est.)
Population Growth Rate:
0.732% (2008 est.)
Life Expectancy at Birth:
72.2 years (2008 est.)
HIV/AIDS—Adult Prevalence Rate:
N.A.
Nationality:
Noun: Korean(s)
Adjective: Korean
Sex Ratio:
At birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
Under 15 years: 1.03 male(s)/female
15–64 years: 0.98 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.57 male(s)/female
Total population: 0.95 male(s)/female (2008 est.)
Ethnic Groups:
Racially homogeneous; there is a small Chinese community and a few ethnic Japanese.
Religions:
Traditionally Buddhist and Confucianist, some Christian and syncretic Ch’ŏndogyo
(Religion of the Heavenly Way).
Note: Autonomous religious activities are now almost nonexistent; governmentsponsored religious groups exist to provide the illusion of
religious freedom.
Languages:
Korean
Literacy:
Definition: Persons age 15 and over who can read and write.
Total population: 99%
Male: 99%
Female: 99% (2000 census)
Country Name:
Conventional long form: Democratic People’s Republic of Korea
Conventional short form: North Korea
Local long form: Chŏson-minjujuǔi-inmin-konghwaguk
Local short form: Chŏson
Abbreviation: DPRK
Government Type:
Communist state one-man dictatorship
Capital:
Name: P’yŏngyang
Administrative Divisions:
Nine provinces (do, singular and plural) and four municipalities (si, singular and plural)
Provinces: Chagang-do (Chagang), Hamgyŏng-bukto (North Hamgyŏng), Hamgyŏngnamdo (South Hamgyŏng), Hwanghae-bukto (North Hwanghae), Hwanghae-namdo
(South Hwanghae), Kangwŏn-do (Kangwŏn), P’yŏngan-bukto (North P’yŏngan),
P’yŏngan-namdo (South P’yŏngan), Yanggang-do (Yanggang)
Municipalities: Kaesŏng-si (Kaesŏng), Najin Sŏnbong-si (Najin-Sŏnbong), Namp’o-si
(Namp’o), P’yŏngyang-si (P’yŏngyang).
Independence:
15 August 1945 (from Japan)
National Holiday:
Founding of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK), 9 September (1948).
Constitution:
Adopted 1948; completely revised 27 December 1972, revised again in April 1992, and
September 1998.
Legal System:
Based on Prussian civil law system with Japanese influences and Communist legal theory;
no judicial review of legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory International Court of
Justice jurisdiction.
Suffrage:
17 years of age; universal.
Government:
Chief of State: Kim Jong Il (since July 1994); note—on 3
September 2003, rubberstamp Supreme People’s
Assembly (SPA) reelected Kim Jong Il chairman of the
National Defense Commission, a position accorded the
nation’s “highest administrative authority”; SPA
reelected Kim Yong Nam president of its Presidium also
with responsibility of representing state and receiving diplomatic credentials.
Head of Government: Premier Kim Yong Il (since 11 April 2007); Vice Premiers Kwak
Pom Gi (since 5 September 1998), Jon Sung Hun (since 3 September 2003), Ro Tu Chol
(since 3 September 2003), Thae Jong Su (since 16 October 2007).
Cabinet: Naegak (cabinet) members, except for Minister of People’s Armed Forces, are
appointed by SPA.
Elections: Last held in September 2003; date of next election, N/A.
Election results: Kim Jong Il and Kim Yong Nam were only nominees for positions and
ran unopposed.
Legislative Branch:
Unicameral Supreme People’s Assembly or Ch’oego Inmin Hoeui (687 seats; members
elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms).
Elections: Last held 3 August 2003 (next to be held on 8 March 2009).
Election results: Percent of vote by party—N/A; seats by party—N/A; ruling party
approves a list of candidates who are elected without opposition; a token number of seats
are reserved for minor parties.
Political Parties and Leaders:
Major party—Korean Workers’ Party or KWP [Kim Jong Il]; minor parties—Chondoist
Chongu Party [Ryu Mi Yong] (under KWP control), Social Democratic Party [Kim Yong
Dae] (under KWP control)
Judicial Branch:
Central Court (judges are elected by the Supreme People’s Assembly).
International Organization Participation:
ASEAN Regional Forum, Food and Agriculture Organization, Group of 77, International
Civil Aviation Organization, International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement,
International Fund for Agricultural Development, International Federation of Red Cross
and Red Crescent Societies, International Hydrographic Organization, International
Maritime Organization, International Olympic Committee, Inter-parliamentary Union,
International Organization for Standardization, International Telecommunications
Satellites Organization, International Telecommunication Union, Nonaligned Movement,
United Nations, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, United Nations
Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, United Nations Industrial
Development Organization, World Tourism Organization, Universal Postal Union, World
Federation of Trade Unions, World Health Organization, World Intellectual Property
Organization, World Meteorological Organization
GDP—Real Growth Rate:
-1.1% (2008 est.)
GDP—Composition by Sector:
Agriculture: 23.3%
Industry: 43.1%
Services: 33.6% (2002 est.)
Labor Force—By Occupation:
Agriculture: 37%
Industry and Services: 63% (2004 est.)
Telephones—Main Lines in Use:
1.18 million (2007)
Telephones—Mobile Cellular:
Service initiated in 2002, terminated in 2004; in January 2008 Orascom Telecom, an
Egyptian company, announced that it had been granted a commercial license to provide
mobile telephone services in North Korea.
Radio Broadcast Stations:
AM 17 (including 11 stations of Korean Central Broadcasting Station; North Korea has a
“national intercom” cable radio station wired throughout the country that is a significant
source of information for the average North Korean citizen; it is wired into most
residences and workplaces and carries news and commentary) (2006)
Television Broadcast Stations:
4 (includes Korean Central Television, Mansudae Television, Korean Educational and
Cultural Network, and Kaesŏng Television targeting
South Korea) (2003)
Internet Users:
N/A
Airports:
77 (2007)
Airports—With Paved Runways:
Total: 36
Over 3,047 m (1.89 mi): 2
2,438 to 3,047 m (1.51–1.89 mi): 22
1,524 to 2,437 m (0.95–1.51 mi): 8
914 to 1,523 m (0.57–0.95 mi): 1
Under 914 m (0.57 mi): 3 (2007)
Military Branches:
North Korean People’s Army: Ground Forces, Navy, Air Force; civil security forces
(2005)
Military Service Age and Obligation:
17 years of age (2004)
International Disputes:
China:
Risking arrest, imprisonment, and deportation, tens of
thousands of North Koreans cross into China to escape
famine, economic privation, and political oppression;
North Korea and China dispute the sovereignty of certain
islands in Yalu and Tumen rivers.
South Korea
Military Demarcation Line within the 4-km wide Demilitarized Zone has separated North
from South Korea since 1953; periodic incidents in the Yellow Sea with South Korea
which claims the Northern Limiting Line as a maritime boundary.
Japan:
North Korea supports South Korea in rejecting Japan’s claim to Liancourt Rocks (Tokdo/Take-shima).
Illicit Drugs:
For years, from the 1970s into the 2000s, citizens of the Democratic People's Republic of
(North) Korea (DPRK), many of them diplomatic employees of the government, were
apprehended abroad while trafficking in narcotics, including two in Turkey in December
2004; police investigations in Taiwan and Japan in recent years have linked North Korea
to large illicit shipments of heroin and methamphetamine, including an attempt by the
North Korean merchant ship Pong Su to deliver 150 kg of heroin to Australia in April
2003.
Geography
Geographic Regions and Topographic Features
Roughly 80% of North Korea consists of a complex mosaic of
mountains and upland areas, dissected by narrow river valleys.6 The
tallest peaks lie in the nation’s northern areas. In the far northeast are
the Hamgyŏng Mountains, whose highest point is Mount Kwanmo at
2,540 m (8,333 ft). To the west of Mount Kwanmo, straddling the
North Korean–Chinese border, lies the volcanic peak Mount Paektu,
North Korea’s highest point at 2,744 m (9,003 ft).7 Chon-ji (“Heaven
Lake”) lies near the top of Mount Paektu, within the central crater.
According to official North Korean accounts (although contradicted
by historical evidence), Dear Leader Kim Jung Il was born in a log
cabin on this famous peak, which is celebrated as the site of the
ancestral origin of the Korean people.8, 9
In central North Korea, the Kangnam Mountains run parallel to the nearby Amnok (Yalu)
River, whose shallow waters form much of the boundary between China and North Korea
in this region. East of the Kangnam Range are the Nangnim Mountains, which form a
natural divide between the streams of northeastern Korea and those of northwestern
Korea.10 Southeast of the Nangnim Mountains, the T’aebaek Mountains, generally lower
in altitude than the mountains to their north, parallel the Sea of Japan coastline and
extend across the border into South Korea.11 Within the T’aebaek Mountains near the
South Korean border is Mount Kǔmgang (“Diamond Mountain”), which is one of North
Korea’s very few foreign tourist attractions. (However, tours for South Koreans into the
area were suspended after a South Korean tourist was shot and killed in July 2008 for
allegedly trespassing on a North Korea military installation.)12,13
6
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. A Country Study: North Korea. “Chapter 2. The Society
and its Environment. The Physical Environment. Topography and Drainage.” June 1993.
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+kp0030)
7
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. “Country Profile: North Korea [p. 6].” July 2007.
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/North_Korea.pdf
8
Korea Computer Center in DPR Korea. Naenara. “Kim Jong Il’s Native Home in the Mt. Paektu Secret
Camp.” 2009. http://www.kcckp.net/en/tourism/attraction/attract-view.php?2+0
9
CNN.com. “Kim Jong Il: Playing a Poor Hand Skillfully.” 21 August 2003.
http://edition.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/asiapcf/east/06/13/bio.kim.jongil/
10
Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. “Nangnim Mountains.” 2009.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/402579/Nangnim-Mountains
11
Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. “T’aebaek Mountains.” 2009.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/580148/Taebaek-Mountains
12
Asia News Network. Korea Herald. Kim Moon-mi. “Hyundai Asan Seeks N Korean Tour Resumption.”
5 February 2009. http://www.asianewsnet.net/news.php?id=3787&sec=1
13
GlobalSecurity.org. Voice of America. Achin, Kurt. “North Korean Silence Creates Gaps in Tourist
Killing Probe.” 25 July 2008. http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/news/dprk/2008/dprk-080725voa01.htm
The lowest areas in North Korea are found in the western part of the country, where
many of the larger mountain rivers drain into the Yellow Sea. The most extensive of
these areas are the P’yŏngyang and Chaeryŏng Plains, which lie to the northeast and
southwest, respectively, of the mouth of the Taedong River. Coastal plains on North
Korea’s eastern coast along the Sea of Japan are extremely narrow because of the steep
mountain drop-off along the coast.
Climate
North Korea’s continental climate is characterized by
long, cold, dry winters that last from December through
March; short, hot, wet summers that are distinctly cooler
in the country’s northeastern section; and transitional
spring and fall seasons that are marked by mild
temperatures and moderate rainfall. In North Korea’s far
northern regions, over half of the year (200 days) is
marked by freezing temperatures; even during the
summer, the temperatures are not high enough to grow rice, the nation’s staple grain.14
Seasonal wind patterns determine climate during the winter and summer months. During
winter, dry, cold air sweeps into the Korean Peninsula from Siberia and Manchuria to the
north.15 In summer, moist air from the Pacific Ocean arrives via monsoonal winds
coming from the south and southeast. Typhoons, while rare, do occur on an average of at
least one per summer.16 In addition to causing the loss of many lives and producing
massive flooding, these storms can be disastrous to North Korean agricultural harvests,
thereby producing or intensifying famine conditions in the country.17, 18
The average precipitation in North Korea is 1,000 mm (39.4 in), although significant
variations occur between regions.19 For example, the cities of Wŏnsan and P’yŏngyang
are situated at essentially the same latitude and elevation, but Wŏnsan receives an
average of 1,342 mm (52.8 in) of precipitation per year, whereas P’yŏngyang’s total is
14
BBC Weather Centre. “North Korea.” 2009.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/country_guides/results.shtml?tt=TT002650
15
BBC Weather Centre. “North Korea.” 2009.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/country_guides/results.shtml?tt=TT002650
16
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. North Korea: A Country Study. “Chapter 2. The Society
and its Environment. The Physical Environment. Climate.” June 1993. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgibin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+kp0031)
17
BBC News. “World: Asia-Pacific Typhoon Destroys North Korean Harvest.” 9 August 1999.
http://212.58.226.17:8080/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/415081.stm
18
Cosmos Magazine. Jones, Hilary. “Satellite Raises Typhoon Death Toll.” 1 December 2006.
http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/news/891/satellite-raises-typhoon-death-toll
19
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. “North Korea: The Land: Climate.” 2009.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/322222/North-Korea
only 924 mm (36.4 in).20, 21 Both cities receive roughly 60% of their yearly precipitation
in the three-month period from July through September.
Average temperatures in North Korea generally decrease the further north one goes,
although elevation and proximity to the coast are modifying influences to this trend.
Higher elevation locations also see greater extremes between daily highs and lows.
Because of ocean currents and the mountain ranges that hug North Korea’s eastern coast,
winter temperatures there tend to be some 3º to 4ºC (5º to 7ºF) warmer than North
Korea’s western coast.
Rivers
North Korea’s two longest rivers form the greater part of
its northern boundary with China and Russia. The longest
of these two is the Amnok River (transliterated from
Chinese as “Yalu” River), which runs for 790 km (491 mi)
from its headwaters on Mount Paektu to its mouth in
Korea Bay, an arm of the Yellow Sea. Several
hydroelectric dams are sited on the river; the largest of
these is located at Sup’ung-nodongjagu, 56 km (35 mi)
upstream from Sinŭiju, the most populous North Korean city on the river. This dam
provides a large amount of the electricity for the northern part of North Korea.22
The Tuman River (transliterated from Chinese as “Tumen” River) also originates on the
slopes of Mount Paektu, where it flows first east-northeast, then north, before making a
turn to the southeast at its northern-most point. At the end of its 521 km (324 mi) journey,
it forms the 19-km-long (12 mi) border with Russia before emptying into the Sea of
Japan.23 Much of the Tuman River flows through mountainous terrain and is not
navigable. The Tuman is narrower and shallower than the Amnok, and for that reason is
the most commonly chosen border crossing for those North Koreans trying illegally to
enter China.24
North Korea’s third-longest river is the Taedong, which flows 397 km (245 mi) on a
southwestward path to Korea Bay on the Yellow Sea. This river is the most navigable of
Korea’s rivers, and important port facilities at the cities of Namp’o and Songnim are
20
BBC Weather Centre. “Average Weather Conditions: Wonsan, North Korea.” 2009.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/city_guides/results.shtml?tt=TT002660
21
BBC Weather Centre. “Average Weather Conditions: Pyongyang, North Korea.” 2009.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/city_guides/results.shtml?tt=TT002650
22
Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. “Yalu River.” 2009.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/651445/Yalu-River
23
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. North Korea: A Country Study. “Chapter 2. The Society
and Its Environment: The Physical Environment: Topography and Drainage.” June 1993.
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+kp0030)
24
National Geographic. O’Neill, Tom. “Escape From North Korea.” February 2009.
http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2009/02/north-korea/oneill-text/1
located along its lower reaches. Upstream from Songnim lies P’yŏngyang, the nation’s
capital and largest city.
Although it is not one of North Korea’s most economically important rivers, the Imjin
River remains well known as the site of one of the most critical battles of the Korean War.
The river forms in the T’aebaek Mountains and flows generally southward until shortly
after it crosses the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). For the remainder of its route, the Imjin
follows a southwestward path through South Korea that broadly parallels the DMZ, until
it flows into the Han River near its mouth. This point of confluence also marks the
western end of the DMZ.25
Population and Cities
City
Population Census 199326
Population Estimate 200927
P’yŏngyang
2,741,260
3,198,397
Namp’o
731,488
467,044
Hamhŭng-Hǔngnam
709,730
940,527
Ch’ŏngjin
582,480
329,382
Kaesŏng
334,433
351,503
Sinǔiju
326,011
285,903
Wŏnsan
300,148
340,174
25
Korean Tourism Organization. Seoul Magazine. Koehler, Robert. “The DMZ.” 2008.
http://english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/SI/SI_EN_3_6.jsp?cid=262156
26
CityPopulation.de. Brinkhoff, Thomas. “North Korea.” 9 August 2007.
http://www.citypopulation.de/KoreaNorth.html
27
World Gazeteer. “Korea (North): Largest Cities and Towns and Statistics of Their Population.” 2009.
http://www.worldgazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gcis&lng=en&des=wg&srt=npan&col=abcdefghinoq&msz=1500&geo=118
P’yŏngyang
North Korea’s capital of P’yŏngyang is one of the most ancient sites
of continuous human habitation on the Korean Peninsula. Since 108
B.C.E., there has been a historical record of villages or cities on or
near the city’s present-day site, and legend places its founding as early
as 1122 B.C.E. From 427 to 668 C.E., P’yŏngyang was the capital of
the Kokuryŏ Kingdom, the northern-most of the Three Kingdoms that
ruled the Korean Peninsula during this era. A later chapter of its
history saw P’yŏngyang serve as a secondary capital during the Koryŏ
(918–1392 C.E.) dynasty. A low point for the city came in 1895,
when the city suffered a plague after being devastated during the
Sino-Japanese War.28
During subsequent Japanese rule, however, P’yŏngyang was reborn as an industrial
center. After World War II, when the Japanese were forced out of Korea, the city once
again suffered tremendous damage from air raids during the Korean War. At this time, a
reported 250,000 bombs were dropped on the city by UN forces.29 With Soviet and
Chinese help, the city was rebuilt after the war ended in 1953.
Today, P’yŏngyang is not only North Korea’s governmental center, but it is also the
nation’s transportation hub. Roads and railways spread out from the city in all directions
toward the nation’s other regions and cities. In addition, P’yŏngyang’s Sunan
International Airport is the nation’s only port of entry for foreign visitors.30 Within the
city, an underground metro system with several ornately decorated stations, complete
with patriotic murals, transports citizens around the city in aging, Chinese and German
rail cars.31, 32
As North Korea’s central city, P’yŏngyang is also the nation’s cultural and educational
center. Numerous monuments, statues, and murals throughout the city celebrate the lives
of North Korea’s Great Leader (Kim Il Sung) and Dear Leader (Kim Jong Il), and
promote the ongoing North Korean Revolution. Among these is the 170-m-tall (560 ft)
28
Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. “P’yŏngyang.” 2009.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/484693/Pyongyang
29
Public Broadcasting System. “A State of Mind: North Korea and the Korean War: 1953–Present The
Aftermath.” 11 September 2003. http://www.pbs.org/wnet/wideangle/episodes/a-state-of-mind/north-koreaand-the-korean-war/1953-present-the-aftermath/1369/
30
Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. “P’yŏngyang.” 2009.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/484693/Pyongyang
31
PyongyangMetro.com. “The Pyongyang Metro: Photos.” 1998 http://www.pyongyangmetro.com/metrophotos.html
32
PyongyangMetro.com. “The Pyongyang Metro: Trains.” 1998 http://www.pyongyangmetro.com/metronews.html
Tower of the Juche Idea, commemorating the national philosophy as originally
articulated by Kim Il Sung and later reinterpreted by Kim Jong Il.33
Hamhŭng-Hǔngnam
Hamhŭng, North Korea’s second largest city, lies on the
left bank of the Sŏngch’ŏn River, just upstream from the
Sea of Japan (East Sea) port of Hŭngnam, which has been
a part of Hamhŭng since 1960. The city is an industrial
center, with textiles being a key component of this
activity. A sprawling factory complex along the
Sŏngch’ŏn River has, since 1961, been producing vinalon,
a durable, but stiff, shrinkage-prone, and dye-resistant
synthetic fiber. (It has also been called “juche fiber” because the primary raw materials
needed for vinalon production—limestone and anthracite coal—are locally available in
North Korea and thus do not require foreign imports.34) Other industries include
chemicals, metals, machinery manufacturing, oil refining, and food processing.35 Much
of Hamhŭng’s industrial infrastructure was damaged or destroyed during the Korean War
and was rebuilt after the war with East German assistance.36
During the 1990s, Hamhŭng suffered tremendously under the famine conditions that
gripped all of North Korea during this time.37 Conditions became so severe that a coup
against Kim Jong Il was reportedly plotted by the leaders of a local army unit, ultimately
resulting in the unit being disbanded and its officers purged.38
33
Korean Central News Agency. “Tower of Juche Idea.” 15 April 2002.
http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2002/200204/news04/15.htm
34
Rogue Regime: Kim Jong Il and the Looming Threat of North Korea. Becker, Jasper. “North Korea’s
Economic Collapse [p. 106].” 2006. Oxford, Engl: Oxford University Press.
http://books.google.com/books?id=zg_6pOlIoJ8C&dq=Rogue+Regime:+Kim+Jong+Il+and+the+Looming
+Threat+of+North+Korea&printsec=frontcover&source=bn&hl=en&ei=qDCkSaCiAZqqtQPLscS1Ag&sa
=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=result#PPA106,M1
35
Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. “Hamhŭng.” 2009.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/253344/Hamhung
36
895 Days That Changed the World: The Presidency of Gerald R. Ford. Mount, Graeme Stewart; and
Mark Gauthier. “Consequences of the Collapse: Korea [p. 76].” 2005. Montreal, Canada: Black Rose
Books.
http://books.google.com/books?id=VuLen052wtoC&dq=895+Days+That+Changed+the+World:+The+Pres
idency+of+Gerald+R.+Ford&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=TlQp0WEjmG&sig=NiS8ns1kgVrPc0
G7FUNxFUY1t6o&hl=en&ei=CDWkSb2sIYnKtQOtjJi0Ag&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result
37
United States Institute of Peace. Natsios. Andrew. “The Politics of Famine in North Korea [p. 10].” 2
August 1999. http://www.usip.org/pubs/specialreports/sr990802.pdf
38
The Environmental Dimension of Asian Security: Conflict and Cooperation Over Energy, Resources, and
Pollution. Economy, Elizabeth. “A Regional Environmental Security Complex in East Asia: The Reality
and the Potential [pp. 238–239].” 2007. Washington, DC: US Institute of Peace Press.
http://books.google.com/books?id=qVciKjS6C44C&dq=The+Environmental+Dimension+of+Asian+Secur
ity:+Conflict+and+Cooperation+Over+Energy,+Resources,+and+Pollution&printsec=frontcover&source=
Namp’o
Located in the estuary of the Taedong River is Namp’o,
North Korea’s largest port on the Yellow Sea (West Sea).
The city is located only 50 km (30 mi) southwest of
P’yŏngyang, and its port receives much of the oceanborne cargo that arrives on ships too large to proceed
further up the river to the capital city. The city’s
industrial base is centered around gold and copper
refining, glass-making, ship-building, and electrode
manufacturing.39 Salt-evaporation ponds and nearby apple groves also contribute to the
area’s industry.
One of the largest projects in North Korean history was the construction of the West Sea
Barrage (“the longest dam in the world”40) just west of Namp’o, which separates the
saltwater Yellow Sea (West Sea) from the freshwater Taedong River. Ships traveling to
and from Namp’o go though a lock system. One of the primary goals of this project was
to expand the amount of water available for irrigating existing farmland and reclaimed
tideland acreage.41
Kaesŏng
Of North Korea’s larger cities, Kaesŏng is situated closest
to the South Korean border. In fact, it actually lies south
of the 38th parallel, the original division line between
North and South Korea prior to the Korean War. Like
P’yŏngyang, Kaesŏng has a long history, including over
400 years in which it served as capital of the Koryŏ
dynasty (918–1392 C.E). During its period as the Koryŏ capital, Kaesŏng was known as
Songdu (“City of Pine”), so named because of the pine-covered Mount Songak that lies
immediately north of the city. Some historical structures and ruins from the Koryŏ era are
still visible in the city today.42
bl&ots=iXFwhjGuo7&sig=hSV_u3kdn6_I1GDYKwoIPHOgyVU&hl=en&ei=LzekSd7oBYmMsAPEjdmj
Ag&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=result
39
Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. “Namp’o.” 2009.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/402343/Nampo
40
North Korea: A Strange Socialist Fortress. Hy-sang Lee. “1980s: Frantic Drive for Power and Vigilence
for Survival; Six Gigantic Economic Projects [p. 133].” Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Publishing Group.
http://books.google.com/books?id=6Rx8Q_cxqvkC&pg=PA133&lpg=PA133&dq=West+Sea+Barrage&so
urce=bl&ots=Z1bB6357bJ&sig=Mh9hUhLNG1Qngs470b0aS2GN7H4&hl=en&ei=6DqkSYyWFpLQsAO
71ryeAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=7&ct=result#PPA133,M1
41
New York Times. Kristof, Nicholas D. “In North Korea, Dam Reflects ‘Great Leader’s’ State of Mind.”
5 July 1989.
http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DE6DC163BF936A35754C0A96F948260&sec=&spo
n=&pagewanted=all
42
VNC Asia Travel. “Kaesong.” No date. http://www.vnc.nl/items/steden/kaesong.php?id=289
Kaesŏng has long been a commercial center and has exported the medicinal herb ginseng
to China and other parts of Southeast Asia since ancient times.43 More recently, light
industrial activity commenced at the Kaesŏng Industrial Park in 2005, a joint North
Korean–South Korean economic project constructed about halfway between Kaesŏng and
the South Korean border. Nearly 90 South Korean firms in this industrial complex
employ over 37,000 North Korean workers, who earn an average of roughly USD 70 per
month, a high salary by North Korean standards.44 Only a very small amount of this
money goes to workers, however, as the North Korean government retains most of the
workers’ salaries.45
Ch’ŏngjin
Ch’ŏngjin, a northern ice-free port on the Sea of Japan (East Sea), was little more than a
small fishing village until its development as first a trading port, and later an industrial
center during the Japanese occupation of Korea. The economy of the modern city
continues to be centered around heavy industries, such as iron and steel mills, chemical
fibers, and coal-machinery manufacturing. However, several reports suggest that many of
these factories are either in serious decline or are no longer operating because of
shortages of fuel and raw materials, and outdated factory equipment that no longer works
and is difficult to repair.46, 47
Environmental Concerns
North Korea has a large number of environmental
concerns, although the current scope of these issues is
difficult to gauge owing to the lack of recent data. In a
2003 report prepared by a North Korean environmental
council in conjunction with the United Nations
Development and Environment Programs, several key
problem areas were identified.
43
Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. “Kaesŏng.” 2009.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/309518/Kaesong
44
Google News. Agence France Presse. “Number of NKoreans Increased at Seoul-Funded Estate.” 14
December 2008.
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gqu22GFuJkgu_M8GiOByWv2mer2A
45
North Korean Economy Watch. Yonhap. “Female N. Korean Worker Defected From Kaesong Complex:
Activist.” 10 December 2008. http://www.nkeconwatch.com/2008/12/10/female-n-korean-workerdefected-from-kaesong-complex-activist/
46
Los Angeles Times. Demick, Barbara. “Glimpses of a Hermit Nation.” 3 July 2005.
http://articles.latimes.com/2005/jul/03/world/fg-chongjin3
47
U.S. Geological Survey. 2006 Minerals Report. “North Korea: Iron and Steel [p. 18.2].” September 2007.
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2006/myb3-2006-kn.pdf
Deforestation
While the report noted that 74% of North Korea remained forested, most of these forests
are on remote, steep slopes. More accessible forest lands have suffered significant
degradation due to overharvesting for lumber and firewood, conversion to farmland,
wildfires, and insect destruction resulting from sustained drought conditions.48
Water Quality
Most major rivers in North Korea are significantly polluted, with the Taedong River
(which flows through P’yŏngyang) being perhaps the worst offender. The construction of
the West Sea Barrage, which effectively turned the mouth of the Taedong into a lake, has
had a particularly negative effect on river water quality, causing some of the industrial
pollutants from the Namp’o area to be transported upstream rather than flushed out into
the ocean.49, 50
Current sewage and industrial wastewater treatment facilities are inadequate—in number
and in operating quality—to handle the contaminants that are dumped into North Korean
rivers. Even the North Korean government, generally disinclined to publicize any of its
failings, has acknowledged the scope of the problem. In the 2003 national environmental
report, its representatives pledged “to introduce state-of-the-art science and technology in
wastewater and sewage treatment plants to improve purification processes.”
Air Quality
Coal is the primary fuel used in North Korea’s power plants and factories, as well as in its
households, resulting in high amounts of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide emissions
and acid rain. Projections show that North Korean coal consumption will expand rapidly
over the next decade, which will increase the country’s air pollution problems unless
remediating steps are taken
Soil Quality
Soil erosion resulting from deforestation-generated flooding is an ongoing problem in
North Korea. So, too, is an increasing level of acidification of soil, produced by overuse
of chemical fertilizers. As a result, the country’s stated goal of reaching self-sufficiency
in food production continues to be undercut by its losses of productive agricultural land.51
48
BBC New, International Version. Kirby, Alex. “North Korea’s Environment Crisis.” 27 August 2004.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3598966.stm
49
Hong Soon-jick. “Environmental Pollution in North Korea: Another South Korean Burden?” Summer
1999. http://www.ieas.or.kr/vol11_2/hongsoonjik.htm#a15
50
United Nations Environment Programme. DPR Korea: State of the Environment 2003. “3.2 Water
Quality Degradation [pp. 29–31].” 2003. http://www.unep.org/PDF/DPRK_SOE_Report.pdf
51
United Nations Environment Programme. DPR Korea: State of the Environment 2003. “3.2 Water
Quality Degradation [pp. 46–49].” 2003. http://www.unep.org/PDF/DPRK_SOE_Report.pdf
Natural Hazards
Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes do not pose major
threats to North Korea. Instead, the country’s most
devastating natural disasters involve precipitation
extremes, when North Korea either does not receive
enough rain or receives too much. During 1997, for
example, food shortages reached famine proportions
when summer rains failed to materialize until it was too
late for most field crops.52 The drought conditions that
year were preceded by two years in which heavy flooding generated by torrential rainfall
destroyed hundreds of thousands of crop acreage immediately prior to harvest.53 As a
result, from 1995 to 1998 an estimated 2.5 to 3 million people are thought to have died of
starvation.54, 55, 56 More recently, massive floods in August 2007 once again intensified
North Korea’s chronic food shortages, raising the concern of a new wave of famine
deaths.57, 58 Fortunately for the North Korean populace, the 2008 harvest was one of the
best in recent memory, forestalling another humanitarian disaster.59
Floods and landslides in North Korea are sometimes triggered when Pacific Ocean
typhoons strike the country. Most recently, in July 2006, the powerful super-typhoon
Bilis that struck mainland China brought an associated storm that generated near-record
rainfall totals in parts of North Korea. While the official North Korean death toll from the
floods and landslides resulting from this event was 549, an independent estimate based on
satellite images of landslide damage near the town of Yangdŏk placed the number of
deaths at “probably well over 10,000.”60, 61
52
U.S. Water News. “North Korea Says Drought Causing Widespread Damage.” August 1997.
http://www.uswaternews.com/archives/arcglobal/7norkor8.html
53
Center for International Disaster Information. “Korea (PRK): Floods [OFDA-1: 26-Aug-96].” 26 August
1996. http://cidi.org/disaster/96b/0008.html
54
United States Institute of Peace. Natsios, Andrew. “The Politics of Famine in North Korea [p. 6].” 2
August 1999. http://www.usip.org/pubs/specialreports/sr990802.pdf
55
BBC News. “Millions Dead From Starvation Says North Korean Defector.” 18 February 1998.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/57740.stm
56
BBC News. “North Korea ‘Loses 3 Million to Famine.’’ 17 February 1999.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/281132.stm
57
BBC News, International Version. “Flood-Hit N Korea ‘Faces Famine.’” 18 October 2007.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7051479.stm
58
Time. Schuman, Michael. “The Real Crisis in North Korea? Food.” 6 October 2008.
http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1847428,00.html?imw=Y&loomia_si=t0:a16:g2:r1:c0.376
027:b18547319&xid=Loomia
59
Asia Times. Lankov, Andrei. “North Korea Reaps a Rich Harvest.” 16 January 2009.
http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/KA16Dg01.html
60
AccuWeather.com. Andrews, Jim. “A New Week on the Subcontinent; East Asian Rains.” 17 July 2006.
http://www.accuweather.com/mt-newsblogs.asp?blog=andrews&partner=accuweather&pgUrl=/mtweb/content/andrews/archives/2006/07/post_1.
asp
History
Overview
North Korea’s history has been, until 1945, the history of Korea as a
whole. To be sure, the northern and southern parts of the Korean
Peninsula have, at various times in history, been parts of different
kingdoms. However, during most of the 10 centuries leading up to the
North Korea–South Korea split in 1945, much of Korea was unified
under single successive dynasties. Modern-day North Korean cities
such as Kaesŏng and P’yŏngyang played important governmental
roles during the early periods of this era, as did the present-day South
Korean capital of Seoul in more recent times. North Korea’s
proximity to Manchuria (today called Northeast China) has meant that
its cities have sometimes been within the border regions between the
Korean states of the south and the Manchurian tribal states of the north.
Origins
Humans have inhabited the Korean Peninsula since Paleolithic times, hundreds of
thousands of years ago. However, little is known of the earliest inhabitants. The earliest
pottery and tool artifacts from the Neolithic Era (c. 7000 B.C.E.) demonstrate the
existence of small settlements along rivers and coastal areas.62 Later pottery finds (c.
5000–1000 B.C.E.) show a characteristic pattern of diagonal lines, appearing to have
been made by a comb-like tool. Primitive reaping knives and stone axes indicate that rice
farming emerged during this time.63, 64
A Korean legend dates the founding of Korean civilization to the 3rd century B.C.E. In
this legend, Tan’gun, the offspring of a marriage between a god descended from the
heavens and a bear-turned-woman, was born on Mount Paektu, and in 2333 B.C.E.
became the first king of the Kochosŏn (“Old Chosŏn”). Another legend, now in historical
disfavor in Korea, has the Chinese sage Jizi (“Kija” in Korean) coming to Korea in the
10th or 11th century B.C.E. and founding the Kija Chosŏn dynasty.65 While neither story
has supporting historical evidence, the competing legends do reveal the nationalistic
tensions. The Korean historians’ view of their culture is that it was indigenously created,
but the Chinese historical stance is that the pre-Confucian Chinese cultural influences
61
The Guardian. Adam, David. “Death Toll in North Korea Typhoon Questioned.” 23 November 2006.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2006/nov/23/naturaldisasters.northkorea
62
Metropolitan Museum of New York. Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. “Korea, 8000–2000 B.C.”
October 2000. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/02/eak/ht02eak.htm
63
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. “Korea: Korea to c. 1400: The Dawn of History: The Stone Age.” 2009.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/693609/Korea
64
Metropolitan Museum of New York. Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. “Korea, 2000–1000 B.C.”
October 2000. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/03/eak/ht03eak.htm
65
Metropolitan Museum of New York. Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. “Korea, 8000–2000 B.C.”
October 2000. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/02/eak/ht02eak.htm
brought by Kija and his followers were essential elements for the development of Korean
laws and institutions.66, 67
Kochosŏn
Moving away from the shadowy history of legends to substantiated events, it is known
that by the 4th century B.C.E. a number of Bronze Age walled-town states had developed
along the Taedong River in northwestern Korea (modern-day North Korea) and the Liao
River in southern Manchuria. The federation of these states, also known as Kochosŏn,
lost all its territory in Manchuria to the neighboring north Chinese state of Yan during the
3rd century B.C.E. Somewhere between 194 and 180 B.C.E., a general named Wiman,
possibly of Chinese origin, gained control of Kochosŏn, beginning a brief period of
territorial expansion during the era known as the Wiman Chosŏn. However, by 108
B.C.E., Chinese Han Dynasty forces would sweep down from the north and take control
of the Korean Peninsula as far south as the Han River Valley in modern-day South Korea.
The Han Chinese would subsequently divide Wiman Chosŏn into four commanderies
(local administrative units). The most important of these commanderies was Lelang
(Nangnang in Korean), whose capital was located near present-day P’yŏngyang.68 Over
time, the other commanderies were either abandoned or merged into Lelang.
Paekche, Kaya, and Silla
South of the Han River, a number of villages grouped
themselves into three loose federations, collectively
known as the Samhan. They consisted of Pyŏnhan in the
south-central region, Mahan to the southwest, and
Chinhan in the southeast. The Samhan paid tribute to the
Lelang commandery and traded iron with their Chinese
neighboring states.69 Over the course of three or four
centuries, the Samhan states would come to be dominated
by, and eventually absorbed into, three more centralized states: Paekche, Kaya, and Silla.
The Paekche Kingdom conquered the Mahan territories and eventually expanded
northward into the area near the present-day South Korean city of Seoul. The Kaya
Federation evolved out of the earlier Pyŏnhan confederacy and thrived for a time owing
to its advanced iron industry and extensive sea trade. Ultimately, however, Kaya would
66
Harvard Asia Quarterly, Vol X, No. 2. Mansourov, Alexandre Y. “Will Flowers Bloom Without
Fragrance? Korean-Chinese Relations.” Spring 2006. http://www.asiaquarterly.com/content/view/183/40/
67
Constructing “Korean” Origins: A Critical Review of Archaeology, Historiography, and Racial Myth in
Korean State-Formation Theories. Pai, Hyung Il. “Korean State Formation Theories: A Critical Review [pp.
117–118].” July 2000. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard Asia University Press.
68
Metropolitan Museum of New York. Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. “Korea, 1000 B.C.–1 A. D.”
October 2000. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/04/eak/ht04eak.htm
69
Constructing “Korean” Origins: A Critical Review of Archaeology, Historiography, and Racial Myth in
Korean State-Formation Theories. Pai, Hyung Il. “The Lelang Interaction Sphere in Korean History [p.
231].” July 2000. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard Asia University Press.
be conquered and divided up by its more powerful neighbors Paekche and Silla in the 6th
century C.E.70 The Silla Kingdom unified later than either Paekche or Kaya,
consolidating and expanding the earlier Chinhan federation within a hereditary monarchy
established in the 4th century.71
Koguryŏ and the Three Kingdoms
North of the Korean Peninsula, the powerful Koguryŏ
Kingdom began to emerge around the 2nd century C.E.72
By 313, Koguryŏ forces had conquered a large portion of
Manchuria to the north and had taken hold of Lelang to
the south, placing them adjacent to the lands of the
Paekche Kingdom. For the next three and a half centuries,
Koguryŏ, Paekche, and Silla would battle for supremacy
on the Korean Peninsula, an era known as the Period of
the Three Kingdoms. Several times Silla and Paekche formed temporary alliances against
militarily stronger Koguryŏ, interrupted by periods in which they fought against each
other.
Chinese forces of the Sui and Tang dynasties also took part in these ongoing sequences of
battles as well, waging attacks against both Koguryŏ and Paekche at various points of
time. Koguryŏ, in particular, was able to win several spectacular victories against the
Chinese forces, but Koguryŏ found itself weakened by these battles and was routed by
Silla forces in 668, 8 years after Paekche had fallen in a combined attack by the Silla and
Tang armies. After defeating Koguryŏ, Silla then turned its military attention toward its
ally of convenience—the Tang Dynasty. By 676, Silla’s armies had driven Tang forces
north of the Taedong River, which flows through P’yŏngyang. This marked the first time
in history that all of the Korean Peninsula was unified under a single dynasty.73
Impacts of the Three Kingdom Era
While the Period of the Three Kingdoms is primarily thought of as a period of persistent
warfare, it was also a period of remarkable political and societal changes on the Korean
Peninsula. Powerful aristocracies developed around tribal chiefs who came to the capitals
of the kingdoms. The aristocrats, in turn, were divided into several classes of differing
powers and privileges based on their societal position. In Silla, for example, the kolp’um
70
Gayasa.net. Kim, Tae-sik. “A History of the Gaya Kingdoms: A Brief Survey.” No date.
http://www.gayasa.net/gaya/English/History/download/gekwan.doc
71
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Cumings, Bruce G. A Country Study: North Korea.
“Chapter 1 - Historical Setting: The Origins of the Korean Nation. The Period of the Three Kingdoms.”
Andrea Matles Savada, Ed. 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+kp0015)
72
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. “Koguryŏ.” 2009.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/321038/Koguryo
73
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Cumings, Bruce G. A Country Study: North Korea.
“Chapter 1 - Historical Setting. The Origins of the Korean Nation. The Period of the Three Kingdoms.”
Andrea Matles Savada, Ed. 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+kp0015)
(“bone rank”) system dictated political power based on bloodlines. Only those who could
trace their paternal descendancy from the Kim and Pak clans could hope to enter the
ruling elite.74
Prior to the Period of the Three Kingdoms, Shamanism
was the native religion practiced within the Korean
Peninsula. In 372, a Chinese monk introduced Buddhism
to the Koguryŏ royalty, and it was quickly embraced as
the state religion, blending easily with Shamanistic
traditions and beliefs. Twelve years later, it also became
the state religion of Paekche after another Chinese monk
brought it to the royal court there. The leaders of Silla
would prove more resistant to Buddhist teachings, but by 527 Buddhism had also been
embraced by that kingdom’s aristocratic hierarchy.75
Unified Silla Dynasty and Parhae
While the Silla Dynasty unified the southern two thirds of Korea for over 250 years, the
area north of the Taedong River was dominated by Parhae, a new kingdom that quickly
filled the vacuum left by the retreating Tang and Koguryŏ armies. Originally known as
the Chin Kingdom, Parhae was founded in 698 by Tae Cho-yong, a former Koguryŏ
general.76 Most of this kingdom lay in Manchuria and was populated by the local Malgal
people (ancestors of the Manchu) and exiled aristocrats from Koguryŏ. By 720, however,
Parhae forces had moved southward, successfully conquering the tribes of modern-day
northwest North Korea.77 These actions led Silla to build a “wall” of fortifications in 721
to guard against further southward advances of Parhae forces. This northern boundary
followed a path stretching along the Taedong River in the west to Wŏnsan Bay in the
east—making P’yŏngyang a border outpost.78
Chinese Influences
Although Silla and Parhae were frequently at political odds with each other, each paid
tribute to Tang China and remained heavily influenced by Tang Chinese culture.79, 80
74
The History of Korea. Kim, Djun Kil. “3. Korean Identity [p. 46].” 2005. Westport, Conn: Greenwood
Press.
75
Buddhism Today. Korean Buddhism Magazine. “Buddhism in Korea.” 1997.
http://www.buddhismtoday.com/english/world/country/027-korea.htm
76
Korean History Project. Caraway, Bill. “Ch 3 – Paekche and Silla: Unified Silla.” c. 1996–2009.
http://www.koreanhistoryproject.org/Ket/C03/E0304.htm
77
Korean History Project. Caraway, Bill. “Ch 3 – Paekche and Silla: Unified Silla.” c. 1996–2009.
http://www.koreanhistoryproject.org/Ket/C03/E0304.htm
78
A Concise History of Korea: From the Neolithic Period Through the Nineteenth Century. Seth, Michael J.
“Chapter 3. United Silla [p. 66].” 2006. Lanham, Maryland: Rowan and Littlefield Publishers.
79
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Cumings, Bruce G. A Country Study: North Korea.
“Chapter 1 - Historical Setting: The Origins of the Korean Nation: Korea Under Silla.” Andrea Matles
Savada, Ed. 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+kp0016)
Both states sent numerous students, administrators, and monks to China for study. The
experiences and training of these Parhae and Silla visitors to China were later blended
into the indigenous culture upon their return to their home states.81 Trade between China
and Silla flourished, and Silla’s gold and silver items became highly sought after in China.
Ginseng and textiles were also exported to China, in exchange for Chinese books, tea,
swords, and numerous ceremonial items.82
Period of the Later Three Kingdoms
Silla’s central governmental authority began to decline in the last half
of the 8th century, as local warlords began to emerge and banditry
spread across the countryside. By the beginning of the 10th century,
two warlords, Kyŏnhwŏn and Kungye, controlled most of Silla except
for the far southeastern region near the capital of Kyŏngju. Kyŏnhwŏn
and Kungye declared themselves kings of the region that they
controlled, using the historic names of Paekche and Koguryŏ,
respectively, for their kingdoms. Historians now refer to this time as
the Period of the Later Three Kingdoms, to distinguish it from the
period of the earlier incarnations of the Parhae and Koguryŏ
kingdoms. During their rule, the Korean Peninsula was subjected to
over three decades of open warfare between the three powers.
In 918, Kungye was removed by one of his generals, Wang Kŏn, who shortened the name
of the kingdom from “Koguryŏ” to “Koryŏ,” which is the origin of the English word
“Korea.”83, 84 Wang Kŏn’s forces were ultimately joined by the troops of Kyŏnhwŏn, who
himself had been removed as the leader of Parhae by his oldest son. With further military
assistance from Parhae refugees (whose kingdom had been conquered by the Mongol
Khitan tribes in 926), Wang Kŏn’s army defeated Paekche in 936 after having earlier
obtained Silla’s surrender. With this victory, the Korean Peninsula once again came
under unified rule, this time as the Koryŏ kingdom under the Wang Dynasty.
Koryŏ
Wang Kŏn proved to be as successful a unifier as he was a military leader. The allegiance
of Parhae, Silla, and Paekche leaders was carefully cultivated, often through inter-
80
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. “Parhae.” 2009.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/443541/Parhae
81
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Cumings, Bruce G. A Country Study: North Korea .
“Chapter 1 - Historical Setting: The Origins of the Korean Nation: Korea Under Silla.” Andrea Matles
Savada, Ed. 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+kp0016)
82
A Concise History of Korea: From the Neolithic Period Through the Nineteenth Century. Seth, Michael J.
“3. United Silla [p. 64–65].” 2006. Lanham, Maryland: Rowan and Littlefield Publishers.
83
The History of Korea. Kim, Djun Kil. “4. Medieval Korea [p. 53].” 2005. Westport, Conn: Greenwood
Press.
84
A Concise History of Korea: From the Neolithic Period Through the Nineteenth Century. Seth, Michael J.
“4. Koryŏ [p. 75].” 2006. Lanham, Maryland: Rowan and Littlefield Publishers.
marriage or bestowment of royal surnames and land grants.85, 86 To further establish the
authenticity of his leadership, Wang bestowed on himself the title Ch’ŏnsu (“mandate
from heaven”), a philosophy of heaven-granted rule that the Chinese had long used to
judge the legitimacy of their rulers.
Under Wang, the capital of the Koryŏ kingdom became Kaegyŏng
(modern-day Kaesŏng), located much nearer the center of the
kingdom than had been the case with Silla’s capital of Kyŏngju.
P’yŏngyang, which had declined during the Unified Silla era, became
a secondary capital, with the name of Sŏgyŏng (“Western Capital”).
From there, Koryŏ would continue to extend its authority northward,
ultimately to the Yalu (Amnok) River, the modern-day border
between China and North Korea.87 After several attacks from their
northern neighbor, the Khitan Liao Dynasty, a northern wall with
fortifications was constructed between 1033 and 1044.88
Mongol Invasions
Ultimately, however, walls and forts were not enough to fend off the
threat from the north. In 1231, Mongol forces carried out the first of
numerous invasions of Koryŏ. A year later, the Koryŏ government,
which since 1170 had been effectively ruled by military leaders who
appointed powerless monarchs, was forced to retreat to Kanghwa
Island, south of Kaegyŏng in the mouth of the Han River. Attacks by
sea were not a Mongol expertise, and the Koryŏ government-in-exile
at Kanghwa Island was able to successfully resist the Mongol forces
for 40 years. However, much of the mainland part of Koryŏ was laid
waste during the Mongol invasions.89
Koryŏ’s military rulers were overthrown in 1258 and a peace agreement was concluded
with the Mongols, under which the Koryŏ kings were required to intermarry with Yuan
princesses and Koryŏ effectively became a vassal state of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty.
Koryŏ military leaders revolted against the Mongol-supported monarchy in 1269, inviting
85
The History of Korea. Kim, Djun Kil. “4. Medieval Korea [p. 54].” 2005. Westport, Conn: Greenwood
Press.
86
The Koreas: A Global Studies Handbook. Commor, Mary E. “Geography and History: The Koryo
Dynasty, 918-1392 [p. 16].” 2002. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO.
87
North Korea in Pictures. Behnke, Alison. “History and Government: The Koryo Kingdom.” 2004.
Lerner Publishing Group.
88
A Concise History of Korea: From the Neolithic Period Through the Nineteenth Century. Seth, Michael J.
“4. Koryŏ [p. 84].” 2006. Lanham, Maryland: Rowan and Littlefield Publishers.
89
The History of Korea. Kim, Djun Kil. “4. Medieval Korea [p. 63–65].” 2005. Westport, Conn:
Greenwood Press.
further Mongol military intervention.90 By 1273 the last vestiges of Koryŏ military
resistance against the Mongols had been overcome.91, 92
The Demise of Koryŏ
In the 1350s, violent uprisings began in central and southern China that eventually led to
the Mongol Yuan Dynasty being forced to flee northward to Mongolia from their capital
of Dadu (modern-day Beijing) in 1368. The successor Ming Dynasty continued to battle
Yuan forces to the north, contributing to a series of political and military events that
within a few decades would usher in Korea’s longest-lasting dynasty. As Ming and Yuan
forces battled each other in Manchuria, pro-Yuan and pro-Ming factions in Koryŏ also
contested for power. Meanwhile, the Koryŏ countryside was twice overrun by Chinese
bandits, and southern coastal cities were raided by
Japanese pirates.93
In 1388, the Koryŏ military leader, General Ch’oe Yŏng,
launched a military attack against Ming forces in
Manchuria. One of his deputies, Yi Sŏng-gye, was given
command of some of the expeditionary forces. However,
after reaching the Yalu (Amnok) River, Yi turned his
forces around and returned to Kaegyŏng, where he killed
Ch’oe Yong and then deposed the Koryŏ monarch of the
time, King U. Four years later, after consolidating his power base within the
governmental administration, Yi sent the last Koryŏ king into exile and proclaimed
himself king, thereby establishing the Yi Dynasty. After consulting with the Chinese
Ming royal court, Yi changed the name of the Koryŏ state to Chosŏn, a historical
reference to the legendary Kochosŏn kingdoms founded by Tan’gun and later the Chinese
sage-king Kija.94 Hanyang (modern-day Seoul) was chosen to be the new capital city.
90
A Concise History of Korea: From the Neolithic Period Through the Nineteenth Century. Seth, Michael J.
“5. Military Rulers and Mongol Leaders [p. 107].” 2006. Lanham, Maryland: Rowan and Littlefield
Publishers.
91
The History of Korea. Kim, Djun Kil. “4. Medieval Korea [p. 65–66].” 2005. Westport, Conn:
Greenwood Press.
92
A Concise History of Korea: From the Neolithic Period Through the Nineteenth Century. Seth, Michael J.
“5. Military Rulers and Mongol Leaders [p. 107].” 2006. Lanham, Maryland: Rowan and Littlefield
Publishers.
93
A Concise History of Korea: From the Neolithic Period Through the Nineteenth Century. Seth, Michael J.
“5. Military Rulers and Mongol Leaders [p. 112].” 2006. Lanham, Maryland: Rowan and Littlefield
Publishers.
94
The History of Korea. Kim, Djun Kil. “5. Korean Tradition [p. 72].” 2005. Westport, Conn: Greenwood
Press.
Early Chosŏn
During the early years of the Chosŏn, several substantive transformations were carried
out in Korean society. Neo-Confucianism, a rationalist philosophy that expounded rules
for governance and societal behavior based on the “moral principles that governed the
universe,” became dominant in academic study.95 Buddhism, on the
other hand, fell into official disfavor, in part because of the close
association of its priests with the hereditary aristocracy of the Koryŏ
period.96 As part of overall land reform, the large holdings of the
Buddhist temples were confiscated by the state. A Rank Land Law
was also enacted, which bolstered the government’s financial status
by ensuring that a greater percentage of land use taxes were deposited
in the state coffers.97 Chosŏn land reform policies, however, did not
result in the abolition or even reduction of private land ownership.
Rather, the reform policies further consolidated land resources to the
yangban, a class of civil and military officials who were required to
pass civil service examinations demonstrating their knowledge of the Confucian texts and
their neo-Confucian interpretations.98 Under the Rank Land Law, much of the privately
held land in the region around the capital became owned by the yangban.99 The yangban
also accumulated wealth through slave ownership, a practice that was a significant part of
Korean society until its abolition in 1894.100
King Sejong
A high point of the early Chosŏn period was the reign of
King Sejong (1418–1450). This was a time of political
stability and economic prosperity, highlighted by
numerous cultural and scientific achievements. During
this time, the first Korean alphabet, han’gul, was
developed; prior to its introduction, the Korean language
could be written only by using Chinese characters (hanja),
a difficult process for most people. In addition, during
95
A Concise History of Korea: From the Neolithic Period Through the Nineteenth Century. Seth, Michael J.
“6. The Neo-Confucian Revolution and the Chosŏn State [p. 125].” 2006. Lanham, Maryland: Rowan and
Littlefield Publishers.
96
The History of Korea. Kim, Djun Kil. “5. Korean Tradition [p. 71].” 2005. Westport, Conn: Greenwood
Press.
97
The Origins of the Chosŏn Dynasty. Duncan, John B. “Reform and Dynastic Change [p. 209].” 2000.
Seattle: University of Washington Press.
98
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. South Korea: A Country Study. Seekins, Donald M.
“The Society and Its Environment: Social Structure and Values: Traditional Social Structure.” June 1990.
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+kr0063)
99
The Origins of the Chosŏn Dynasty. Duncan, John B. “Reform and Dynastic Change [p. 206–210].” 2000.
Seattle: University of Washington Press.
100
A Concise History of Korea: From the Neolithic Period Through the Nineteenth Century. Seth, Michael
J. “7. Chosŏn Society [p. 161].” 2006. Lanham, Maryland: Rowan and Littlefield Publishers.
Sejong’s time on the throne, the state’s northern border, largely defined by the Yalu
(Amnok) and Tumen (Tuman) Rivers, became fixed, and the borderlands were colonized
and militarily reinforced to ensure that they would be respected. This border continues to
this day as the boundary between North Korea and its neighbors: China and Russia.101
The Imjin War
In 1592, Japanese military leader Toyotomi Hideyoshi, having recently unified Japan,
launched an invasion of Korea as part of a larger goal of conquering China. The kingdom
was quickly overrun by Japanese forces, as the Chosŏn royal court fled the capital and
traveled to the Chinese border near the mouth of the Yalu (Amnok) River. While peasant
armies led by yangban leaders fought a guerilla war against the Japanese, the Japanese
navy was dealt significant defeats by Admiral Yi Sun-sin, who commanded a fleet of the
world’s first armor-plated ships, known as kobuksŏn (“turtle ships”) because of their
distinctive appearance.102 The war eventually stalemated after Yi’s naval forces and the
Chinese Ming Dynasty army forced the Japanese army to the southeastern tip of the
Korean Peninsula. A second unsuccessful Japanese military invasion in 1597, again
thwarted by Yi’s heavily outnumbered fleet, eventually led to the Japanese withdrawal
from the peninsula.103
The Imjin War, as this conflict came to be known, left much of Korea devastated by
Japanese “scorched-earth” tactics. It also created a lingering resentment and fear of the
Japanese that would be re-fueled over 300 years later by Japanese colonization of the
Korean Peninsula.104
The Manchus
As Korea recovered from the Imjin War, the Manchus, a
Jurchen tribal group from the north, began their assaults
on Ming China, which would ultimately result in the
Manchu’s Qing becoming the next Chinese dynasty. The
pro-Ming Chosŏn royal court found itself on the losing
side of this struggle for control of China, and as a result,
Korea was invaded by Manchu forces in both 1627 and
1636. In the second invasion, the Chosŏn king was
101
The History of Korea. Kim, Djun Kil. “5. Korean Tradition [pp. 75–76].” 2005. Westport, Conn:
Greenwood Press.
102
A Concise History of Korea: From the Neolithic Period Through the Nineteenth Century. Seth, Michael
J. “6. The Neo-Confucian Revolution and the Chosŏn State [p. 140–141].” 2006. Lanham, Maryland:
Rowan and Littlefield Publishers.
103
The History of Korea. Kim, Djun Kil. “5. Korean Tradition [pp. 82–83].” 2005. Westport, Conn:
Greenwood Press.
104
A Concise History of Korea: From the Neolithic Period Through the Nineteenth Century. Seth, Michael
J. “6. The Neo-Confucian Revolution and the Chosŏn State [p. 141–142].” 2006. Lanham, Maryland:
Rowan and Littlefield Publishers.
captured at his refuge on Kanghwa Island and the Chosŏn kingdom was made a tributary
state of Qing China.105 As with the Japanese, the Koreans viewed the Manchus as
barbarians. While outwardly maintaining loyalty to the Qing Dynasty over the succeeding
centuries, Korean resentment against Qing rule was never far beneath the surface.106, 107
Isolation
Following the Manchu invasions, Korea increasingly isolated itself from the rest of the
world (as did many of its neighbors in East Asia during this time). Korea, however,
having suffered through invasions by Manchus, Mongols, and Japanese, took probably
the most extreme measures to keep itself apart from the outside world.108 For this reason,
some Westerners during the 19th century referred to the Chosŏn Dynasty as the “hermit
kingdom.”109 In truth, however, outside influences, including Christianity, did enter the
peninsula, often via Korean envoys returning from tributary and diplomatic missions to
the Chinese capital of Beijing, where Jesuit scholars were in residence.110 In 1785,
Catholicism was declared to be heretical to Confucian doctrine by the Chosŏn royal court,
resulting in the execution of 300 converts in 1801.111
Confrontation
In 1864, Yi Ha-ŭng, father of the 11-year-old King
Kojong, took control of Chosŏn as Taewŏn’gun (“Grand
Prince”) until his son came of age. During the next 10
years, he continued the fight to suppress outside
influences. In 1866, nine French Jesuit priests that had
smuggled themselves onto the peninsula were executed,
105
A Concise History of Korea: From the Neolithic Period Through the Nineteenth Century. Seth, Michael
J. “6. The Neo-Confucian Revolution and the Chosŏn State [p. 141–142].” 2006. Lanham, Maryland:
Rowan and Littlefield Publishers.
106
A Concise History of Korea: From the Neolithic Period Through the Nineteenth Century. Seth, Michael
J. “6. The Neo-Confucian Revolution and the Chosŏn State [p. 143].” 2006. Lanham, Maryland: Rowan
and Littlefield Publishers.
107
The Koreas: A Global Studies Handbook. Commor, Mary E. “Geography and History: The Choson
Dynasty (1392-1910) [p. 26].” 2002. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO.
108
A Concise History of Korea: From the Neolithic Period Through the Nineteenth Century. Seth, Michael
J. “9. Korea in the Nineteenth Century [pp. 211–212].” 2006. Lanham, Maryland: Rowan and Littlefield
Publishers.
109
A Concise History of Korea: From the Neolithic Period Through the Nineteenth Century. Seth, Michael
J. “9. Korea in the Nineteenth Century [pp. 211–212].” 2006. Lanham, Maryland: Rowan and Littlefield
Publishers.
110
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. “Korea: Korea Since c. 1400: The Chosŏn (Yi) Dynasty: The
Introduction of Roman Catholicism.” 2009. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/693609/Korea
111
The History of Korea. Kim, Djun Kil. “6. Modernization [p. 101].” 2005. Westport, Conn: Greenwood
Press.
as were thousands of Korean converts to Catholicism, leading to a brief invasion of
Kanghwa Island by a fleet of French warships.112
That same year, the merchant ship USS General Sherman, seeking trade and armed with
cannons, sailed up the Taedong River to P’yŏngyang, defying the Chosŏn ban on foreign
vessels. The ship found itself beached after the river’s abnormally high waters receded;
thereafter, accounts differ on what happened next and who bore responsibility for the
sequence of events. The end result was that the ship was burned and the entire crew
killed.113 Five years later, five U.S. warships launched a punitive attack on Kanghwa
Island, but like the earlier French expedition, the U.S. forces left after encountering
strong resistance.114
Foreign Influence
France and the U.S., however, were not the only nations
seeking access to, and influence over, Korea. Soon after
young King Kojong finally took control of the throne in
1874, the Japanese initiated their own attack on Kanghwa
Island after their trade entreaties were denied. This
military intimidation led to a treaty in 1876, giving the
Japanese commercial access to Korean ports. There soon
followed a number of similar treaties between Korea and
the United States, Britain, Russia, and other countries. These pacts were encouraged by
the Chinese, who saw the Western powers as an effective deterrent against the Japanese
gaining too much influence in Korea.115 Importantly, the treaties with the Western nations
explicitly acknowledged Korea’s tributary status with China.116
The Western treaties, however, did not put an end to the Japanese–Chinese rivalry over
Korea. In 1894, a rebellion by members of the Tonghak religious movement (a group that
rejected the Neo-Confucian doctrine that had long characterized Korean societal
organization) led to Japanese and Chinese troops being sent into Korea. The resulting
Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895 ended quickly in Japanese victory.117 After the war,
112
The History of Korea. Kim, Djun Kil. “6. Modernization [p. 103].” 2005. Westport, Conn: Greenwood
Press.
113
HomeofHeroes.com. Sterner, C. Douglas. “The Hermit Kingdom and the General Sherman Incident.”
2008. http://www.homeofheroes.com/wallofhonor/korea1871/2_hermit.html
114
A Concise History of Korea: From the Neolithic Period Through the Nineteenth Century. Seth, Michael
J. “9. Korea in the Nineteenth Century [pp. 222].” 2006. Lanham, Maryland: Rowan and Littlefield
Publishers.
115
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Cumings, Bruce G. A Country Study: North Korea.
“Historical Setting: Korea in the Nineteenth-Century World Order.” Andrea Matles Savada, Ed. June 1993.
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+kp0020)
116
The History of Korea. Kim, Djun Kil. “6. Modernization [pp. 106–107].” 2005. Westport, Conn:
Greenwood Press.
117
The History of Korea. Kim, Djun Kil. “6. Modernization [pp. 110–111].” 2005. Westport, Conn:
Greenwood Press.
Japan forced China to accept Korea’s independence, although in practice this meant
simply that Korea was now within Japan’s sphere of influence, rather than China’s.
Numerous internal reforms were passed under Japanese pressure, including the abolition
of slavery, the end of the yangban civil service system, and the introduction of a modern
judicial system.
The End of Chosŏn
Near the end of the 19th century, King Kojong tried to reassert his
royal authority and put a halt to the reform efforts. Fearing Japanese
plots against him, he aligned himself with Russia, and even ruled
Korea for a year while in refuge at the Russian legation in the capital.
He later re-emerged as self-proclaimed emperor of Taehan (“Great
Han”), but his last years of rule were dominated by the colonial
maneuverings of Japan and Russia. War broke out between these two
powers in 1904, and Japan’s decisive victory over the Russian Baltic
fleet at the Battle of Tsushima Strait in May 1905 led Russia to sue
for peace shortly thereafter.118 In the Portsmouth peace treaty that
concluded the Russo-Japanese War, Russia conceded Japan’s
territorial rights in Korea. With both China and Russia now out of the picture—and the
U.S. having negotiated a secret agreement to leave Japan alone in Korea in return for
Japanese non-interference in the Philippines—Korea’s future status as a Japanese colony
was rendered inevitable.119, 120
Japanese Colonization
Japan annexed Korea in 1910, shortly after Ito Hirobumi (the former
Japanese Prime Minister who had only recently resigned as ResidentGeneral of Korea) was assassinated in Manchuria by a Korean
resistance fighter.121 The next 35 years would harden Korean feelings
toward their colonial overlords, and remnants of this bitterness still
exist in Korea to this day.122 Japanese rule was brutally oppressive
during the early years after Korean annexation, but Western powers
such as the U.S., Britain, and France were preoccupied by World War
I after 1914 and were not inclined to reproach their Asian ally,
118
History.com. “This Day in History: The Battle of Tsushima Strait.” 2008. http://www.history.com/thisday-in-history.do?action=Article&id=5039
119
The Koreas: A Global Studies Handbook. Commor, Mary E. “Geography and History: The Opening of
Korea, Attempts at Reform, and National Peril [p. 35].” 2002. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO.
120
The History of Korea. Kim, Djun Kil. “7. Japanese Dominion [pp. 120–121].” 2005. Westport, Conn:
Greenwood Press.
121
The History of Korea. Kim, Djun Kil. “7. Japanese Dominion [pp. 124–25].” 2005. Westport, Conn:
Greenwood Press.
122
Council on Foreign Relations. Pan, Esther. “Japan’s Relationship With South Korea.” 27 October 2005.
http://www.cfr.org/publication/9108/japans_relationship_with_south_korea.html
Japan.123, 124
After the war ended, nationwide demonstrations swept across Korea, initiated by a rally
in Seoul in which a Korean Declaration of Independence signed by 33 religious leaders
was recited.125 While the protests failed to produce Korean independence, they did help
bring about nominally less militaristic rule in Korea and some reforms. Tight censorship
controls were loosened, and educational opportunities for Koreans were increased.126
World War II
In the early 1930s, Japan’s government became
increasingly dominated by its military. In 1931,
Manchuria was seized by Japanese forces and a puppet
state was created. Korea became a logistical base for the
Manchurian operation, which in 1937 evolved into the
second Sino-Japanese War. During this period of
Japanese occupation, repressive measures were instituted
to assimilate Koreans into Japanese culture. Koreans
were required to adopt Japanese surnames, and all schools were directed to use Japanese
for instruction.127 Worship at Japanese-built Shinto shrines became mandatory.128
After Japan joined the Axis powers and brought the United States into World War II with
its surprise attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, many Koreans were mobilized into
either forced military conscription or compulsory labor in mines and factories. Korean
resistance fighters were forced to flee the Korean Peninsula and neighboring Manchuria.
One of the younger military commanders of these groups was Kim Sŏngju, a Communist
who took the nom de guerre Kim Il Sung before he was forced to retreat to a training
camp near the southeast Soviet city of Khabarovsk in January 1941.129 According to a
Soviet military official of this time—who groomed Kim for a future leadership
123
The Koreas: A Global Studies Handbook. Commor, Mary E. “Geography and History: The Colonial
Period (1910-1945) [p. 38].” 2002. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO.
124
The History of Korea. Kim, Djun Kil. “7. Japanese Dominion [p. 130].” 2005. Westport, Conn:
Greenwood Press.
125
The History of Korea. Kim, Djun Kil. “7. Japanese Dominion [pp. 126–130].” 2005. Westport, Conn:
Greenwood Press.
126
The History of Korea. Kim, Djun Kil. “7. Japanese Dominion [pp. 130–131].” 2005. Westport, Conn:
Greenwood Press.
127
The Koreas: A Global Studies Handbook. Commor, Mary E. “Geography and History: The Colonial
Period (1910-1945) [p. 41].” 2002. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO.
128
Sources of Japanese Tradition: 1600 to 2000. DeBary, William Theodore and others. “Chapter 41.
Nationalism and Pan-Asianism. [p. 797].” 2005. New York: Columbia University Press.
129
The History of Korea. Kim, Djun Kil. “7. Japanese Dominion [pp. 135–136].” 2005. Westport, Conn:
Greenwood Press.
position—Kim took the name of his battalion’s former commander, a well-respected
Korean guerilla fighter who had been killed in action.130
Formation of North Korea
After the second atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki on 9 August 1945, followed a
few days later by Japanese surrender, the Soviet Union agreed to the U.S. proposal that
the post-war occupation of the Korean Peninsula be divided between the U.S. and the
Soviet Union, with the 38th parallel forming the demarcation line.131 To the north, Kim Il
Sung was anointed leader of the new interim government by the Soviet Union, and he
quickly became head of the North Korean Bureau Branch of the Korean Communist
Party—which was totally independent from the Korean Communist Party branch south of
the 38th parallel.132
By 1948, most thoughts about re-unifying Korea had been pushed
aside by the realities of Cold War geopolitics. In South Korea, longtime anti-Japanese resistance figure and ardent anti-Communist,
Syngman Rhee, was elected President. This election took place only
after a May 1948 parliamentary election that was boycotted by several
key political figures because of its ramifications for the permanent
separation of north and south.133, 134 Following the South Korean
elections, Kim Il Sung was nominated after one-party elections to be
premier of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (or DPRK,
informally named North Korea).In addition, Pak Hŏnyŏng, former
head of the Communist Party in the south, took two positions: vice
premier and foreign minister.
The 1948 elections were followed by a leftist-led guerrilla war in South Korea that was
eventually suppressed by the Rhee government through the use of Japanese colonial
collaborators as police officers.135 By spring 1950, the rebellion in the south had quieted.
Only months later, however, North Korean forces crossed the 38th parallel, beginning the
bloody Korean War, which lasted three years.
130
Vladivostok News. “Soviets Groomed Kim Il Sung for Leadership.” 10 January 2003.
http://vn.vladnews.ru/Arch/2003/ISS345/News/upd10.HTM
131
The Koreas: A Global Studies Handbook. Commor, Mary E. “Geography and History: The Colonial
Period (1910-1945) [p. 43].” 2002. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO.
132
The History of Korea. Kim, Djun Kil. “8. House Divided [p. 146].” 2005. Westport, Conn: Greenwood
Press.
133
The History of Korea. Kim, Djun Kil. “8. House Divided [p. 153].” 2005. Westport, Conn: Greenwood
Press.
134
Kim Il Sung: The North Korean Leader. Suh, Dae-Sook. “Consolidation of Political Power: The
Republic and the Army [pp. 97–98].” 1995. New York: Columbia University Press.
135
The History of Korea. Kim, Djun Kil. “8. House Divided [p. 154].” 2005. Westport, Conn: Greenwood
Press.
The War and Its Immediate Aftermath
Between the invasion in June 1950 and the armistice
signing in July 1953, millions of North and South
Koreans were killed in fighting that spread to nearly
every corner of the two countries. In addition, over
33,000 U.S. forces were killed, representing over 90% of
the total deaths of U.N. forces, which fought alongside
the South Koreans. China, which supported the North
Korean forces, also lost hundreds of thousands of
soldiers.136
The war witnessed several retreats and advances by both sides, but by the conclusion of
hostilities the two Koreas remained divided by a border that followed roughly the pre-war
38th parallel division. The border zone became known as the Demilitarized Zone, or
DMZ, and continues today to be one of the most heavily guarded and defended borders in
the world. It should be noted that the 1953 armistice put a halt only to active combat;
technically, North and South Korea are still at war.
After the war, North Korea was left in tatters. About two fifths of its industrial facilities,
largely built during the Japanese occupation, were destroyed, and one third of all homes
were left in ruins.137 Kim instituted first a three-year plan, followed by a five-year plan
that focused on rebuilding the heavy industrial infrastructure of the country.138 The Soviet
Union and China were important contributors of economic aid that helped carry out the
rebuilding of the country.
Cult of Personality
The post-war period also saw Kim consolidate his position as
unchallenged leader through a series of purges. Pak Hŏnyŏng and
several others associated with the Communist Party in the southern
part of Korea were charged in show trials. They were convicted of
being American spies and put to death. Leaders of two factions of the
North Korean Communist Party (now known as the Korean Workers’
Party) having connections to Soviet and Chinese communism,
respectively, were either expelled from power or driven into exile.139
136
The History of Korea. Kim, Djun Kil. “8. House Divided [p. 155].” 2005. Westport, Conn: Greenwood
Press.
137
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. “Korea: Korea Since c. 1400: The Korean War: Armistice and Aid.”
2009. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/693609/Korea
138
The Koreas: A Global Studies Handbook. Commor, Mary E. “Geography and History: Divided Korea:
The North Korean Experience (1953-2001) [p. 58].” 2002. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO.
139
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Cumings, Bruce G. A Country Study: North Korea.
“Chapter 1 - Historical Setting: The National Division and the Origin of the DPRK.” Andrea Matles Savada,
Ed. 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+kp0023)
With North Korea economically dependent on, and geographically lodged between, the
world’s two largest communist states, Kim Il Sung was careful to keep cordial relations
with both the Soviet Union and China. However, maintaining neutrality in relations with
these two powers became more difficult as a Sino-Soviet political rift began to develop
during the late 1950s.140 During this period, the tenets of Kim Il Sung’s philosophy of
chuch’e, or self-reliance, began to be stressed, probably at least in part a result of his
concern over Chinese or Soviet influences on North Korean internal politics.141
North Korea during the late 1950s and 1960s began to rewrite its history, idealizing Kim
Il Sung’s role in the formation of the state and placing great emphasis on his extensive
wisdom and the heroic achievements of his family. As this cult of personality developed,
Kim Il Sung came to be referred to as suryŏng (“Great Leader”), previously a title
reserved for Soviet leaders Lenin and Stalin.142
Military Build-Up and Economic Decline
As Kim Il Jung increasingly felt threatened by South
Korea’s security alliance with the U.S. and Japan and by
the modernization of the South Korean army, more and
more of North Korea’s budget went into defense
spending during the late 1960s. By 1971, 30% of the
national budget was allotted to defense spending
(compare this to under 8% in the U.S. and estimated 6–
8% in China).143, 144 North Korean attempts at subversion
and infiltration across the DMZ increased conspicuously during this period as well,
including a nearly successful assassination attempt aimed at South Korean President Park
Chung Hee in 1968. That same year, North Korea seized the U.S. intelligence ship, the
USS Pueblo, off its Sea of Japan coast and held its crew captive for 11 months.145
During the 1970s and into the 1980s, North Korea’s economy began to decline
significantly as foreign aid began to decrease, technological obsolescence hindered
industrial development, and oil and energy shortages became chronic.146 In 1976 North
140
Kim Il Sung: The North Korean Leader. Suh, Dae-Sook. “The Sino-Soviet Dispute and Kim Il Sung [p.
179].” 1995. New York: Columbia University Press.
141
The History of Korea. Kim, Djun Kil. “8. House Divided [p. 159].” 2005. Westport, Conn: Greenwood
Press.
142
Kim Il Sung: The North Korean Leader. Suh, Dae-Sook. “The Sino-Soviet Dispute and Kim Il Sung [p.
197].” 1995. New York: Columbia University Press.
143
The History of Korea. Kim, Djun Kil. “8. House Divided [p. 165].” 2005. Westport, Conn: Greenwood
Press.
144
GlobalSecurity.org. Military. “China’s Defense Budget: China’s ‘Official’ Budget.” No date.
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/china/budget.htm
145
USSPueblo.org. “Repatriation of Pueblo Crew.” 10 September 1999.
http://www.usspueblo.org/v2f/incident/incidentframe.html
146
The History of Korea. Kim, Djun Kil. “8. House Divided [p. 170].” 2005. Westport, Conn: Greenwood
Press.
Korea defaulted on its debts to Japan and West European countries for purchases of
capital goods, and it would default again in 1980 after the foreign loans were
restructured.147, 148 The situation worsened in 1991, when the Soviet Union, North
Korea’s biggest supplier of aid, fragmented.
Succession
Kim Il Sung died in 1994, shortly after having agreed in meetings with former U.S.
President Jimmy Carter to freeze North Korea’s nuclear-weapons program in exchange
for a U.S. promise to assist North Korea in building light-water nuclear power reactors to
help the nation satisfy its persistent energy needs.149, 150 The “Great Leader’s” son, Kim
Jong Il, who had been groomed for well over a decade to succeed his father, became the
nation’s new leader. However, he did not inherit his father’s position of president, a title
that was retired upon Kim Il Sung’s death. Instead, Kim Jong Il retained his position of
chairman of the National Defense Commission (NDC), meanwhile expanding the
position’s powers to make it the highest in the state.
Kim Jong Il’s decision to base his power on his NDC
position, despite his complete lack of a military
background, is revealing. During Kim Jong Il’s period of
rule, some observers have noted that the North Korea
system has seemingly evolved from a party dictatorship
to a military dictatorship.151 Since the late 1990s, the
guiding tenet of son’gun (“military first”) has become a
prominent aspect of the chuch’e ideology.152 The strongly
militaristic message of son’gun has manifested itself most dangerously in North Korea’s
continued pursuit of nuclear weapons. In February 2005, the North Korean Foreign
Ministry announced that the country now had nuclear weapons.153
147
The Koreas: A Global Studies Handbook. Commor, Mary E. “Geography and History: Divided Korea:
The North Korean Experience (1953-2001) [p. 59].” 2002. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO.
148
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Chung, Joseph S. North Korea: A Country Study.
“Chapter 3 - The Economy: Foreign Economic Relations: Foreign Trade.” Andrea Matles Savada, Ed. 1994.
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+kp0094)
149
The History of Korea. Kim, Djun Kil. “8. House Divided [p. 170].” 2005. Westport, Conn: Greenwood
Press.
150
Under the Care of the Fatherly Leader: North Korea and the Kim Dynasty. Martin, Bradley K. “Sea of
Fire [pp. 496–497]. 2006. New York: Thomas Dunne Books.
151
Under the Care of the Fatherly Leader: North Korea and the Kim Dynasty. Martin, Bradley K. “Sea of
Fire [p. 485]. 2006. New York: Thomas Dunne Books.
152
International Herald Tribune. Choe, Sang-Hun. “Pyongyang Pushes ‘Army First’ Policy.” 8 August
2006. http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/08/02/news/army.php
153
Center for Contemporary Conflict, Naval Postgraduate School. Strategic Insights, Vol. 5, No. 7.
Pinkston, Daniel A. “North Korea’s Foreign Policy Towards the United States.” September 2006.
http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/si/2006/Sep/pinkstonSep06.asp
North Korea Today
Since taking power, Kim Jong Il has faced serious problems trying to revive the
nonproductive North Korean economy. Famine conditions from 1995 to 1997 drew
attention to the country’s inability to provide basic necessities. Since 2002, modest
economic reforms have been implemented. However, the nation still suffers from a lack
of outside investment and limited ability to carry out foreign trade to meet its needs.
Despite its chuch’e message of self-reliance, North Korea has found itself increasingly
dependent on foreign aid, primarily in the form of food shipments and fuel oil, from the
United States, South Korea, Japan, and China.154
North Korea’s nuclear weapons program, including the
development of rocket-based delivery systems for them,
continues to dominate the country’s relations with its
immediate neighbors and Western nations. An ongoing
series of disarmament discussions, the Six-Party Talks
(consisting of North Korea, South Korea, Russia, Japan,
China, and the United States), have been carried out since
North Korea withdrew from the Non-Proliferation Treaty
in 2003. Over the course of these talks, North Korea agreed to disable their nuclear
development facilities at Yŏngbyŏn, although negotiation of terms for verification
inspections developed into an awkward stalemate. In October 2008, the United States
removed North Korea from its State Sponsors of Terrorism list after the latter country
agreed to let inspectors have access to declared nuclear sites.155
In late 2008, Kim Jong Il was widely reported to have suffered a stroke after disappearing
from public view for several months. Immediately, widespread speculation appeared,
concerning his potential successor. In February 2009, reports surfaced from both North
and South Korea that the youngest of Kim Jong Il’s three sons, Kim Jong Un, had been
selected to eventually succeed his father.156 However, as with virtually all news from
North Korea, there was as yet little hard evidence to confirm these reports.
154
Congressional Research Service. Manyin, Mark E. “Foreign Assistance to North Korea.” 26 May 2005.
http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/crs/rl31785.pdf
155
Los Angeles Times. Richter, Paul. “North Korea Removed From U.S Terrorism List After Nuclear
Agreement.” 12 October 2008. http://articles.latimes.com/2008/oct/12/world/fg-norkor12
156 Times Online. Parry, Richard Lloyd. “Kim Jong Il Anoints Next Leader of North Korea—His
Youngest Son.” 20 February 2009. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article5766802.ece
Economy
Introduction
North Korea’s state-run, centrally planned economy has,
by and large, been separated from the rest of the world’s
economy. As North Korea’s economy has sputtered over
the last few decades, partly because of the loss of aid
from neighboring Russia and China, the Kim government
has begun to initiate modest economic reforms, including
the development of joint business ventures with foreign
corporations. By most accounts, these economic ties have
led to some improvements in North Korea’s overall economy in recent years, although
the progress has been less evident in some parts of the country than others. Whether
P’yŏngyang will continue to pursue further reforms and outside investment, or instead
pull back—fearing the political repercussions of North Koreans’ increasing awareness of,
and interaction with, the outside world—remains to be seen. One early sign that the Kim
regime was worried about losing its political grip because of the reforms was the
government’s decision in October 2005 to reinstitute governmental food rationing,
reversing the trend of several years in which the barter and selling of food in private
markets had increasingly become the norm.157
Industry and Manufacturing
Prior to 1945, the area of north Korea was the site of most
of Korea’s heavy industry, whereas the warmer, less
mountainous south Korea area was the center of
agricultural production and light industries such as
textiles. The north Korean industries were oriented
toward the processing of raw materials and the creation of
semi-finished goods, which were then shipped to Japan
for final processing.158 After the Korean War, during
which a large percentage of North Korea’s industries were heavily damaged, North Korea
put much of its redevelopment effort into reconstructing and expanding its heavy
industries, especially metals and chemicals.159
Today, North Korea’s main industrial output is in iron and steel production, machinery,
chemicals, and textiles. Other manufactured products include armaments, vehicles, glass,
157
Human Rights Watch. “North Korea: Policy Changes May Foster New Hunger.” 3 May 2006.
http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2006/05/03/north-korea-policy-changes-may-foster-new-hunger
158
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. A Country Study: North Korea. Chung, Joseph F.
“Chapter 3 - The Economy: Economic Setting: Korea Under Japanese Occupation.” Andrea Matles Savada,
Ed. June 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+kp0063)
159
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. “North Korea: The Economy.” 2009.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/322222/North-Korea
ceramics, and some consumer goods (such as processed food and clothes).160 The
development of the Kaesŏng Industrial Complex just north of the South Korean border,
where cheap North Korean labor is used to produce consumer goods such as watches and
shoes for South Korean companies, has broadened the light manufacturing base of North
Korea. These products are produced for export outside North Korea, mostly to South
Korea.161
Agriculture
Over the last two decades, North Korea has struggled to
produce enough food to feed its people. In most years,
imports and aid shipments of basic grains have been
necessary to avoid famine conditions. A relatively good
harvest in 2008 eliminated fears of a massive shortfall,
but the country continues to remain only one bad harvest
away from another food crisis.162 Geography is certainly
a significant part of the problem, as North Korea’s
northern climate shortens growing seasons and its mountainous terrain in the center of the
country is generally not suitable for growing crops. Grains are the principal crops grown
where conditions do allow agriculture; rice is grown primarily in the southwestern part of
the country and corn (maize) is grown in the coastal plains of northeastern North
Korea.163
Farm production is organized through cooperatives, with management committees
overseeing all aspects of farm activity from seeding to harvesting.164 Farm harvests are
delivered to the government, which handles the distribution of food. When production
dropped dramatically in the mid 1990s after several years of floods, several reforms were
implemented to help stimulate better agricultural productivity. These included
streamlining farm work teams, loosening price restrictions to help spur increased
production of cash crops, and decreasing usage of nitrogen-based fertilizers, which were
overused and depleting soil fertility.165, 166 Potatoes were encouraged as a substitute crop
160
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. “North Korea: The Economy: Manufacturing.” 2009.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/322222/North-Korea
161
Federation of American Scientists. Congressional Research Service. Nanto, Dick K. and Mark E.
Manyin. “The Kaesong North-South Korean Industrial Complex.” 14 February 2008.
http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL34093.pdf
162
North Korean Economy Watch. East-West Center, University of Hawaii. Asia-Pacific Bulletin, No. 27.
Haggard, Stephan and Marcus Noland. “The North Korean Food Situation: Too Early to Break Out the
Champagne.” 5 February 2009. http://www.nkeconwatch.com/nk-uploads/haggard-noland-champagne.pdf
163
North Korean Economy Watch. East-West Center, University of Hawaii. Asia-Pacific Bulletin, No. 27.
Haggard, Stephan; and Marcus Noland. “The North Korean Food Situation: Too Early to Break Out the
Champagne.” 5 February 2009. http://www.nkeconwatch.com/nk-uploads/haggard-noland-champagne.pdf
164
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. “North Korea: The Economy: Agriculture.” 2009.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/322222/North-Korea
165
Food and Fertilizer Technology Center. Kim, Woon-Keun “The Agricultural Situation of North Korea.”
1 September 1999. http://www.agnet.org/library/eb/475/
for rice and corn because they are better suited to North Korea’s climate and have higher
nutritional value.167
Fish are the most important source of protein in North Korean diets. Fishing fleets
operate out of ports on both of North Korea’s coasts, with pollack, sardines, mackerel,
herring, pike, and shellfish being some of the fish species that are caught.168 North
Korea’s fish catch also generates the nation’s main agricultural trade crop, with most of
the fish exports going to China, Japan, and Thailand.169, 170
There are still large areas of forest in North Korea’s northern interior, although its nearcoastal areas have been essentially deforested. Most forest cutting that is carried out now
is for firewood.171 However, a limited amount of raw timber is exported to China.172
Banking and Currency
Accurate, up-to-date information about North Korea’s
banking sector is difficult to obtain. By at least one
estimate, as many as 20 banks of various sizes and types
may exist in the country.173 Foremost among these is the
Chosŏn Central Bank, which is responsible for issuing
and regulating the won, the nation’s currency, and for
166
Asia Times. Miyazaki, Jamie. “North Korea’s Potato Gambit.” 14 September 2004.
http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/FI14Dg04.html
167
Asia Times. Miyazaki, Jamie. “North Korea’s Potato Gambit.” 14 September 2004.
http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/FI14Dg04.html
168
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. “North Korea: The Economy: Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing.”
2009. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/322222/North-Korea
169
International Trade Centre/World Trade Organization. “Trade Performance HS: Exports and Imports of
Korea, Democratic People's Republic of - 03 Fish, Crustaceans, Molluscs, Aquatic Invertebrates nes (2006,
in USD thousands).” 2006.
http://www.intracen.org/appli1/TradeCom/TP_TP_CI_P.aspx?IN=03&RP=408&YR=2006&IL=03 Fish,
crustaceans, molluscs, aquatic invertebrates nes&TY=T
170
EarthTrends.org. “Coastal and Marine Ecosystems—North Korea.” 2003.
http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/coa_cou_408.pdf
171
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. “North Korea: The Economy: Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing.”
2009. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/322222/North-Korea
172
International Trade Centre/World Trade Organization. “Trade Performance HS: Exports and Imports of
Korea, Democratic People's Republic of – 44, Wood and Articles of Wood, Wood Charcoal (2006, in USD
thousands).” 2006.
http://www.intracen.org/appli1/TradeCom/TP_TP_CI_P.aspx?IN=44&RP=408&YR=2006&IL=44 Wood
and articles of wood, wood charcoal&TY=T
173
North Korea Economy Watch. FDI Magazine. Timewell, Stephen. “Banking Steps Toward the Real
World.” 12 December 2005. http://www.nkeconwatch.com/category/dprk-organizations/state-offices/statefiscal-and-financial-committee/foreign-trade-bank/koryo-bankkoryo-global-credit-bank/
carrying out most governmental banking transactions. It also audits all usage of state
funds, including commercial transactions.174
The Foreign Trade Bank is the other major governmental bank, and its responsibilities
focus on handling all foreign-exchange transactions and on monitoring the nation’s
foreign exchange reserves. It also sets foreign exchange rates.175
Over the last two decades, several banks that are partly or wholly funded through foreign
investment have been opened, providing foreign currency banking operations for
companies, organizations, and individuals doing business in North Korea.176
One state-owned bank that has drawn negative attention is the Tanchon Commercial
Bank (also known as the Korea Changgwang Credit Bank). According to charges made
by the U.S. Treasury Department, Tanchon is the primary financial conduit through
which North Korea handles its sales of arms and ballistic missiles to other countries. For
this reason, the bank was put on a Treasury Department blacklist, resulting in the freezing
of its assets in U.S. banks and a ban on any future transactions between Tanchon and U.S.
citizens or banks.177
Trade
North Korea is not a member of the World Trade
Organization or the International Monetary Fund, the
principal world bodies responsible for developing trade
guidelines and compiling trade statistics. Thus, accurate,
timely information on Korea’s trade balance is not
available. However, it is known that China and South
Korea are North Korea’s two most significant trading
partners, and the two neighboring nations have been
increasingly dominating North Korea’s overall trade in recent years.178 Much of North
Korea’s trade with China is based on energy imports and exports. China is North Korea’s
largest provider of crude oil and other oil products, while North Korea is a net exporter of
coal and electricity to China.179, 180 North Korea also imports meat, machinery, plastics,
174
North Korean Economy Watch. U.S. Embassy, Seoul. “North Korean Financial Institutions (Loads of
Info).” April 1995. http://www.nkeconwatch.com/2002/03/05/north-korean-financial-institutions-loads-ofinfo/
175
North Korean Economy Watch. FDI Magazine. Timewell, Stephen. “Banking Steps Toward the Real
World.” 12 December 2005. http://www.nkeconwatch.com/category/dprk-organizations/state-offices/statefiscal-and-financial-committee/foreign-trade-bank/koryo-bankkoryo-global-credit-bank/
176
North Korea Economy Watch. Naenara. “Law on Foreign-Invested Bank.” 11 February 2008.
http://www.nkeconwatch.com/category/policies/law-of-the-dprk-on-foreign-invested-bank/
177
Bureau of International Security and Nonproliferation, U.S. Department of State. “Executive Order
13382.” 3 July 2008. http://www.state.gov/t/isn/c22080.htm
178
Korean Economic Institute. “North Korea: Economic Data.” July 2008.
http://www.keia.org/images/nk_data.pdf
179
International Trade Centre/World Trade Organization. “Trade Performance HS: Imports of Korea,
Democratic People's Republic of - 27 Mineral fuels, oils, distillation products, etc (2006, in USD
and grains from China, while being a net exporter to China of seafood, ores (primarily
iron ore), iron and steel, and woven clothing.181 In recent years, more and more of
China’s manufactured consumer goods have also been flowing across the border and
reaching North Korea’s informal markets.182
Two-way trade between North and South Korea was legalized in 1988. In the most recent
statistics issued by South Korea, the bilateral trade for 2007 was more than USD 1.8
billion, or slightly less than 40% of North Korea’s total trade volume for the year.183, 184
The Kaesŏng Industrial Complex, where North Koreans employed by South Korean
companies assemble products primarily to be sold in South Korea, was responsible for a
significant portion of this trade. Non-commercial trade, usually in the form of goods
supplied by South Korea for humanitarian purposes or for use in inter-Korean
cooperation projects, also accounted for a high percentage of the total bilateral trade
between the two Koreas.185, 186
North Korea’s trade balance, which runs at a significant deficit, is offset by both foreign
aid and unreported sources of trade revenue, such as sales of arms and missiles and
trafficking of illegal drugs and counterfeit currency. Estimates vary widely over how
much foreign currency these unreported sources bring in, but one recent detailed report
concluded that North Korea’s revenues from both arms/missiles and illicit exports have
been declining in the 2000s.187
Investment
Most of the foreign direct investment in Korea during the last five years has been through
South Korean companies, many of which have built manufacturing facilities at the
thousands).” 2006.
http://www.intracen.org/appli1/TradeCom/TP_IP_CI_P.aspx?IN=27&RP=408&YR=2006&IL=27
Mineral fuels, oils, distillation products,%20etc&TY=I
180
International Trade Centre/World Trade Organization. “Trade Performance HS: Exports of Korea,
Democratic People's Republic of - 27 Mineral fuels, oils, distillation products, etc (2006, in USD
thousands).” 2006.
http://www.intracen.org/appli1/TradeCom/TP_EP_CI_P.aspx?IN=27&RP=408&YR=2006&IL=27
Mineral fuels, oils, distillation products, etc&TY=E
181
Nautilus Institute. Aden, Nathaniel. “North Korean Trade with China as Reported in Chinese Customs
Statistics: Recent Energy Trends and Implications.” August 2006.
http://www.nautilus.org/fora/security/0679Aden.pdf
182
Council on Foreign Relations. Pan, Esther. “Backgrounder: North Korea’s Capitalist Experiment.” 8
June 206. http://www.cfr.org/publication/10858/north_koreas_capitalist_experiment.html
183
Travel Document Systems. “Korea: Economy.” 2009. http://www.traveldocs.com/kp/economy.htm
184
Korean Economic Institute. “North Korea: Economic Data.” July 2008.
http://www.keia.org/images/nk_data.pdf
185
Travel Document Systems. “Korea: Economy.” 2009. http://www.traveldocs.com/kp/economy.htm
186
Korean Economic Institute. “North Korea: Economic Data.” July 2008.
http://www.keia.org/images/nk_data.pdf
187
Peterson Institute for International Economics. Haggard, Stephan and Marcus Noland. “Follow the
Money: North Korea’s External Resources and Constraints.” 2009.
http://www.iie.com/publications/papers/noland-haggard02081.pdf
Kaesŏng Industrial Complex (KIC). The South Korean government has provided
significant financial support for the Kaesŏng project by way of subsidies, guarantees, and
low-interest-rate loans provided to companies that open operations in the KIC.188 The
largest private investor in Kaesŏng is Hyundai Asan Corporation, a South Korean
company that has also made a large investment in North Korean tourism through its
construction of a resort near Mount Kŭmgang.189
Additional foreign investment in North Korea comes
from China. By one estimate, about 200 Chinese
companies have invested in North Korea, including jointventure projects that are now manufacturing items such
as bicycles, running shoes, clothing, beverages, television
sets, and personal computers.190 Unlike the South Korean
investments, which are part of the overall government
policy of economic engagement with the north as a means
of normalizing political relations, the Chinese investments are strictly business decisions,
pursued by companies who see economic opportunities in North Korea as outweighing
the political risks involved.191
One of the more active recent investors in North Korea is the Egyptian-based
telecommunications company Orascom Telecom, which has recently developed
Koryolink, North Korea’s first mobile phone system. The company has also opened a
bank in North Korea to handle the payments from subscribers to the system.192 One
unusual aspect of the Orascom deal is that in acquiring the exclusive license to North
Korea’s mobile phone service, the company committed, through its affiliate Orascom
Construction, to complete the 105-story Ryugyŏng Hotel in P’yŏngyang by 15 April
2012, the 100th anniversary of the birth of former North Korean leader Kim Il Sung.193
The shell of the pyramidal hotel, the most striking landmark on P’yŏngyang’s skyline, sat
vacant and unfinished for 16 years until Orascom resumed work on it in 2008. Estimates
188
Federation of American Scientists. Congressional Research Service. Nanto, Dick K. and Mark E.
Manyin. “The Kaesong North-South Korean Industrial Complex [p. CRS-4].” 14 February 2008.
http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL34093.pdf
189
New York Times. Brooke, James. “An Industrial Park in North Korea Nears a Growth Spurt.” 28
February 2006.
http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/28/business/worldbusiness/28park.html?_r=2&pagewanted=print
190
Asia Times. Tsai, Ting-I. “Filling North Korea’s Bare Shelves.” 10 January 2007.
http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/IA10Dg01.html
191
Time. Ritter, Peter. “The World’s Most Dangerous Investment.” 20 September 2007.
http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1663635,00.html
192
Bloomberg.com. Al-Issawi, Tarek. “Orascom Telecom of Egypt Opens Bank in North Korea
(Update2).” 16 December 2008.
http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601087&sid=ayACO0S5c80g&refer=home
193
Asia Times. Kirk, Donald. “Orascom Gets Into Pyramid Business.” 23 December 2008.
http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/JL23Dg01.html
in the South Korean media have suggested that it may take as much as USD 2 billion to
complete the hotel and make it safe for use.194
Energy and Mineral Resources
Energy
North Korea presently does not produce any crude oil or
natural gas, although numerous efforts have been made to
discover economically viable offshore deposits.195, 196
Thus, most of the country’s current oil needs are met via
imports from China. The U.S., China, Russia, and South
Korea have also shipped heavy fuel oil to North Korea
since 2007. These shipments are part of the continuing
Six-Party Talks on nuclear disarmament, although they
were suspended in December 2008 due to lack of progress on verification protocols.197
North Korea does have a moderately large amount of coal deposits.198 Nonetheless, the
nation’s coal production has dropped dramatically since its peak in the mid 1980s.199, 200
Roughly 35% of North Korea’s electricity is estimated to be produced in coal- or oilburning thermal plants, with the remaining percentage generated via numerous
hydroelectric facilities.201
Minerals
Iron ore, magnesite, and zinc are some of the most economically important minerals
mined in North Korea and have the most extensive reserves.202 Other mineral products
194
Reuters. Herskovitz, Jon. “North Korea’s ‘Hotel of Doom’ Wakes From Its Coma.” 17 July 2008.
http://www.reuters.com/article/rbssTechMediaTelecomNews/idUSSEO9654020080717
195
Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. Paik, Keun Wook. “North Korea and Seabed
Petroleum.” No date. http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Keun_Wook_Paik.pdf
196
U.S. Geological Survey. 2007 Minerals Yearbook. Wu, John C. “The Mineral Industry of North Korea.”
September 2008. http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2007/myb3-2007-kn.pdf
197
VOA News. Gollust, David. “US Says Fuel Oil Shipments to North Korea Suspended.” 12 December
2008. http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2008-12/2008-12-12voa38.cfm?CFID=143755018&CFTOKEN=86064916&jsessionid=de308f97bf99274f97fc541d3740552a3
c53
198
U.S. Geological Survey. 2007 Minerals Yearbook. Wu, John C. “The Mineral Industry of North Korea.”
September 2008. http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2007/myb3-2007-kn.pdf
199
Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy. “Korea, North Energy Profile.” 17
February 2009. http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=KN
200
Nautilus Institute. Aden, Nathaniel. “North Korean Trade with China as Reported in Chinese Customs
Statistics: Recent Energy Trends and Implications.” August 2006.
http://www.nautilus.org/fora/security/0679Aden.pdf
201
Far East and Australasia 2003. Ash, Robert F. “The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (North
Korea): Energy [p. 674].” 2002. London: Routledge.
202
U.S. Geological Survey. 2007 Minerals Yearbook. Wu, John C. “The Mineral Industry of North Korea.”
September 2008. http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2007/myb3-2007-kn.pdf
that contribute to North Korea’s economy include copper, graphite, limestone, lead, salt,
gold, and tungsten. In the last few years, North Korea has started issuing leases or
forming joint ventures with foreign partners to develop the mining operations for some of
these rich deposits. Chinese and South Korean companies, in particular, have been active
in securing mineral development deals.203
Most of North Korea’s iron ore production occurs in the far northeast near the city of
Musan, just across the border in China.204 There were conflicting reports in 2006 and
2007 that the rights to these deposits, which are extracted in Asia’s largest open-air iron
mine, had been sold to Chinese interests.205, 206
Magnesite, which is used in the production of various heat-resistant materials, is mined in
areas around the northeastern city of Tanch’ŏn, where it is also processed into the
derivative product magnesia clinker.207, 208 Overall, North Korea is the world’s thirdlargest producer of magnesite.209
The region around Tanch’ŏn is also the location of North Korea’s largest zinc mine. In
recent years, North Korea’s zinc exports to China and South Korea have jumped
significantly.210 Zinc exports to South Korea alone doubled between 2006 and 2007.211
Standard of Living
While all estimates of North Korea’s gross domestic
product (GDP) per capita are carried out by foreign
organizations or governments, and thus are based on
unofficial data, these estimates generally show that North
Korea has the lowest GDP per capita in East Asia and one
203
Washington Post. Harden, Blaine and Ariana Eunjung Cha. “N. Korea Cashes In on Mineral Riches.” 24
February 2008. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2008/02/23/AR2008022300695.html
204
U.S. Geological Survey. 2007 Minerals Yearbook. Wu, John C. “The Mineral Industry of North Korea.”
September 2008. http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2007/myb3-2007-kn.pdf
205
U.S. Geological Survey. 2007 Minerals Yearbook. Wu, John C. “The Mineral Industry of North Korea.”
September 2008. http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2007/myb3-2007-kn.pdf
206
Energy Daily. UPI. Lee, Jong-Heon. “China Taps North Korea Resources.” 4 May 2007.
http://www.energy-daily.com/reports/China_Taps_North_Korea_Resources_999.html
207
Magnesium clinker is magnesium powder molded into highly heat-resistant, solid form.
208
Far East and Australasia 2003. Ash, Robert F. “The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (North
Korea): Mining [p. 671].” 2002. London: Routledge.
209
U.S. Geological Survey. 2007 Minerals Yearbook. Wu, John C. “The Mineral Industry of North Korea.”
September 2008. http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2007/myb3-2007-kn.pdf
210
Washington Post. Harden, Blaine and Ariana Eunjung Cha. “N. Korea Cashes In on Mineral Riches.” 24
February 2008. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2008/02/23/AR2008022300695.html
211
U.S. Geological Survey. 2007 Minerals Yearbook. Wu, John C. “The Mineral Industry of North Korea.”
September 2008. http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2007/myb3-2007-kn.pdf
of the lowest in all of Asia.212 There is some evidence that the economic reforms
introduced in the early 2000s have helped raise some of the qualitative indicators that
suggest a general improvement in the standard of living—i.e., more goods on store
shelves, fewer power outages. However, food, electricity, clean water, and access to
adequate health care are still in short supply in some parts of the country, as indicated by
reports of North Korean refugees and the few foreigners that have visited these
regions.213, 214 Unsanctioned street markets have helped bring needed food and goods to
some cities, although the prices are often out of reach for many residents.215, 216 The
reinstitution of the food rationing, however, has decreased the role of the markets in
feeding the population.
Human rights, as measured by freedoms of speech, religion, press, and assembly, are
severely restricted in North Korea. Internal policing is carried out by the Ministry of
Public Security (MPS) and the State Security Department (SSD). North Koreans arrested
by the state security forces on charges of political crimes are sent directly to detention
camps without trial.217 In 2009, a United Nations human rights investigator reported that
torture was “extensively practiced” in these camps. North Korea’s U.N. representative
denied the report.218
Tourism
Tourism has never been a significant component of the
economy of North Korea. While visitors are allowed into
the country, the application process can be daunting.
Traveling by visitors who do enter North Korea is highly
212
Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook. “Rank Order – GDP - Per Capita (PPP).” 5 March
2009. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2004rank.html
213
Los Angeles Times. Wallace, Bruce. “North Korea Marks a 60th Anniversary.” 19 October 2005.
http://articles.latimes.com/2005/oct/19/world/fgpyongyang19?s=o&n=o&sessid=c65e161c9339d40e288a2c03f0e28fe1bce3b82c&pg=0&pgtp=article&eag
i=&page_type=article&exci=2005_10_19_world_fg-pyongyang19
214
Los Angeles Times. Demick, Barbara. “Glimpses of a Hermit Nation.” 3 July 2005.
http://articles.latimes.com/2005/jul/03/world/fgchongjin3?s=g&n=n&m=Broad&rd=www.google.com&tnid=1&sessid=c65e161c9339d40e288a2c03f0e28
fe1bce3b82c&pgtp=article&eagi=&page_type=article&exci=2005_07_03_world_fg-chongjin3&pg=1
215
Los Angeles Times. Demick, Barbara. “Trading Ideals for Sustenance.” 4 July 2005.
http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-chongjin4jul04,1,4415409.story
216
Washington Post. Harden, Blaine. “At the Heart of North Korea’s Troubles, An Intractable Hunger
Crisis.” 6 March 2009. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2009/03/05/AR2009030503613_pf.html
217
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State. 2008 Country Reports on
Human Rights Practices. “Democratic People’s Republic of Korea.” 25 February 2009.
http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/eap/119043.htm
218
Associated Press. Engeler, Elaine. “UN Expert: North Korea Commits Widespread Torture.” 16 March
2009. http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5jWiDtOOM7FQqUWzFFuj9bsF6AFAD96VF9580
restricted and they must be accompanied by an official guide at all times.219
In 1989, during a brief thaw in relations between North and South Korea, the Hyundai
Asan Corporation signed a joint venture agreement with the North Korean government to
develop a tourist resort centered at Mount Kŭmgang, located near the eastern end of the
DMZ.220 Nearly a decade later the resort opened. By 2007, it was attracting 350,000
visitors a year, mostly from South Korea, and had recorded several years of
profitability.221
Unfortunately, as is often the case in commerce between North and South Korea, politics
soon took precedence over economics. A South Korean tourist was shot and killed in July
2008 after wandering into a restricted military area adjacent to a Kŭmgang resort beach,
and immediately the two governments became embroiled in a war of words over the
event.222 As a result, all tours to Kŭmgang have ceased since the shooting and it is
unknown when, or even if, the resort will reopen. Hyundai Asan, who also operated day
tours to the historical city of Kaesŏng for nearly a year until North Korean officials
suspended such trips in December 2008, announced in February 2009 that it was nearing
bankruptcy, in part because of revenue losses at the Kŭmgang resort.223, 224
Transportation
Most North Koreans, even in cities, still walk or use bicycles for
personal transportation because cars are an unaffordable luxury for the
average citizen. Travel between cities is mostly done on public
transport, either by train or bus. Travel permits are officially required
for North Koreans who wish to travel between counties or provinces,
although in practice many North Koreans simply move about the
country illegally.225
North Korea’s mountainous geography limits transportation
219
SmartTraveller.gov.au. “Travel Advice: Democratic People’s Republic of Korea.” 30 December 2008.
http://www.smartraveller.gov.au/zw-cgi/view/Advice/North_Korea
220
New York Times. Chira, Susan. “The Two Koreas Agree to Develop Resort in the North.” 2 February
1989.
http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DE4DC1638F931A35751C0A96F948260&sec=&spon
=&pagewanted=all
221
JoonAng Daily. “Tourism Boost to North in Works.” 6 February 2008.
http://joongangdaily.joins.com/article/view.asp?aid=2885975
222
North Korea Economy Watch. “(Updated) South Korean Tourist Fatally Shot at Kumgang.” 13 August
2008. http://www.nkeconwatch.com/2008/07/21/south-korean-tourist-fatally-shot-at-kumgang/
223
SFGate. Associated Press. Lee, Jean H. “North Korea to End Southerner Visits to Kaesong.” 25
November 2008. http://www.sfgate.com/cgibin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/11/25/MNEU14B3KG.DTL&hw=jean+lee+associated+press&sn=004&sc=494
224
North Korean Economy Watch. Institute for Far Eastern Studies. “IFES February 2009 Recap.” 5 March
2009. http://www.nkeconwatch.com/category/tourism/
225
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. “North Korea: Economy: Transportation.” 2009.
http://search.eb.com/eb/article-34935
connections between the eastern and western sides of the country. A single east–west
main rail line links P’yŏngyang to the country’s eastern coast at Wŏnsan, from which a
separate railway runs northward along the coast all the way to the Russian border. Other
north–south rail lines connect the North Korean capital with major cities on the western
side of the country, and some separate branch lines splinter off to mining centers.226
International air travel to and from North Korea is via P’yŏngyang’s Sunan International
Airport. Air Koryo is the national air carrier. It schedules flights to Beijing three times a
week, and a flight to Vladivostock, once a week, with occasional service to Bangkok and
Shenyang, China.227, 228 Domestic air transportation is also handled by Air Koryo on a
charter basis to various military-civilian joint-use airfields. The only other commercial
airline serving North Korea is Air China, which schedules a few weekly flights between
Beijing and P’yŏngyang.229
North Korea’s road system, because of the shortage of fuels and automobiles, is less
important in transporting goods and people than is rail transit. Less than 10% of the
country’s roads are paved; the exceptions are the express highways that connect
P’yŏngyang with Namp’o, Wŏnsan, and Kaesŏng, as well as a few other segments (such
as the recently constructed road connecting South Korea with the Kaesŏng Industrial
Complex).230, 231
The Yalu and Taedong Rivers, both of which empty into the Yellow Sea, and the
Chaeryŏng River, a tributary of the Taedong, are the most important North Korean rivers
for transporting agricultural and mining products. Major coastal ports are located at
Namp’o, Haeju, and Tasa on the Yellow Sea, and Wŏnsan, Hŭngnam, Chŏngjin, and
Najin on the Sea of Japan.232
Business Outlook
Much has been written about North Korea’s recent first steps away from a socialist
command economy toward a mixed market economy. However, no one is yet comparing
the economic evolution in North Korea with that in China or even Vietnam—two
226
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. “North Korea: Economy: Transportation.” 2009.
http://search.eb.com/eb/article-34935
227
Air Koryo. “About: Timetable.” No date. http://www.korea-dpr.com//Air Koryo/timetable.htm
228
Official Airlines Guide. Jackson, Laura. “Air Service in North Korea: A Short Story.” 1 October 2008.
http://www.oag.com/travel-news/oag-travel-news/16/air-service-in-north-korea-a-short-story/
229
Official Airlines Guide. Jackson, Laura. “Air Service in North Korea: A Short Story.” 1 October 2008.
http://www.oag.com/travel-news/oag-travel-news/16/air-service-in-north-korea-a-short-story/
230
Asia Times. Miyazaki, Jamie. “Where Are North Korea’s Shenzhens?” 24 October 2003.
http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/EJ24Dg01.html
231
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. “North Korea. Economy. Transportation.” 2009.
http://search.eb.com/eb/article-34935
232
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. “North Korea. Economy. Transportation.” 2009.
http://search.eb.com/eb/article-34935
communist-led nations that have been implementing changes in their economic structure
over the last few decades.
Kim Jong Il’s autocratic regime has long proclaimed the
message of self-reliance. However, the North Korean
need for outside developmental assistance to repair its
crumbling industrial and mining infrastructure, and for
hard currency to finance its import needs, has made the
2000s the “era of the joint ventures” in Korea. The results
to date have been mixed, despite the nation’s relatively
well-educated work force and low labor costs.233 Given
the government’s disinclination to allow foreign influence, some of these new ventures
have resulted in a clash of cultures and business failure. Even the most successful joint
ventures, such as the Kaesŏng Industrial Complex, are vulnerable to the ever-shifting
political winds between North and South Korea. This trend has been especially evident
since the election of South Korean President Lee Myung-bak in late 2007, who has taken
a relatively tougher stance with the Kim government.234, 235
North Korea’s continued “rogue nation” reputation, whether justified or not, also
interferes with its ability to bring in needed investment. Negative publicity over the
country’s human rights practices, illicit drug sales, and counterfeiting activities inhibit
some outside investors, as does the periodic confrontational behavior exhibited by North
Korea towards its neighbors and some Western nations.236 In particular, the continued
crisis over North Korea’s nuclear arms ambitions has been lucrative to the Kim
government in terms of aid and other incentives provided by the U.S. and other nations to
bring North Korea into nonproliferation compliance. However, it has also scared away
many outside businesses.
233
Time.com. Ritter, Peter. “The World’s Most Dangerous Investment.” 20 September 2007.
http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1663635,00.html
234
Yahoo! News. Associated Press. Kim, Kwang-Tae. “NKorea’s Border Closures Threaten Joint
Factories.” 16 March 2009. http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20090316/ap_on_re_as/as_koreas_tension
235
UPI. Lee, Jong-Heon. “Risk of Doing Business With North Korea.” 10 March 2009.
http://www.upiasia.com/Politics/2009/03/10/risks_of_doing_business_with_north_korea/3520/
236
Time.com. Ritter, Peter. “The World’s Most Dangerous Investment.” 20 September 2007.
http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1663635,00.html
Society
Introduction
Because North Korea has been generally closed off to the West for
many decades, our understanding of its social culture is mostly limited
to what can be gleaned from those who have recently defected from
the country. Foreign visitors to North Korea often comment that they
have virtually no opportunity to interact freely with the general
populace.
Despite these limitations, however, our knowledge of North Korea’s
people and their culture is illuminated by several areas of certainty.
For example, despite 60 years of separation from their ethnic kin to
the south, North Koreans continue to share many cultural touchstones
with South Koreans, such as language, food, artistic and historical traditions. While North
Korea has moved away from the cultural traditions of its pre-revolutionary past in various
respects, it still reflects them in many other ways. As several North Korean observers
have noted, even the uniquely North Korean philosophy of chuch’e, or self-reliance,
echoes the ancient neo-Confucianism values and isolationist policies that took root on the
Korean Peninsula during the many centuries of Chosŏn Dynasty rule.237, 238
Ethnic Groups and Language
North Korea is one of the least ethnically diverse nations
in the world. Virtually all the nation’s citizens are ethnic
Koreans and speak the Korean language. However, the
Korean that is spoken in North Korea has taken a
somewhat different path from that spoken in South Korea,
since the two countries came into being over 60 years ago.
During this time, very few new words have been
introduced into the Korean spoken by North Koreans, and
some words of foreign origin (mostly English and Japanese) have been purged. Those
new words that have come into the Korean spoken in North Korea have primarily
originated from Chinese or Russian.
In contrast, South Korea has seen many new words of Western origin become standard
parts of their vocabulary. Results of a survey conducted in 2000 showed that North
Koreans were unable to understand over 8,000 words that are now in the South Korean
237
Public Broadcasting System. The Online News Hour. Harper, Liz. “North Korea: Nuclear Standoff—
Kim Il Sung.” 19 October 2006.
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/indepth_coverage/asia/northkorea/keyplayers/kimilsung.html
238
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. A Country Study: North Korea. Cumings, Bruce.
“Chapter 2. Historical Setting: The National Division and the Origins of the DPRK.” June 1993.
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+kp0023)
lexicon.239 Defectors from North Korea who eventually relocate to South Korea are now
given instruction in the new vocabulary at a government-run facility that prepares them
for their immersion into South Korean society.240
Both North and South Korea use the han’gŭl alphabet for written Korean (in North Korea,
this script is instead known as Chosŏn munchta).241 South Koreans still occasionally use
Chinese characters for some words of Chinese origin, but such practice is banned in
North Korea.
Religion
Even though the constitution of the Democratic People’s
Republic of Korea (DPRK) provides for religious
freedom, the reality is that the right to practice the
religion of one’s choosing does not truly exist. Religious
activity that does take place in North Korea is carried out
within the narrow confines allowed by the government.
Some reports suggest that many of the sanctioned
religious groups in North Korea are organized solely for
propaganda purposes or for use in contacts with foreign religious organizations or
nongovernmental aid agencies.242
Official North Korean governmental estimates place the number of practicing Protestant
Christians at 10,000 and Roman Catholics at 4,000. There are four known statecontrolled churches operating in North Korea, all in P’yŏngyang: two Protestant, one
Orthodox, and one Roman Catholic. The North Korean government also estimates that
10,000 of its citizens are practicing Buddhists. While there are about 300 Buddhist
temples in North Korea, the vast majority of them are classified as cultural artifacts rather
than active places of worship.243
The Ch’ŏndogyo (“Religion of the Heavenly Way”) religious movement first emerged in
Korea in the 1860s. This indigenous, egalitarian teaching—under the name of Tonghak
239
RedOrbit.com. Reuters. Herskovitz, Jon. “North and South Divided by Common Korean Language.” 21
October 2005.
http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/279815/north_and_south_divided_by_common_korean_language/
240
VOA News. Strother, Jason. “Sixty Years After Division, Korean Language Has Gone in Separate
Directions.” 16 March 2009. http://www.voanews.com/english/2009-03-16-voa49.cfm
241
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. “North Korea: The People: Language.” 2009.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/322222/North-Korea
242
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State. International Religious
Freedom Report 2008. “Korea, Democratic People’s Republic of.” 19 September 2008. http://20012009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108410.htm
243
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State. International Religious
Freedom Report 2008. “Korea, Democratic People’s Republic of.” 19 September 2008. http://20012009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108410.htm
(“Eastern Learning”)—is estimated by the government to have 40,000 practitioners.244,245
A monotheistic religion, it blends elements of Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, and
Catholicism. In North Korea, its membership is “represented” by a political party
(Ch’ŏndogyo Ch’ŏngudang, or “Party of the Young Friends of the Heavenly Way”) that
is firmly under the direction of the Korean Workers’ Party.246
Cuisine
Rice is the North Korean staple, served at most meals
either alone or with other grains. The rice is accompanied
at the meal by panchan (side dishes). The most
ubiquitous panchan is kimch’i, a dish that is usually made
with pickled cabbage heads. Southern varieties of kimch’i
are known for their spiciness, but in North Korea, kimch’i
is not as heavily flavored with salt or red pepper.247 It is
also more likely to include fish.248 Other spices and
vegetables, such as radishes, mushrooms, turnips, and cucumber are added as available.
Because kimch’i is fermented, it may be safely stored for months. In the late fall,
households make large pots of it for storage over the winter in an event known as
kimchang. As the kimch’i sours over time, it will be used more as an ingredient for stews
and other dishes rather than as a separate side dish.249
There are several specialty North Korean dishes, although food shortages make some of
these dishes less common outside the capital. P’yŏngyang raenmyon is a dish consisting
of cold buckwheat noodles served in a chilled beef broth and decorated with pear slices,
cucumbers, white radishes, kimch’i, hard-boiled eggs, and other food items. Another
favorite dish is P’yŏngyang onban, in which boiled or steamed rice is served in a warm
chicken broth, covered with a mung-bean pancake, and garnished with green onions,
chicken slices, and mushrooms or other items. While beef is relatively rare in North
Korea, when it is available, a favorite beef dish is pulgogi. It is made by charcoal grilling
thin strips of meat that have been soaked in a marinade of soy sauce, pepper, sugar,
244
Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State. International Religious
Freedom Report 2008. “Korea, Democratic People’s Republic of.” 19 September 2008. http://20012009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108410.htm
245
The History of Korea. Kim, Djun Kil. “6. Modernization [p. 110].” 2005. Westford, Conn: Greenwood
Press.
246
Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook. “Korea, North.” 19 March 2009.
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/kn.html
247
Life in Korea. “Korean Food: Kimchi.” No date.
http://www.lifeinkorea.com/Food/food.cfm?Subject=kimchi
248
San Francisco Chronicle. Fletcher, Janet. “Cooking in Common: Korea’s Kimchi Addiction Catches On
in the West.” 30 January 2008. http://www.sfgate.com/cgibin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/01/30/FDMGUH4OI.DTL
249
San Francisco Chronicle. Fletcher, Janet. “Cooking in Common: Korea’s Kimchi Addiction Catches On
in the West.” 30 January 2008. http://www.sfgate.com/cgibin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/01/30/FDMGUH4OI.DTL
onions, sesame seeds, sesame oil, and garlic.250 Outside of Korea, this dish is often called
Korean barbecue.
Traditions: Celebrations and Holidays
Three of North Korea’s most widely celebrated holidays
are the birthdays of Kim Il Sung (April 15) and Kim Jong
Il (February 16 and 17) and May Day (May 1), a
traditionally important holiday in communist countries.
Each of these days may be marked by parades and
numerous cultural and sports events.
Not only is Kim Il Sung’s birthday one of the most
celebratory days of the year in North Korea, it is also one of the three new year’s days
celebrated in North Korea. Since 1997, North Korea has used a chuch’e calendar
beginning with Kim Il Sung’s birthdate (15 April 1912), which is referenced as Chuch’e
1.251 Thus, the year 2012 in North Korea, when the country will celebrate the 100th
anniversary of his birth, will mark the year Chuch’e 101.252 The traditional New Year’s
Day (January 1) and Sŏllal (beginning of the lunar new year, three days) are also
celebrated in North Korea. Ch’usŏk, a lunar-calendar-based harvest festival that features
a family feast and ancestor rituals, is a three-day holiday that occurs each fall.253
Other North Korean holidays commemorate events that occurred during the tumultuous
period between 1945 and 1953. These include Liberation Day (August 15), marking the
date of independence from Japanese colonial rule in 1945; Foundation Day (October 10),
based on the date in 1945 when the Korean Worker’s Party was founded; National Day
(September 9), the date on which North Korea declared itself an independent nation; and
Victory Day (July 27), which marks the day on which the Korean War armistice was
signed in 1953.254
In some years, several months are scheduled with lavish stadium spectacles of
synchronized rhythmic acrobatics and other highly choreographed group performances
known as the Arirang Festival (or, more mundanely, as the Mass Games). Performed by
over 100,000 colorfully costumed participants who train every day for months in advance,
the Mass Games celebrate the Kims, the chuch’e philosophy, and other North Korean
250
North Korea in Pictures. Behnke, Alison. “Cultural Life: Food and Dress [p. 52].” 2005. Minneapolis,
Minn: Lerner Publications.
251
Nordkorea-info.de. Korean Central News Agency. “Resolution on Exalting President Kim Il Sung’s Life
and Feats Forever.” 9 July 1997. http://www.nordkorea-info.de/juche/JucheCalendar.htm
252
NK News. “Gregorian – Juche Era Conversion Tool.” No date. http://www.nknews.net/extras/juche_era.php
253
Seoul Metropolitan Government. “Special Report: Chuseok Origin and Rituals.” 1 September 2004.
http://english.seoul.go.kr/today/infocus/specialreport/1214126_5093.php
254
Q++ Studio. “Public Holidays and Bank Holidays for North Korea.” 2009.
http://www.qppstudio.net/publicholidays2009/north_korea.htm
patriotic themes.255 Elaborate card displays, created by thousands of spectators in the
stands who hold up different colored cards in unison to create prearranged images, are
also part of the Mass Games pageantry.256
Arts
While Korea as a whole has a rich history of artwork
produced during its history, artistic expression has been
greatly stifled in the 60 years since North Korea has been
a nation. Confined by the need to serve the purposes of
state philosophy and propagandistic messages, North
Korean visual artists, musicians, writers, and film-makers
are limited in their ability to experiment within their
media or to invest subtlety and nuance into their works.
Despite these limitations, there is no question that North Korean artists exhibit much
technical ability. One is thus left to wonder what they might produce if allowed creative
liberty.
Visual Arts
North Korean artists paint in various government-run studios. Each artist has a ranking,
with most artists ranging from the lowest level of C to the highest level of A. Above these
rankings, the most accomplished painters are designated as “Merited Artist” or “People’s
Artist.” Most painting is done in the traditional Korean brush-and-ink style known as
Chosŏnhwa, including some of the large public murals that would typically would be
painted using oils.257, 258 In the 1970s, landscapes of natural settings were approved as
appropriate subject matter, although each North Korean artist is still expected to produce
at least one painting each year that celebrates revolutionary themes.259
Public art can be viewed throughout North Korea. Posters and murals are generally done
in a naturalistic style commonly known as socialist realism but referred to as “chuch’e
realism” in North Korea; abstraction is strictly forbidden.260 Posters often visually
illustrate exhortation or slogans, and are more likely to use bright colors and bold
255
BBC News. “In Pictures: Arirang Festival.” 30 April 2002. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asiapacific/1959610.stm
256
Koryo Tours. “Mass Games.” 2009. http://www.koryogroup.com/travel_massGames.php
257
OpenDemocracy.net. Portal, Jane. “Art Under Control in North Korea.” 27 June 2006.
http://www.opendemocracy.net/arts-commons/art_northkorea_3690.jsp
258
The Art Newspaper. Dannatt, Adrian. “Inside the Democratic People’s Republic of North Korea.” 18
March 2009. http://www.theartnewspaper.com/includes/common/print.asp?id=17096
259
The Art Newspaper. Dannatt, Adrian. “Inside the Democratic People’s Republic of North Korea.” 18
March 2009. http://www.theartnewspaper.com/includes/common/print.asp?id=17096
260
OpenDemocracy.net. Portal, Jane. “Art Under Control in North Korea.” 27 June 2006.
http://www.opendemocracy.net/arts-commons/art_northkorea_3690.jsp
thematic elements than are public murals. Colors and perspective in some posters are
often used in less naturalistic ways to heighten the dramatic or visual effect.261
Public murals and large-scale paintings, on the other hand, which often show one of the
Kims in a group tableau, are more likely painted in muted colors, using more visual detail.
Many of these large works are done in ink rather than oils and in a style similar to some
medieval sacred Christian paintings. The arrangement of characters is composed in a way
that leads the eye to the central element (e.g., the Christ child), with the scenes in North
Korean murals generally focusing the vision toward the Great (or Dear) Leader.262 This
effect is often heightened by the use of shading and by the softening of background
details.
Literature
North Korean literature remains largely unknown to the world outside the country’s
heavily guarded borders. Only a handful of stories have been translated into English. A
few more have been published in their original language in South Korea. The most
famous of these is probably Hong Sŏk Chung’s Hwang Chin-i, a historical novel set in
the 16th century during the Chosŏn dynasty. When published in South Korea in 2002, the
novel was quite successful, both in terms of sales and critical reception. It was also the
first North Korean work to receive a South Korean literary prize. Because of its historical
setting, the book was largely able to avoid the ideological constraints placed on North
Korean fiction set in a more contemporary time.263
Traditional Dress
In North Korea, traditional Korean dress is referred to as chosŏn-ot
(and as hanbok in South Korea). In ancient times, the wealthy wore
brightly colored silken chosŏn-ot, whereas peasants made do with
cotton or hemp chosŏn-ot that was subdued in coloring.264 Nowadays,
one generally sees brightly colored clothing worn only by performers
in traditional presentations or by public figures such as tour guides or
hosts and servers at some restaurants.265
The traditional chosŏn-ot worn by women features two pieces. The
chŏgori is a full-sleeve short jacket that is tied together in front by long ribbons of fabric.
261
BBC News. “North Korea’s Art of Propaganda.” 29 July 2008.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_pictures/7531260.stm
262
DPRKStudies.org. “DPRK Propaganda Picture Gallery.” 2007.
http://www.dprkstudies.org/documents/nkpics/picgal.html
263
World Without Borders. “An Interview With Hayan Jung.” 2007.
http://www.wordswithoutborders.org/article.php?lab=InterviewHayunJung
264
North Korea in Pictures. Behnke, Alison. “Cultural Life: Food and Dress [p. 53].” 2005. Minneapolis,
Minn: Lerner Publications.
265
North Korea in Pictures. Behnke, Alison. “Cultural Life: Food and Dress [p. 53].” 2005. Minneapolis,
Minn: Lerner Publications.
The ch’ima is a high-waisted, gathered wraparound skirt, usually worn long and full.
Over the centuries, the woman’s chŏgori has alternately shortened and lengthened, with
the modern version typically falling midway between the waist and breast.266 The collar
of the chŏgori is a detachable white strip known as a tongjŏng. The chosŏn-ot for men
also features a chŏgori jacket, although it is longer than the women’s version, extending
to the waist or even lower. It is paired with paji, a type of loose-legged trousers.267 In
winter, both men and women wear the turumagi, a long overcoat.
Folk Culture and Folklore
Most of the ancient Korean myths and legends come from
sources tracing back to the era of the Koryŏ and Chosŏn
Dynasties (918–1910 C.E.), although many of these
stories recount tales from earlier times in Korean history.
One of the most important Koryŏ era sources of historical
legends and folktales is the Samguk Yusa, which was
compiled by the Buddhist monk Iryŏn during the 13th
century.268 Among the stories recounted in the Samguk
Yusa is the oldest known version of the Tam’gun legend, which traces the founding of the
first Korean kingdom in 2333 B.C.E. In addition to the historical legends, the Samguk
Yusa also includes several folktales about ogres, animals, goblins, and other fanciful
creatures and beings.269
Korean myths and legends from the Chosŏn dynasty era have been passed down in
p’ansori, traditional tales that are alternately sung and narrated by a sorrikun (singer) to a
rhythmic accompaniment provided by a kosu (drummer). Originally there were 12
p’ansori stories (madang), but only five of these are still performed today.270 They are
Simch’ŏngga, a tale in which a blind man’s sight is restored through the sacrifice of his
devoted daughter; Ch’unhyangga, a story in which love conquers class differences;
Hŭngbuga, a morality fable involving a virtuous younger brother and an evil older
brother; Sugungga, a fable in which a dutiful turtle sent to secure the liver of a rabbit for
266
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. “Dress: The History of Eastern Dress: Korea.” 2009.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/171379/dress
267
Koreana, Vol. 9, No. 3. Cho, Woo-hyun. “Characteristics of the Korean Costume and Its Development.”
Autumn 1995. http://eng.actakoreana.org/clickkorea/text/13-Clothing/13-95aut-charateristics.html
268
Zentral für Unterrichtsmedien. Korean Minjok Leadership Academy. Lee, Yong Ik. “Korean Society
Depicted in Its Folklore—Goryeo and Joseon Period. 2.3. Social Portrayals in Samguk Yusa.” Fall 2006.
http://www.zum.de/whkmla/sp/0607/yongik/Yongiklee.html#psy
269
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. “Korean Literature: Traditional Forms and Genres: Prose.” 2009.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/322406/Korean-literature
270
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. “Korean Literature: Traditional Forms and Genres: Oral Literature.”
2009. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/322406/Korean-literature
his sick king is tricked by the rabbit; and Chŏkpyŏkka, a retelling of the famous Han
Dynasty Battle of the Red Cliffs.271
Sports and Leisure
Sports and athletic activity are taken very seriously in
North Korea, and children are encouraged to actively
participate in team and individual sports. The Mass
Games in P’yŏngyang feature thousands of children and
teenagers who practice for months to perform various
athletic and gymnastic routines for the games.
Despite the nation’s reputation for isolating itself from
the rest of the world and trying to avoid foreign influences, North Koreans compete in
numerous sports, some of Western origin, in international competition. Foremost among
these is football (soccer). In 1966, in probably the greatest sporting moment in North
Korean history, the national football team stunningly upset the Italian national team in its
first and only appearance in the World Cup. More recently, the North Korean women’s
football team has been quite successful in international competitions.272
In Summer Olympics competition, North Korea has won 41 medals, including 10 gold
medals, since it first competed in 1972. Most of these medals have come in weightlifting
(9 medals, 1 gold), wrestling (9 medals, 3 golds), boxing (8 medals, 2 golds), and judo (7
medals, 1 gold). North Korea has also periodically competed in the Winter Olympics,
earning bronze medals in speed skating in both 1964 and 1992.273
None of these sports, however, would qualify as the North Korea national sport. That
honor would have to be reserved for the Korean martial art known as t’aekwŏndo.
Unarmed martial arts in Korea date back to at least the Koguryŏ kingdom in the 4th
century B.C.E.274 T’aekwŏndo, however, has been around only since the 1940s, when a
major general in South Korea, Choi Hong Hi, developed a hybrid martial art employing
techniques from the Korean martial art of t’aekkyŏ and the Japanese martial art of karate.
Soon thereafter, it was being taught throughout the South Korean military. In 1980, eight
years after he left South Korea, Choi brought t’aekwŏndo to North Korea, in part to
express his hope for reunification. 275, 276, 277 Choi died in 2002 and is buried in
271
University of Maryland. Min, A Chun. “The Process of Transmission in P’ansori, Korean Vocal Music,
Focussing on Hŭngboga [pp. 17–18]. 2004. http://www.lib.umd.edu/drum/bitstream/1903/1822/1/umiumd-1807.pdf
272
International Herald Tribune. Associated Press. “North Korea Wins U-17 Women’s World Cup.” 16
November 2008. http://www.iht.com/articles/2008/11/16/sports/soc17women16.php
273
Sports-Reference.com. “North Korea.” 2009. http://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/countries/PRK/
274
MartialArtsResource.com. Republic of Korea Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Capener, Stephen D.
“Taekwondo: The Spirit of Korea. Chapter 2. The Historical Background of Taekwondo.” 2000.
http://www.martialartsresource.com/anonftp/pub/the_dojang/digests/spirit.html
275
Martial Edge. “General Choi Hong Hi.” 2007. http://www.martialedge.net/definition/people/generalchoi-hong-hi/
P’yŏngyang, where the T’aekwŏndo Palace has for many years been considered the
unofficial training center for Choi’s International T’aekwŏndo Federation.278
Gender Issues
Several commentators have noted that the years of famine
in North Korea during the mid 1990s has seemingly had a
profound effect on the role of women in the society.279, 280,
281
Most communist countries have traditionally had a
high percentage of women working outside the home, but
North Korea in the 1980s and early 1990s provided an
exception, having a much higher percentage of
housewives (70% by one estimate) than other socialist
nations.282 However, as the North Korean economy faltered and the food rations that
were provided at factory jobs became insufficient to feed families, women increasingly
became vendors at unsanctioned markets that began to spring up in towns and cities,
selling homemade foods or unneeded goods from the home. In some cases, they became
involved in small-scale service businesses, such as shops and restaurants.283 Many
women spent increasing amounts of time away from the home as they traded and even
smuggled goods in faraway places.284, 285
276
New York Times. Goldman, Ari L. “Choi Hong Hi, 83, Korean General Who Created Tae Kwon Do.”
29 June 2002. http://www.nytimes.com/2002/06/29/sports/choi-hong-hi-83-korean-general-who-createdtae-kwon-do.html
277
The Guardian. Burdick, Dakin. “General Choi Hong Hi.” 9 August 2002.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/2002/aug/09/guardianobituaries.northkorea
278
MartialArts.com.my. Korea Times. Kim, Tong-hyung. “World Taekwondo Festival Dissolves Barrier
Between ITF, WFA.” 7 June 2008.
http://martialarts.com.my/community/modules/news/article.php?storyid=944
279
Asian Survey, Vol. 46, No. 5. Jung, Kyungja and Bronwen Dalton. “Rhetoric Versus Reality For the
Women of North Korea: Mothers of the Revolution [abstract].” September/October 2006.
http://caliber.ucpress.net/doi/abs/10.1525/as.2006.46.5.741
280
Asia Times. Lankov, Andrei. “North Korea: Market Forces Have Female Faces.” 6 April 2005.
http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/GD06Dg01.html
281
AllAcademic.com. International Studies Association. Park, Kyung-ae. “Food Crisis, Women’s Changing
Economic Role, and Their Implications For Women’s Status in North Korea.” 15–18 February 2009.
http://www.allacademic.com/one/isa/isa09/index.php
282
AllAcademic.com. International Studies Association. Park, Kyung-ae. “Food Crisis, Women’s Changing
Economic Role, and Their Implications For Women’s Status in North Korea [p. 6].” 15–18 February 2009.
http://www.allacademic.com/one/isa/isa09/index.php
283
AllAcademic.com. International Studies Association. Park, Kyung-ae. “Food Crisis, Women’s Changing
Economic Role, and Their Implications For Women’s Status in North Korea [p. 9].” 15–18 February 2009.
http://www.allacademic.com/one/isa/isa09/index.php
284
Asia Times. Lankov, Andrei. “North Korea: Market Forces Have Female Faces.” 6 April 2005.
http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/GD06Dg01.html
285
AllAcademic.com. International Studies Association. Kyung-ae. “Food Crisis, Women’s Changing
Economic Role, and Their Implications For Women’s Status in North Korea [p. 18].” 15–18 February 2009.
http://www.allacademic.com/one/isa/isa09/index.php
Initially this nascent bottom-up market economy primarily involved women from the
hardest hit sectors of the North Korean economy. Eventually, however, some of the
housewives in the more elite North Korean families, where rations had not been as
severely cut, began to re-sell goods purchased at cheap official prices at their husbands’
factories. Meanwhile, many North Korean men remained tethered to jobs at factories in
the official economy that no longer were operating, showing up at their workplaces only
to remain qualified for the meager, and sometimes no longer existent, monthly wages and
food rations.286 Thus, in the period of a few short years, women became the most
important provider in many North Korean families.287
The effects of these economic changes are seemingly profound, based on the
commentaries by recent defectors from North Korea. Many men have taken on a more
domestic role within the family structure, carrying out housekeeping and childcare
responsibilities that would have been unthinkable a few decades ago.288, 289 This change
in traditional roles is difficult for some men to accept and is identified as likely being the
underlying cause of increased domestic violence.290
286
Asia Times. Lankov, Andrei. “North Korea: Market Forces Have Female Faces.” 6 April 2005.
http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/GD06Dg01.html
287
Asia Times. Lankov, Andrei. “North Korea: Market Forces Have Female Faces.” 6 April 2005.
http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/GD06Dg01.html
288
Asia Times. Lankov, Andrei. “North Korea: Market Forces Have Female Faces.” 6 April 2005.
http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/GD06Dg01.html
289
AllAcademic.com. International Studies Association. Park, Kyung-ae. “Food Crisis, Women’s Changing
Economic Role, and Their Implications For Women’s Status in North Korea [p. 19-20].” 15–18 February
2009. http://www.allacademic.com/one/isa/isa09/index.php
290
AllAcademic.com. International Studies Association. Park, Kyung-ae. “Food Crisis, Women’s Changing
Economic Role, and Their Implications For Women’s Status in North Korea [p. 18].” 15–18 February 2009.
http://www.allacademic.com/one/isa/isa09/index.php
Security
Introduction
North Korea’s official state philosophy is chuch’e, an
ideology whose purpose is to impel the nation’s citizens
to work together to forge a uniquely Korean revolution;
their remarkable economic achievements would then
inspire the rest of the world. Outside assistance is clearly
not needed, according to such a point of view. However,
since the nation’s economy has imploded during the last
two decades, such self-reliance—which in truth was
never achieved, owing to continued support provided by the Soviet Union and China for
many decades—has become more an empty slogan than a reflection of the country’s true
economic state.
Thus, the modern Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK), or North Korea,
reflects less the chuch’e ideal than it does its more recently introduced governing
principle, namely sŏn’gun chŏngch’i (“military-first”). This tenet was introduced by Kim
Jong Il in 1995, during the famine period known in the DPRK as the “Arduous March.”
As a result of the sŏn’gun policy, the military has built its position as North Korea’s most
powerful institution, stretching its reach into nearly all areas of economic and political
decision making.291 Some sources argue that history has shown that a military-dominated
governmental structure such as North Korea’s, driven more by pragmatism than
economic ideology, can potentially be a positive force in generating needed economic
reforms. But others note that the North Korean military’s position of favor can only be
hurt by a reduction in external and internal tensions.292, 293 Taken from this point of view,
continued security threats against North Korea, real or imagined, are beneficial in the
minds of the DPRK military. Or, as one North Korean analyst has put it, “those
bemedalled old generals have much to lose from any outbreak of peace.”294
Military and Internal Security
North Korea’s military, officially known as the Korean People’s Army (KPA), is one of
the world’s largest. According to recent estimates, there are approximately 1.2 million
active-duty members in the North Korean military, a number surpassed only by the much
291
Brookings Institution. Vorontsov, Alexander V. “North Korea’s Military-First Policy: A Curse or a
Blessing?” 26 May 2006. http://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2006/0526northkorea_vorontsov.aspx
292
Brookings Institution. Vorontsov, Alexander V. “North Korea’s Military-First Policy: A Curse or a
Blessing?” 26 May 2006. http://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2006/0526northkorea_vorontsov.aspx
293
Nautilus Institute. Foster-Carter, Aidan. “Response to ‘North Korea’s Military-First Policy: A Curse or a
Blessing?’” 22 June 2006. http://www.nautilus.org/fora/security/0645Discussion.html
294
Nautilus Institute. Foster-Carter, Aidan. “Response to ‘North Korea’s Military-First Policy: A Curse or a
Blessing?’” 22 June 2006. http://www.nautilus.org/fora/security/0645Discussion.html
larger countries of China, the United States, and India.295, 296 North Korea’s overall
military spending may consume as much as one quarter
of the nation’s GDP.297
Most of the KPA consists of ground forces, a large
percentage of which are deployed in forward positions
near the demilitarized zone (DMZ). Of these, a relatively
large number (87,000 by one recent estimate) are special
operations forces, trained for combat behind enemy
lines.298, 299 The North Korean navy, with an estimated
60,000 personnel, is primarily restricted to coastal
defense and largely consists of aged surface vessels and submarines. The North Korean
air force has an estimated troop strength of 110,000, split up among four air divisions
operating out of 11 airbases, many of which are located close to the DMZ.300
All North Korean men serve for at least 10 years of active duty in the KPA (military),
with conscription beginning at age 17.301 After they are discharged from active duty,
North Korean men are then required to carry out part-time service in the Workers and
Peasants Red Guard between the ages of 40 and 60. Some North Korean women also
serve in the military, although their service is not mandatory.
Internal security within North Korea is carried out by the Ministry of People’s Security
(MPS) and the State Security Department (SSD). The 189,000 MPS employees are
responsible for basic policing, border control, providing security for the transportation
infrastructure, and even air-traffic control.302 They also are charged with responsibility
for identifying citizens whose statements or activities may indicate disloyalty to the Kim
regime. Those citizens who are so identified then have their cases transferred to the SSD,
295
Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, U.S. Department of State. “Background Note: North Korea.”
February 2009. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+kp0023)
296
Center for Strategic and International Studies. Cordesman, Anthony and Martin Kleiber. “The Asian
Conventional Military Balance in 2006: Total and Sub-Regional Balances: Northeast Asia, Southeast Asia,
and South Asia [p. 33].” 26 June 2006. http://www.comw.org/cmp/fulltext/0606cordesman.pdf
297
Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, U.S. Department of State. “Background Note: North Korea.”
February 2009. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+kp0023)
298
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. “Country Profile: North Korea.” July 2007.
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/North_Korea.pdf
299
Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, U.S. Department of State. “Background Note: North Korea.”
February 2009. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+kp0023)
300
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. “Country Profile: North Korea.” July 2007.
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/North_Korea.pdf
301
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. “Country Profile: North Korea.” July 2007.
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/North_Korea.pdf
302
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. “Country Profile: North Korea.” July 2007.
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/North_Korea.pdf
which carries out investigations of suspected political dissidents, and manages the
political prisons in which those who are arrested are sent.303
U.S.–North Korean Relations
From the North Korean government, statements of
animosity toward the U.S. have seldom subsided, and the
nation’s populace continues to be periodically reminded
through slogans and propaganda campaigns about the
fierce fighting between the two nations’ armies during the
Korean War. The U.S., for its part, has generally
distanced itself from North Korea, although at times it
has used similarly hostile rhetoric against the Kim
regime—most memorably in U.S. President George W. Bush’s reference to North Korea
as a member state of an “Axis of Evil” during his 2002 State of the Union address.
The DPRK, or North Korea, and the United States have never had formal diplomatic
relations since the DPRK came into existence in 1948. During most of that time (1950–
2008), the United States has also banned most commercial trade and financial
transactions with the DPRK under the Trading With the Enemy Act.304 In 1988, a few
months after two North Korean terrorists planted a bomb that blew up a Korean Air Lines
flight on its way to Baghdad, the United States placed North Korea on the list of State
Sponsors of Terrorism, where it stayed for the next 20 years.305
U.S.–North Korean Negotiations
Since the early 1990s, the United States and North Korea have carried out extensive
negotiations concerning the DPRK’s nuclear and ballistic missiles programs. In 1994, an
Agreed Framework was negotiated, which provided a roadmap for the eventual
denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula. As part of this agreement, the U.S. agreed both
to provide North Korea with annual fuel-oil shipments and to work with an international
consortium to develop two light-water reactors in North Korea. In exchange, North Korea
agreed to freeze the development of its nuclear program and work with the U.S. to safely
store its existing spent nuclear fuel. In 1999, the DPRK announced a voluntary end to its
long-range missile-testing program.306
303
North Korea Through the Looking Glass. Oh, Kongdan and Ralph C. Hassig. “6. Social Control [pp.
135–136].” Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
304
1StopKorea.com. “Trading With the Enemy Act.” 2007. http://1stopkorea.com/index.htm?nk-tradesanctions.htm~mainframe
305
PolicyArchive.org. Congressional Research Service. Nanto, Dick. “North Korea: Chronology of
Provocations, 1950-2003.” 18 March 2003.
https://www.policyarchive.org/bitstream/handle/10207/884/RL30004_20030318.pdf?sequence=2
306
Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, U.S. Department of State. “Background Note: North Korea.”
February 2009. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2792.htm
A crisis in these negotiations occurred in late 2002 and
early 2003, when North Korea announced its withdrawal
from the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and began to
reprocess spent nuclear fuel as a means to obtain
weapons-grade plutonium. During this period, the U.S.
proposed bringing other international parties into the
nuclear talks. By August 2003, China, Japan, South
Korea, and Russia began the first of a still-continuing
series of Six-Party Talks on North Korean de-nuclearization. After North Korea
announced its first successful test of a nuclear device in October 2006, subsequent SixParty Talks led to agreements by North Korea to dismantle its nuclear facilities. A further
negotiated agreement in 2008 on verification measures eventually led to North Korea’s
removal from the State Sponsors of Terrorism list.307
Relations With Neighboring Countries
Russia
Although North Korea and Russia share only 19 km (12 mi) of border, the two countries
have an extensive, interwoven history, marked both by periods of comradeship and by
periods of escalating tensions. Although the P’yŏngyang–Moscow relationship ran hot
and cold between the late 1950s through the late 1980s (usually in inverse relation to the
closeness of the Kim regime’s ties with Beijing) the Soviets remained a steady provider
of military technology and economic assistance to North Korea. However, as the Soviet
Union’s relations with the West thawed during the late 1980s, North Korea saw the
support it received from its large neighbor to the north begin to decline. A low point was
reached in August 1991, when an unsuccessful coup attempt against Soviet leader
Mikhail Gorbachev set off a chain of events that ultimately would lead to the dissolution
of the Soviet Union a few months later.
During the period from 1991 to 1996, the Russian
government of Boris Yeltsin instituted tightened trade
terms with North Korea. Hard currency, rather than barter
arrangements, became the new standard for transactions,
and prevailing world pricing was applied to Russian
goods sold to North Korea instead of the discounts
previously offered. The Russian government also
pressured P’yŏngyang to repay debt accumulated during
307
Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, U.S. Department of State. “Background Note: North Korea.”
February 2009. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2792.htm
the Soviet era. As a result, the DPRK suffered a sharp decline in its oil imports from
Russia, which contributed significantly to a rapidly accelerating economic collapse in
North Korea during this period of time.308
During the later part of the Yeltsin presidency and continuing on into the 2000s,
Moscow’s relations with the Kim regime have steadily normalized as both nations view
the pragmatic advantages of closer ties. In particular, Russia has long-range goals of
developing energy infrastructure and rail corridors on the Korean Peninsula, which would
connect with their existing networks in Siberia.309, 310 These projects, however, can be
pursued only if stable, cooperative relations between North and South Korea allow for it.
For this to happen, the ongoing nuclear crisis between North Korea and its neighbors will
need to be resolved and North Korea will need to be willing to open up investment in its
economy to a degree not yet seen.311
China
China is North Korea’s most important trading partner.
Imports from China provide more food, fuel, and other
supplies to North Korea than any other nation. In terms of
economic development, Chinese companies are among
the few outside investors in North Korean industrial
enterprises.312 China is also a significant provider of aid
to North Korea, although the exact amounts or types of
aid are not known.313 For these reasons, and because of
the traditionally strong ties between these two countries, China is widely viewed as the
nation having the most significant influence on the DPRK.
China also shares a long border with North Korea. Thus, for the Chinese leadership, a
real concern in bilateral relations is that some sort of internal shock in North Korea (e.g.,
extreme famine conditions, regime-change instability, or even another war between the
two Koreas) would result in hundreds of thousands of North Korean refugees spilling
308
East-West Research Institute. International Journal of Korean Studies. Zacek, Jane Shapiro. “Russian
Policy Toward the Korean Peninsula, 1991-2001.” Fall-Winter 2001. http://www.ewri.org/pdf/2001-FALLWINTER/chapter2.pdf
309
DownstreamToday.com. Yonhap News Agency. “South Korea, Russia Agree on Gas Pipeline Project.”
29 September 2008. http://www.downstreamtoday.com/news/article.aspx?a_id=13065
310
International Crisis Group. “North Korea-Russia Relations: A Strained Friendship [p. 12,13].” 4
December 2007. http://www.ewri.org/pdf/2001-FALL-WINTER/chapter2.pdf
311
International Crisis Group. “North Korea-Russia Relations: A Strained Friendship [p. 1].” 4 December
2007. http://www.ewri.org/pdf/2001-FALL-WINTER/chapter2.pdf
312
New York Times. Yardley, Jim. “Sanctions Don’t Dent N. Korea-China Trade.” 27 October 2006.
http://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/27/world/asia/27border.html
313
United States Institute of Peace. Glaser, Bonnie and Scott Snyder, John S. Park. “Keeping an Eye on an
Unruly Neighbor: Chinese Views of Economic Reform and Stability in North Korea [pp. 11–12].” 3
January 2008. http://www.usip.org/pubs/working_papers/wp6_china_northkorea.pdf
across its border. Even now, thousands of North Koreans cross into China each year,
even though China has a repatriation treaty with North Korea.314
Another important consideration in Beijing’s dealing with P’yŏngyang is the potential
effect of North Korean actions, and of China’s response to these actions, on China’s
relations with South Korea, Japan, Russia, and the U.S. As a result, think tanks around
the world keep legions of China analysts busy trying to discern and analyze the political
calculus that guides China’s relations with its somewhat unpredictable and irascible
neighbor.315, 316
Many of these analysts agree that a turning point in the Sino-DPRK relationship occurred
when North Korea performed its first nuclear-weapons test in October 2006, in active
defiance of China’s behind-the-scenes negotiating to forestall such testing.317 China—
which previously used “soft” diplomacy towards North Korea on the nuclear issue (i.e., a
policy that focuses more on rewards for good behavior rather than on negative
consequences for bad behavior)—quickly supported a United Nations Security Council
Resolution that imposed sanctions on North Korea. As one Chinese People’s Liberation
Army officer was quoted, “Our reaction to the nuclear test shows that we must speak out.
We can’t continue to appease whatever the DPRK does.”318
South Korea
South Korea and North Korea have had many ups and
downs in their relations over the past few decades. As
recently as October 2007, Kim Jong Il and South Korean
President Roh Moo Hyun met in a highly publicized
three-day summit in P’yŏngyang, signing a declaration
that pledged further joint economic projects to help
develop the North’s economy and infrastructure. In
addition, the North Korean leadership agreed to work
314
Asia Times. Lee, Sunny. “Ladies First: China Opens to Korean Refugees.” 20 July 2007.
http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/IG20Ad01.html
315
Council on Foreign Relations. Bajoria, Jayshree. “The China-North Korea Relationship.” 18 June 2008.
http://www.cfr.org/publication/11097/
316
United States Institute of Peace. Glaser, Bonnie and Scott Snyder, John S. Park. “Keeping an Eye on an
Unruly Neighbor: Chinese Views of Economic Reform and Stability in North Korea.” 3 January 2008.
http://www.usip.org/pubs/working_papers/wp6_china_northkorea.pdf
317
International Relations and Security Network. “North Korea’s Nuclear Test: The Fallout.” International
Crisis Group. 2006. http://www.isn.ethz.ch/isn/DigitalLibrary/Publications/Detail/?ord516=OrgaGrp&ots591=0C54E3B3-1E9C-BE1E-2C24A6A8C7060233&lng=en&id=26063
318
United States Institute of Peace. Glaser, Bonnie and Scott Snyder, John S. Park. “Keeping an Eye on an
Unruly Neighbor: Chinese Views of Economic Reform and Stability in North Korea [p. 6].” 3 January
2008. http://www.usip.org/pubs/working_papers/wp6_china_northkorea.pdf
with South Korea in negotiating a formal peace treaty to the Korean War, a concession to
their earlier stance that only China and the U.S. need be involved in such a negotiation
because South Korea had never signed the 1953 armistice.319
A few months later, however, Roh was defeated in the South Korean Presidential election
by Lee Myung Bak, who campaigned on a promise to make South Korean aid and
investment to North Korea more dependent on the degree to which North Korea
dismantled its nuclear program.320 North Korea quickly took offense with Lee’s tougher
approach, particularly his hinting that he would revisit the Roh-Kim summit pledges on
investment in North Korea.
In April 2008, P’yŏngyang cut off all official dialog with South Korea, forced all South
Koreans to leave Kaesŏng, and demanded that the 2007 summit agreements be
honored.321 North–South relations further declined in August 2008, when a South Korean
tourist was shot and killed by the North Korean military after wandering off the premises
of the Mount Kŭmgang tourist resort. By the end of January 2009, North Korea had
pulled out of the earlier agreements with South Korea that had intended to lessen the
political and military tensions between the two countries.322
North and South Korea have much to lose by returning to a state of confrontation, besides
the obvious increased risk of conflict. The future of the Kaesŏng Industrial Park and
Mount Kŭmgang projects has become increasingly uncertain since North Korea began
limiting South Korean access to these facilities during political face-offs.323, 324 South
Korea, in particular, has envisioned these and other joint ventures with the North as an
important tool for reducing the economic gap between the two Koreas, laying a
groundwork, hopefully, for eventual unification.325
Terrorism
The North Korean government is not known to have participated in or sponsored any acts
of terrorism since the 1987 bombing of the Korean Air Lines jet on its way to
319
New York Times. Onishi, Norimitsu. “Korean Summit Results Exceed Low Expectations.” 5 October
2007. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/05/world/asia/05korea.html
320
BBC News, International Version. “Profile: Lee Myung-bak.” 25 February 2009.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7150162.stm
321
New York Times. Choe, Sang-hun. “South Korean Offer to North Is Marred by Killing of Tourist.” 12
July 2008. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/12/world/asia/12korea.html
322
New York Times. Choe, Sang-hun. “North Korea Scrapping Accords With South Korea.” 29 January
2009. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/30/world/asia/30nkorea.html
323
NKEconWatch. Yonhap News Agency. “Kaesong Zone Battered and Bruised.” 20 March 2009.
http://www.nkeconwatch.com/2009/03/14/kaesong-zone-bruised-and-battered/
324
WCCO.com. Associated Press. “North Korea to Halt Border Crossings With the South.” 11 November
2008. http://wcco.com/national/north.south.korea.2.862136.html
325
New York Times. Onishi, Norimitsu. “Korean Summit Results Exceed Low Expectations.” 5 October
2007. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/05/world/asia/05korea.html
Baghdad.326 In late 2008, North Korea was taken off the U.S. Government’s list of State
Sponsors of Terrorism, on which it had been included
since 1988.
Prior to the 1990s, North Korea frequently kidnapped
citizens from neighboring countries. In particular, South
Korea estimates that nearly 500 of its citizens have been
abducted by DPRK agents since the end of the Korean
War.327 Japan has also been victimized by North Korean
abductions, although not to the same extent. Between
1977 and 1982, 13 Japanese citizens are known to have
been kidnapped and taken to North Korea. (The Japanese government, however, claims
that 17 individuals were actually abducted.)328 The North Korean government in 2002
admitted to 13 abductions, and later that year it allowed the five abductees, who it stated
were the only ones still alive, to return to Japan. Two years later, the families of the five
abductees also were returned to Japan. Nonetheless, questions remain as to whether any
of the remaining eight abductees are still alive. The fate of these Japanese kidnap victims
is an issue that continues to cloud Japanese–DPRK relations.329
Given the high level of internal policing against dissension within North Korea, it is not
surprising that the country itself has not apparently suffered any terrorist actions. North
Korea is also not known to harbor any members of international terrorist groups, other
than four members of the Japanese Communist League-Red Army Faction, who
surrendered themselves to North Korean officials after hijacking a Japanese Airlines
flight and flying it to P’yŏngyang in 1970.330, 331
An ongoing point of concern has been North Korea’s willingness to sell its weapons,
missiles, and possibly nuclear technology to other states, some of which help arm
organizations that the U.S. and other countries consider terrorist organizations. Both Iran
and Syria are known to have purchased missiles from North Korea in the past, and U.S.
326
Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism. Country Reports on Terrorism 2007. “Chapter 6. State
Sponsors of Terror Oveview.” 30 April 2008. http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2007/103711.htm
327
Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism. Country Reports on Terrorism 2005. “Chapter 6. State
Sponsors of Terror Oveview.” 28 April 2006. http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2005/64337.htm
328
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. “Abductions of Japanese Citizens by North Korea.” 2008.
http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/n_korea/abduction.pdf
329
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. “Abductions of Japanese Citizens by North Korea.” 2008.
http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/n_korea/abduction.pdf
330
National Police Agency of Japan. “Movements of the Japanese Red Army and the ‘Yodo-go’ Group.”
October 2005. http://www.npa.go.jp/keibi/kokutero1/english/0301.html
331
Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism. Country Reports on Terrorism 2007. “Chapter 6. State
Sponsors of Terror Oveview.” 30 April 2008. http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2007/103711.htm
intelligence officials believe North Korea was helping Syria build a nuclear reactor
before it was destroyed by Israeli warplanes in 2007.332, 333
Issues Affecting Security
Food Supply
Arguably no other event in North Korea’s history brought more
wrenching changes to the nation than the food emergency between
1995 and 1998. This period of famine, now referred to by North
Korean government officials as the “Arduous March,” brought the
public distribution system for food to a standstill.334 As a result,
private farmers’ markets sprang up in urban areas, where
nonsubsidized food was either purchased with cash or obtained
through barter. With little to lose, many North Koreans also began to
ignore tight governmental travel restrictions. An unprecedented wave
of North Koreans migrated across the Chinese border, some for only
temporary periods before coming back with goods or income from
China.335 In response, the DPRK government set up a number of detention facilities
designed to hold those caught traveling without a permit.336, 337
There were several reasons why the famine during the 1990s was so severe, beginning
early in the decade when shipments of subsidized food, oil, and equipment from the
Soviet Union and China were reduced. Then two years of floods, followed by a severe
drought in 1997, were the culminating events. Because North Korea’s economy has
declined to the point that it has little to offer other nations in terms of exports other than
military hardware, the economy cannot rely on its trade capacity or hard currency
reserves to make up for shortfalls in grain production during periods of excessive or
insufficient rainfall. Food aid from donor countries and agencies—most notably, South
Korea, China, the European Union, the U.S, and the United Nations—and improved grain
harvests in the 2000s have helped fend off another devastating famine in the intervening
years.338 However, North Korea continues to walk a very thin line between food
332
Wisconsin Project on Nuclear Arms Control. The Risk Report, Vol. 6, No. 5. “North Korea Missile
Milestones 1969–2005.” September–October 2000.
http://www.wisconsinproject.org/countries/nkorea/north-korea-miles.html
333
Los Angeles Times. Richter, Paul and Greg Miller. “U.S. Offers Evidence of North Korea-Syria Nuclear
Plant.” 25 April 2008. http://articles.latimes.com/2008/apr/25/world/fg-ussyria25
334
The People’s Korea. “DPRK Hails End of ‘Arduous March.’” 14 October 2000. http://www1.koreanp.co.jp/pk/149th_issue/2000101402.htm
335
United States Institute of Peace. Natsios, Andrew. “The Politics of Famine in North Korea [pp. 11–12].”
2 August 1999. http://www.usip.org/pubs/specialreports/sr990802.pdf
336
United States Institute of Peace. Natsios, Andrew. “The Politics of Famine in North Korea [p. 12].” 2
August 1999. http://www.usip.org/pubs/specialreports/sr990802.pdf
337
In North Korea: An American Travels Through an Imprisoned Nation. Nanchu and Xing Hang. “19.
Seeking a Change.” 2003. Jefferson, N.C: McFarland.
338
United States Institute of Peace. Natsios, Andrew. “The Politics of Famine in North Korea [p. 8].” 2
August 1999. http://www.usip.org/pubs/specialreports/sr990802.pdf
sufficiency and food deficit, with a summer of too much rainfall or too little rainfall
always capable of tipping the balance.
Succession
Long-time North Korea watchers have few doubts that
Kim Jong Il will continue as the nation’s leader until his
death. He has already shown an ability to survive
cataclysmic events that almost certainly would have
toppled leaders with less control over internal sources of
dissent. However, as persistent rumors of ill health have
begun to swirl around the DPRK leader, there has been
increasing discussion about the future of North Korean
leadership after Kim passes away.
Many observers assume that the next North Korean leader will continue the Kim
“dynasty” begun by Kim Il Sung. Kim Jong Il’s succession after his father died was, from
all appearances, relatively smooth, partly because he was able to take leadership of the
powerful National Defense Commission, which commands and controls the nation’s
military, prior to his father’s death. The younger Kim had also been publically approved
as the country’s next leader nearly 15 years before his father’s death, which allowed
DPRK propaganda plenty of time to build a new cult of personality around Kim Jong
Il.339, 340 Even so, at least one planned coup attempt was thwarted during Kim Jong Il’s
early years of power, formulated by an army unit in the famine-stricken city of
Hamhung.341
None of Kim Jong Il’s three sons currently occupy a position of authority within the
government. As of early 2009, the front-runner to succeed Kim Jong Il would be his
youngest son, 25-year-old Kim Jong Un, who is rumored to be his father’s choice, even
though Kim Jong Un did not stand for election in the North Korean parliamentary
elections in March 2009, as many expected he would.342 Kim Jong Un is thought to be
backed by important military interests, who see him as most likely to carry on the current
economic system.343 However, little in DPRK politics is ever certain. For the U.S. and
339
Encyclopedia of the Nations. “Kim Jong Il: Leadership.” 2003.
http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/World-Leaders-2003/Korea-Democratic-People-s-Republic-ofLEADERSHIP.html
340
Encyclopedia of the Nations. “Kim Jong Il: Rise to Power.” 2003.
http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/World-Leaders-2003/Korea-Democratic-People-s-Republic-of-RISETO-POWER.html
341
United States Institute of Peace. Natsios, Andrew. “The Politics of Famine in North Korea [p. 10].” 2
August 1999. http://www.usip.org/pubs/specialreports/sr990802.pdf
342
Bloomberg.com. Koo, Heejin. “Kim Jong Il’s Son, Possible Successor, Isn’t Named as Lawmaker.” 9
March 2009.
http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601086&sid=aFAm9ndQmJpI&refer=latin_america
343
Stratfor Global Intelligence. “North Korea: Power Plays Amid Leadership Succession Rumors.” 28
February 2009.
North Korea’s neighbors, the largest concern is that a succession crisis will ensue after
Kim Jong Il’s death. Such an event could throw the heavily militarized country into a
state of dangerous instability.344
http://www.stratfor.com/analysis/20090227_north_korea_power_plays_amid_leadership_succession_rumo
rs
344
Council on Foreign Relations. Stares, Paul B. and Scott A. Snyder, Anya Schmemann. “Preparing for
Sudden Change in North Korea.” Stratfor Global Intelligence. 28 January 2009.
http://www.cfr.org/publication/18440/preparing_for_sudden_change_in_north_korea.html