Article
pubs.acs.org/JPCA
Ultraviolet Photodissociation Dynamics of the 1‑Propenyl Radical
Michael Lucas and Yu Song
Department of Chemistry, University of California at Riverside, Riverside, California 92521, United States
Jingsong Zhang*
Department of Chemistry and Air Pollution Research Center, University of California at Riverside, Riverside, California 92521,
United States
Christopher Brazier
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University, Long Beach Long Beach, California 90840, United States
Paul L. Houston
School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332
Department of Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14850, United States
Joel M. Bowman
Department of Chemistry and Cherry L. Emerson Center for Scientific Computation, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
ABSTRACT: Ultraviolet (UV) photodissociation dynamics of jet-cooled
1-propenyl radical (CHCHCH3) were investigated at the photolysis wavelengths
from 224 to 248 nm using high-n Rydberg atom time-of-flight (HRTOF)
technique. The 1-propenyl radicals were produced from 193 nm photolysis of
1-chloropropene and 1-bromopropene precursors. The photofragment yield (PFY)
spectra of the H atom product have a broad peak centered at 230 nm. The H + C3H4
product translational energy P(ET) distribution’s peak near ∼8 kcal/mol, and the
fraction of average translational energy in the total available energy, ⟨f T⟩, is nearly a
constant of ∼0.12 from 224 to 248 nm. The H atom product has an isotropic angular
distribution with the anisotropy parameter β ≈ 0. Quasiclassical trajectory calculations
were also carried out using an ab initio ground-state potential energy surface for
dissociation of 1-propenyl at the excitation energy of 124 kcal/mol (230 nm). The
calculated branching ratios are 60% to the methyl + acetylene products, 16% to
H + propyne, 4% to H + allene, and 1% to H + cyclopropene. The experimental and
calculated P(ET) distributions of the H + C3H4 products at 230 nm are in a qualitative agreement, suggesting that the H + propyne
dissociation is the main H atom product channel. The calculated dissociation time scale on the ground electronic state is ∼1 ps,
shorter than but close to the time scale of >10 ps for the overall UV photodissociation implied by the isotropic H atom product
angular distribution. The UV photodissociation mechanism of 1-propenyl can be described as unimolecular decomposition of hot
1-propenyl radical on the ground electronic state following internal conversion from the electronically excited states of 1-propenyl.
■
INTRODUCTION
C3H5 radicals have four isomers, allyl (CH2CHCH2), 1-propenyl
(CHCHCH3), 2-propenyl (CH2CCH3), and cyclo-propyl
(c-C3H5). Among the three linear isomers, allyl is a resonancestabilized radical and the smallest π-conjugated system with an
odd number of π-electrons, while 1-propenyl and 2-propenyl are
β- and α-CH3-substituted vinyl radicals, respectively. The C3H5
radicals are important in hydrocarbon combustion.1−5 Direct
H atom abstraction reactions of propene to form the linear
C3H5 radicals compete with addition reactions of propene in
© 2016 American Chemical Society
combustion conditions and become more important at higher
temperatures.6,7 The allyl radical is a precursor in the formation
of aromatic hydrocarbons, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,
Special Issue: Piergiorgio Casavecchia and Antonio Lagana
Festschrift
Received: January 31, 2016
Revised: March 4, 2016
Published: March 10, 2016
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Figure 1. Potential energy diagram of the C3H5 system. All the energies are referenced to that of the most stable isomer, allyl radical (global minimum, GM). The
1-propenyl, 2-propenyl, and cyclo-propyl isomers are labeled as LM2 (local minimum 2), LM1, and LM3, respectively, as in ref 21. Three H-loss dissociation
channels and two CH3-loss channels are shown. The energetics and pathways are based on the theoretical calculations in ref 8 and 21, with zero point energy
corrections. The vertical excitation energies of the 1-propenyl electronic excited states are based on ref 20 and are relative to 1-propenyl (LM2) at 24.0 kcal/mol.
The bracket next to the excited electronic states indicates the photolysis wavelengths from 224 to 248 nm (starting from 1-propenyl, LM2) in this study.
and soot,2−4 while isomerization and unimolecular dissociation
of the 1-propenyl and 2-propenyl radicals are involved in the allyl
kinetics in combustion.5,8
The electronic excited states and spectroscopy of the allyl
radical have been extensively studied experimentally and theoretically,9−19 while the studies on the 1-propenyl and 2-propenyl
radicals are limited.20 The first electronic absorption band of allyl
at 370−410 nm was assigned to the à 2B1 ← X̃ 2A2 (valence n ← π
and π* ← n) transition.9 A strong ultraviolet (UV) electronic
absorption band with diffuse structure was observed in the
210−250 nm region,10−15 due to Rydberg ← n excitations to
four Rydberg electronic excited states, B̃ 2A1(3s) (band origin
249.7 nm), C̃ 2B2(3py) (240.63 nm), D̃ 2A1(3pz) (236.8 nm),
and Ẽ 2B1(3px) (∼230.9 nm) of allyl.14,15 The transition to the
Ẽ 2B1(3px) state contributes most of the oscillator strength in
the UV electronic band of allyl.14,15 There have been no experimental studies on the electronic spectroscopy of the 1-propenyl
and 2-propenyl radicals so far, while there was only one theoretical
study using the equation-of-motion coupled cluster methods
(EOM-CCSD).20 The electronic excited states of 1-propenyl and
2-propenyl are similar to those of the vinyl radical with the first
three electronic excitations being valence n ← π, π* ← n, and
π* ← π, followed by the Rydberg 3s ← n and 3p ← n excitations.
The theory predicted that the first few electronic excited states of
1-propenyl are à 2A″ (n ← π, vertical excitation energy 408 nm),
B̃ 2A″ (π* ← n, 242 nm), C̃ 2A′ (π* ← π, 221 nm), and D̃ 2A′ (3s ← n,
202 nm).20 Among these states, B̃ 2A″ and C̃ 2A′ were predicted to
have higher oscillator strengths.20
Among the four C3H5 isomers, the photodissociation of
the allyl radical has been extensively investigated. Figure 1
shows the energetics and dissociation pathways of the C3H5
isomers based on the theoretical work of Chen et al.21 and
Narendrapurapu et al.8 Three H-loss dissociation channels,
allene (CH2CCH2) + H, propyne (CH3CCH) + H, and cyclopropene (c-C3H4) + H, and two methyl loss channels, CH3 +
C2H2 (acetylene) and CH3 + CCH2(vinylidene), are available.
The photodissociation dynamics of allyl via the à 2B1 state has
been examined in the near-UV region of 420−380 nm,22,23 and
via the B̃ 2A1, C̃ 2B2, and Ẽ 2B1 states in the UV region of 249−
216 nm.22,24−26 In the near-UV region, the H-loss product
channels of allyl have a product translational energy distribution
P(ET) peaking near zero and an isotropic angular distribution. It
was proposed that the à 2B1 state of allyl decays into the ground
state and the hot allyl radical dissociates to allene + H directly
and to propyne + H via isomerization to the 1- and 2-propenyl
radicals with the direct loss of the central H atom to form allene
as the major product channel.22,23 In the UV region from 249 to
216 nm, both the H atom loss and CH3-loss channels were
experimentally observed and confirmed by trajectory calculations21,22,24−27 with the H-loss channel being more important
and a branching ratio of the H loss to the CH3 loss of 95:5 at
248 nm.21,22,25 The UV photodissociation mechanism of allyl
was hot radical dissociation on the ground electronic state
following internal conversion from the UV excited electronic
states.21,22,24,26 The product translational energy release of the
H-loss product channel is modest with the P(ET) distributions
peaking near 8.5 kcal/mol and the fraction of the average
translational energy in the total excess energy, ⟨f T⟩, being
∼0.2 from 249 to 216 nm.26 The H atom product angular
distribution is isotropic. H atoms are produced mainly from
direct dissociation of allyl to allene + H, while isomerization to
1-propenyl or 2-propenyl is required to produce propyne + H,
with an allene + H and propyne + H ratio of 6:1 indicated by the
trajectory calculations for an excitation energy of 115 kcal/mol
(equivalent to the 248 nm photoexcitation energy).21 The P(ET)
of the CH3 + C2H2 channel peaked at 16 kcal/mol.22 The CH3
elimination channel requires a 1,3 sigmatropic H shift to
1-propenyl or sequential 1,2 H shifts from allyl to 2-propenyl to
1-propenyl.21,25,27
As the intermediate in the unimolecular dissociation pathways
of allyl to the propyne + H and CH3 elimination channels, 1-propenyl
has the same dissociation channels as allyl (Figure 1),8,21 C−C
bond fission to produce C2H2 + CH3, C−H bond fission to
produce propyne + H, and isomerization to allyl or 2-propenyl
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radicals followed by C−H bond fission to allene + H or to
cyclopropene + H.
toward a microchannel plate (MCP) detector positioned
perpendicular to the molecular beam and were field-ionized in
front of the detector and detected. The nominal flight length was
37.02 cm, which was calibrated by 236 nm photodissociation of
HBr with the well-known HBr dissociation energy and spin−
orbit splitting energy of Br(2P3/2) and Br(2P1/2). The ion signals
were amplified by a fast preamplifier, and the H atom TOF
spectra were recorded and averaged using a multichannel scaler.
Quasiclassical trajectory calculations were carried out using the
ab initio ground-state potential energy surface and method
previously reported21 with the assumption that the electronically
excited 1-propenyl radical undergoes internal conversion to
the ground-state surface before the unimolecular dissociation.
The trajectories were initiated with a starting geometry that
corresponded to LM2, the 1-propenyl CH3−CH−CH structure.
Because the zero-point energy of LM2 is 14261.6 cm−1, the total
energy was chosen to be 57739.9 cm−1 above LM2, which
corresponded to a photon wavelength of 230 nm for excitation of
the 1-propenyl radical from its lowest vibrational level. A total of
2200 trajectories were performed using steps of 0.125 fs, as
previously described.21 The relative translational energy was
determined from the final frame of each trajectory. The total
reaction rate was determined as follows: a histogram, P(i), of the
individual reaction times was constructed, giving the number of
trajectories that reacted (to any product) in the time bin, i, of about
0.65 ps width. The number of trajectories left unreacted at any
time were counted as N(i) = Ntot − Σi P(i). Finally, ln[N(i)] was
plotted as a function of time and determined the slope, which was
equal to the reaction rate constant.
CHCHCH3 → C2H 2 + CH3, ΔHrxn,0 = 23.1 kcal/mol
→ propyne + H, ΔHrxn,0 = 30.5 kcal/mol
→ allene + H,
ΔHrxn,0 = 31.6 kcal/mol
→ c−C3H4 + H, ΔHrxn,0 = 53.9 kcal/mol
There has been no photodissociation study on the 1-propenyl
radical so far. Niedzielski et al. investigated dissociation and
isomerization of 1- and 2-propenyl radicals chemically activated
by hot H atom addition to allene and propyne in a gas cell.28
At an excitation energy of 23 kcal/mol above the H + allene or
H + propyne products, 1-propenyl was found to mainly undergo
C−C bond cleavage to yield CH3 + acetylene and to a lesser
extent isomerize to the allyl radical. Morton et al. studied the
unimolecular dissociation of the hot 1-propenyl radical from the
secondary dissociation of cis-1-bromopropene at 193 nm.29,30
They found that the dominate channel is methyl elimination and
the H elimination channel competes with the methyl elimination
at higher energies.
The current work investigates the UV photodissociation
dynamics of jet-cooled 1-propenyl radical for the first time. In
the UV photolysis wavelength region from 224 to 248 nm, the
H atom photofragment yield (PFY) spectra (i.e., action spectra) of
the 1-propenyl radical are obtained, identifying its UV absorption
feature for the first time. The H atom time-of-flight (TOF) spectra
using different precursors are recorded and transformed to the
product translational energy distributions. The H atom product
angular distributions are obtained. The unimolecular dissociation
rate of the 1-propenyl is measured with the pump−probe delay
in the UV region. Quasi-classical trajectory calculations are
also carried out to compare the dynamic information from the
experiment and to provide more insight into the dissociation
dynamics of the 1-propenyl radical.
■
RESULTS
The jet-cooled 1-propenyl radicals in the molecular beam from
both the 1-chloropropene and 1-bromopropene precursor were
characterized by VUV photoionization TOF mass spectrometry.
The production of the C3H5 radicals from 193 nm photolysis
of the precursors was identified at m/z 41 in the mass spectra.
The nascent C−Br dissociation product translational energy
release distribution of the 1-bromopropene precursor at 193 nm
indicated that approximately 50% of 1-propenyl radicals
produced were stable and the other 50% undergo dissociation
or isomerization followed by dissociation.29,30 The stable
1-propenyl radicals were then cooled to low temperature in the
supersonic expansion in the molecular beam. The resonanceenhanced multiphoton ionization (REMPI) spectrum of the
allyl radical was searched for15,26 and the absence of any signal
indicated that no allyl radicals were produced or stabilized from
isomerization of the photolytically generated 1-propenyl radicals
in the beam. The TOF spectra of the H atom products from the
photodissociation of 1-propenyl were measured in the photolysis
wavelength region of 224−248 nm with the photolysis laser
polarization parallel and perpendicular to the flight path, respectively. Backgrounds have been properly removed, as described
in previous studies.26,34 Figure 2 shows the net H atom product
TOF spectra of 1-propenyl radical from the 1-chloropropene
precursor at four UV photolysis wavelengths 226, 230, 232, and
240 nm, respectively. The TOF spectra using the 1-bromopropene
precursor were also taken and they were similar to those from
the 1-chloropropene precursor. The photolysis laser power was
kept in the range of 0.2−1.3 mJ/pulse; the photolysis laser power
dependence was measured, indicating little or no multiphoton
dissociation contribution to the H atom product signals.
The H atom PFY spectra of 1-propenyl were obtained from
integrating the net HRTOF spectra as a function of the UV
■
EXPERIMENTAL AND COMPUTATIONAL METHOD
The HRTOF technique and experimental setup have been
described in previous studies.26,31−34 The precursors used to
generate the 1-propenyl radical were 1-chloropropene (98%, MP
Biomedicals) and 1-bromopropene (95%, Acros Organics).
1-Bromopropene has been used as a precursor for the 1-propenyl
radical in previous studies.29 A gas mixture of ∼2% precursor
seeded in Ar (at a total pressure of ∼120 kPa) was expanded from
a pulsed valve (General Valve, Series 9) through a 2 mm diameter
nozzle; the precursor in expanded gas mixture was photolyzed
right in front of the nozzle by 193 nm radiation from an ArF
excimer laser, producing a pulsed 1-propenyl radical beam. The
1-propenyl radical beam was characterized using 121.6 nm
vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) photoionization TOF mass spectrometry (TOFMS).26,34 The 1-propenyl radicals were photodissociated by a slightly focused UV photolysis laser radiation
(at 220−250 nm, 0.2−1.3 mJ/pulse, line width 0.3 cm−1).
A Fresnel-Rhomb achromatic λ/2 plate was used to rotate the
polarization of the photolysis radiation for the H atom product
angular distribution measurements. The H atoms produced
from the 1-propenyl photodissociation were tagged by two-color
resonant excitation from 12S to 22P via the H atom Lyman-α
transition at 121.57 nm and then further to a high-n Rydberg
state by UV radiation at 366.24 nm. A small fraction of the
metastable Rydberg H atoms drifted with their nascent velocities
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The net H atom TOF spectra of the jet-cooled 1-propenyl
photodissociation are transformed to total center-of-mass (CM)
P(ET)s.26,31−34 The CM translational energy of the products, ET,
is converted from the H atom flight time tH using the following
equation
2
⎛
⎛
mH ⎞
mH ⎞⎛ L ⎞
⎟⎟E H = 1 mH⎜⎜1 +
⎟⎟⎜ ⎟
E T = ⎜⎜1 +
2 ⎝
mC3H4 ⎠
mC3H4 ⎠⎝ t H ⎠
⎝
(1)
where EH is the laboratory translational energies of the H atom
photofragment and L is the flight length. The resultant P(ET)
distributions from the photodissociation of 1-propenyl at 226,
230, 232, and 240 nm using the 1-chloropropene precursor are
shown in Figure 4 as examples. The P(ET) distributions have a
Figure 2. H atom TOF spectra in the photodissociation of jet-cooled
1-propenyl radical at photolysis wavelengths 226, 230, 232, and 240 nm,
respectively. The 1-propenyl radical was produced from 193 nm
photolysis of 1-chloropropene precursor. The TOF spectra were net
H atom TOF with the 193 nm photolysis radiation on minus off. The
photolysis radiation polarization was parallel to the TOF axis (the
H atom product angular distribution was shown to be isotropic). Each
TOF spectrum was scaled to its maximum intensity.
excitation wavelength. To correct for the variation and drift of
the experimental conditions, the H atom signals at 230 nm (for
1-bromopropene precursor) and 232 nm (for 1-chloropropene
precursor) were used as references and were monitored after
every three measurements at other wavelengths. The H atom
intensities at other photolysis wavelengths were scaled to those at
230 or 232 nm and normalized for the photolysis laser power.
Figure 3 shows the H atom PFY spectra at 224−248 nm with
Figure 4. CM P(ET) distributions of the 1-propenyl radical at 226, 230,
232, and 240 nm, respectively. Each distribution was normalized to its
maximum. The vertical lines indicate the maximum translational
energies of the three H atom production channels. The energies are
based on the theoretical dissociation energies of the three channels in
refs 8 and 21
broad feature that peaks at low translational energy ∼8 kcal/mol
and extends to the high energy of ∼75 kcal/mol. The maximum
available energy for the propyne + H, allene + H, and c-C3H4 + H
channels are indicated in Figure 4. The translational energy
release of the H atom loss dissociation channel of 1-propenyl is
modest; for example, the average product CM translational
energy ⟨ET⟩ is 13.4 kcal/mol at 230 nm and 12.9 kcal/mol at
232 nm, and the fraction of ⟨ET⟩ in the total available energy is
⟨f T⟩ ≈ 0.14 for both wavelengths, assuming for the lowest energy
product channel propyne + H. The P(ET) distributions at other
photolysis wavelengths from 224 to 248 nm are similar to those
at 230 and 232 nm, and the ⟨f T⟩ values are in the range of
0.13−0.15 with an average of 0.12 and nearly a constant value
from 224 to 248 nm (Figure 5). The ⟨f T⟩ values using the
1-bromopropene precursor are also obtained at the photolysis
wavelengths 224−248 nm and they are similar to but slightly
smaller than those from the 1-chloropropene precursor, with an
average of 0.11 from 225 to 248 nm (Figure 5).
The H atom product angular distributions in the UV photodissociation of 1-propenyl were examined using linearly polarized
laser radiation. Figure 6 shows the H atom TOF spectra from
the 1-propenyl photodissociation by linearly polarized 230 nm
photolysis radiation. The polarization direction of the photolysis
Figure 3. H atom product yield (PFY) spectra of 1-propenyl as a
function of photolysis excitation energy in the region of 224−248 nm.
Open circles (○) represent the integrated HRTOF signals of 1-propenyl
using the 1-chloropropene precursor, while the filled circles (•)
represent those from the 1-bromopropene precursor. The signals were
normalized to the same photolysis laser power and scaled to the
maximum intensity. The spectra are offset for clarity. The error bars
indicate the 95% confidence limit from multiple measurements.
both precursors. Both PFY spectra show a similar trend peaking
at 230 nm, thus supporting that the H atom product in the TOF
spectra originates from the photodissociation of the same species,
the 1-propenyl radical. These H atom PFY spectra reveal the UV
absorption feature of the 1-propenyl radical for the first time.
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1-propenyl radicals with their electronic transition dipole moment
parallel to the electric E of the polarized light. The photofragment
angular distribution is given by I(θ) = (1/4π)[1 + βP2(cos θ)],
where β is the anisotropy parameter (−1 ≤ β ≤ 2), θ is the angle
between the electric vector of the polarized laser radiation E and
the recoiling velocity vector of the H atom product (the direction
of detection of the TOF axis), and P2(cos θ) is the second
Legendre polynomial. Using this equation and the H atom TOF
spectra at 230 nm, an anisotropy parameter β ≈ 0 is derived
(Figure 6).
The H atom product yield time profile in the UV photolysis of
1-propenyl was investigated by varying the delay time between
the photolysis laser and probe laser. The time profile was
obtained by integrating the HRTOF spectra as a function of the
photolysis-probe delay time. The time profile can be used to
obtain the microcanonical rate of the unimolecular dissociation
of 1-propenyl. The initial rise is determined by the rate of H atom
formation from 1-propenyl, while the decay of signal is because of
the H atom flight out of the interaction region between the two
beams. Figure 7 shows the time profiles of 1-propenyl from the
Figure 5. Photolysis wavelength and fraction of average translational
energy release in the total available energy, ⟨f T⟩, in the UV photodissociation of the 1-propenyl radical using both the 1-chloropropene
and 1-bromopropene precursors. The average translational energies are
calculated from the experimental P(ET) distributions. The total available
energy at each photolysis wavelength is derived from the corresponding
photon energy and the dissociation energy of the lowest energy H +
propyne product channel. The error bars indicate the 95% confidence
limit from multiple measurements.
Figure 7. H atom product signal of the 1-propenyl radical as a function
of photolysis and probe laser delay time using the 1-chloropropene and
1-bromopropene precursors, respectively. The signals were obtained
by integrating the HRTOF spectra at various photolysis-probe delay
times. The photolysis wavelength of the 1-propenyl radical from the
1-chloropropene precursor is 230 nm and 236 nm for the 1-bropropene
precursor. The solid lines are the fits. See the text for details.
1-chloropropene precursor at 230 nm photolysis radiation
and from the 1-bromopropene precursor at 236 nm. The
time profiles of the H atom signals, SH(t), are fitted using an
expression based on the previous work from Chen’s group to
estimate the unimolecular dissociation rates of the 1-propenyl
radical35
Figure 6. H atom TOF spectra of 230 nm photodissociation of
1-propenyl, with the polarization E vector of the photolysis radiation
(a) perpendicular (θ = 90°) and (b) parallel (θ = 0°) to the TOF axis.
The sharp peaks in (a) are due to photolysis of the HCl byproduct
produced in the 193 nm photolysis of the 1-chloropropene precursor.
(c) The anisotropy parameter β is plotted as a function of H atom timeof-flight. The β parameter stays close to the limit of an isotropic angular
distribution.
⎡
⎤
⎢
⎥
1
SH(t ) = N[1 − exp(−kHt )]⎢
⎥
(t − a) ⎤
⎡
⎢⎣ exp⎣ b ⎦ + 1 ⎥⎦
relative to the TOF axis is indicated in the figure. The H atom
TOF spectra are basically identical, showing an isotropic angular
distribution. The linearly polarized light preferentially excites the
(2)
where kH(t) is the unimolecular dissociation rate constant for the
H atom formation from 1-propenyl, and a and b are constants
that describe the width of the plateau region and the decay
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Figure 8. Experimental P(ET) distribution in comparison with those
from the trajectory calculations for 1-propenyl photodissociation at
230 nm. The calculated distributions from the three H atom production
channels are shown along with the total distribution.
Figure 9. Number of trajectories for H atom loss from different sites in
the H + propyne and H + allene product channels, respectively. The
5 atoms of the 1-propenyl radical are labeled in the figure. The geometry
of the 1-propenyl radical (LM2) is from ref 21
of the signal. The fittings shown in solid lines in Figure 8 give
dissociation rate constants of kH ≥ 1.0 × 108 s−1 at 230 nm and
1.6 × 108 s−1 at 236 nm, respectively. These dissociation rate
constant values provide the lower limit as the measurements are
limited by the laser pulse time width of ∼10 ns.
Under the assumption that the electronically excited
1-propenyl radical undergoes internal conversion and then
unimolecular dissociation on the ground-state surface, a total of
2200 trajectories were calculated from the 1-propenyl structure (LM2) with a total internal energy of 57739.9 cm−1
(43478.3 cm−1 or 124.3 kcal/mol above the lowest vibrational
level of 1-propenyl, equivalent to the photoexcitation wavelength
of 230 nm). Of these trajectories, 4% produced H + allene, 16%
gave H + propyne, 1% gave H + cyclopropene, and 60% gave
methyl + acetylene. A recent trajectory calculation study of
rotationally cold 1-propenyl (LM2) dissociation at a higher
excitation energy of 133.2 kcal/mol showed consistent results,
with branching ratios of 2% for H + allene, 23% for H +
propylene, and 75% for methyl + acetylene.36 The product
translational energy distributions for the H-loss channels were
obtained and plotted in Figure 8, showing a predominant
contribution from the H + propyne channel. The calculated
translational energy release is modest with the higher intensity
around 10−20 kcal/mol and ⟨ET⟩ ≈ 17.6 kcal/mol and ⟨f T⟩ ≈
0.19. The trajectory calculations identify the probabilities and
mechanisms of H atom loss from different sites, as shown in
Figure 9. In the H + propyne channel, removal of the vinylic H1
on the central C1 atom is dominant to that of H2 on the terminal
C2 atom. In the minor H + allene channel, the removal of the
central vinylic H1 is still more probable than that of the other
four H atoms. The total reaction rate was determined in the
trajectory calculations to be 1.3 × 1012 s−1 or a lifetime of 0.8 ps.
For comparison, RRKM calculations have been carried out in the
current work using theoretical energetics and configurations of
the transition states in the 1-propenyl reaction pathways.21,37
The total RRKM dissociation lifetime of 1-propenyl at the
124 kcal/mol excitation energy is estimated to be ∼0.3 ps. The
RRKM calculations also show that the CH3 loss and H + propyne
are the main dissociation channels of 1-propenyl and isomerization to 2-propenyl and allyl is much smaller (∼10% of the
H + propyne channel), which is in qualitative agreement with the
trajectory calculations and consistent with the lower dissociation
energetics of the CH3 + C2H2 and H + propyne product channels
(Figure 1).
■
DISCUSSION
The UV photodissociation of the 1-propenyl radical in the
wavelength range of 224−248 nm was investigated experimentally for the first time. The H atom products from the H + C3H4
dissociation channels were observed directly from the H atom
TOF spectra. The H atom PFY spectra recorded using two
different precursors of 1-propenyl are similar and reveal a broad
UV absorption feature peaking at 230 nm, while no previously
reported UV absorption spectrum of 1-propenyl is available for
comparison. Koziol et al. calculated the electronic excited states
of 1-propenyl as a CH3-substituted vinyl. Two excited states,
B̃ 2A″ (π* ← n, vertical excitation energy at 242 nm) and C̃ 2A′
(π* ← π, 221 nm), have their vertical electronic excitation
energies in the studied region of 224−248 nm and are also
predicted to have higher oscillator strengths.20 The observed
UV absorption feature could then be due to either or both of
these two electronic excited states. Note that the H atom PFY
spectrum represents only part of the UV absorption spectrum
of 1-propenyl, as other product channels such as CH3 loss can
be significant. As discussed next, the electronically excited
1-propenyl radical likely decays via internal conversion to the
ground electronic state and then undergoes unimolecular dissociation on the ground-state surface. Our trajectory and RRKM
calculations for the ground-state dissociation of 1-propenyl
show that the CH3 loss is the dominant dissociation channel and
H + propyne is the main H-loss product channel.
The angular distribution of the H atom product from the
UV photodissociation of the 1-propenyl radical is isotropic
(Figure 6). The isotropic distribution indicates that the time scale
of the overall UV photodissociation of 1-propenyl is longer than
the rotational period of the 1-propenyl radical. The rotational
temperature of the 1-propenyl radical in the molecular beam is
expected to around 15 K based on the previous study on the allyl
radical.26 Assuming this temperature, the average rotational
period of the 1-propenyl radical is estimated to be in the range of
10 ps. The pump−probe experiments in this study were limited
by the 10 ns pulsed laser temporal resolution and can only show
that the lower limit of the dissociation rate of the 1-propenyl
radical at excitation wavelengths 230 and 236 nm is on the order
of ∼108 s−1 (Figure 7). The angular distribution and pump−
probe delay experiments suggest that the UV photodissociation
time scale of the 1-propenyl radical is longer than ∼10 ps.
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The calculated P(ET) distribution has higher kinetic energy
release and is more repulsive than the experimental one. The
trajectory calculations also provide the P(ET) distributions for
individual H-loss channels, which show that the H + propyne
channel is dominant, the H + allene channel is significant, but
the H + cyclopropene channel is of minor importance. This
result is consistent with the reaction barrier for these three H-loss
channels (Figure 1) with the c-C3H4 + H channel being the
highest energy channel and requiring isomerization to allyl and
then ring closing to form cyclo-propyl (c-C3H5). The dominant
H + propyne channel has an exit barrier of 5.4 kcal/mol from
1-propenyl, and the peak of ∼8 kcal/mol in the experimental
P(ET) distribution is consistent with this barrier. The calculated
P(ET) distribution peaks at higher energies, indicating that the
calculated ground-state potential energy surface for the H +
propyne dissociation channel might be more repulsive than the
actual surface. It is unclear why there are two peaks in the
calculated P(ET) distribution; better statistics in the trajectory
calculations might smooth out the P(ET) distribution.
The trajectory calculations also identify the sites of the H atom
loss and provide more insights into the dissociation dynamics
(Figure 9). In the dominant H + propyne channel, removal of the
vinylic H (H1) on the central C1 atom is the main pathway,
mostly due to direct C−H bond fission in 1-propenyl (Figure 1).
The number of trajectories of loss of H2 on the terminal C2 atom
is about one-fifth of that of H1; this suggests that 1-propenyl
undergoes 1,2 H shift to 2-propenyl which then loses either H1
or H2 to form propyne. The large H1 to H2 ratio indicates that
direct C−H bond fission in 1-propenyl (over the 35.9 kcal/mol
energy barrier) is more important than H-elimination from
2-propenyl after isomerization of 1-propenyl (over the 40.5 kcal/mol
barrier) (Figure 1). In the minor H + allene channel, the removal
of the central vinylic H1 is still more probable than that of the
other four H atoms. The loss of H1 to form allene requires 1,3
sigmatropic H shift of one of the methyl H atoms (H3, H4, or
H5) from 1-propenyl to allyl (over the 40.2 kcal/mol barrier) and
then loss of the central H1 atom. The loss of H3, H4, and H5
suggest 1,2 H shift from 1-propenyl to 2-propenyl followed
by loss of the methyl H atoms and/or sequential 1,2 H shifts to
allyl and then H loss on the central C atom to H + allene. The loss
of H2 is probably due to H1 and H2 scrambling in the 1,2 H
shift isomerization between 1-propenyl and 2-propenyl and H2
and H3, H4, H5 scrambling in the 1,3 sigmatropic H shift
isomerization between 1-propenyl and allyl, followed by the
above dissociation mechanisms to H + allene. Note that direct
methyl elimination from 1-propenyl is the lowest energy channel
and has the lowest energy barrier among all the pathways of
1-propenyl. Indeed, the trajectory calculations show that this
channel is more important than all the H atom channels.
However, our current instrument and study could only provide
measurements of the H-loss product channels.
Overall, the UV photodissociation of 1-propenyl radical is
similar to that of the allyl isomer. Although the initial electronic
excitation of allyl involves the 3s and 3p Rydberg states and that
of 1-propenyl with most likely the valence π* state, both allyl
and 1-propenyl undergo internal conversion and proceed to
unimolecular dissociation on the ground electronic state. Consequently, the energetics and isomerization pathways determine
the outcomes of the overall photodissociation. Although the
H atom product P(ET) distribution and angular distribution of
the allyl radical and the 1-propenyl radical are similar, there are
significant differences in their unimolecular dissociation dynamics.
The allyl radical, as the most stable C3H5 isomer, dissociates
The trajectory calculations determined that the total reaction rate
of 1-propenyl dissociation on the ground-state surface at the
equivalent excitation energy of 230 nm was 1.3 × 1012 s−1 or a
lifetime of 0.8 ps, close to the range of the time scale implied by
the isotropic product angular distribution. Note that this calculated rate or lifetime is only for the unimolecular dissociation of
1-propenyl once it has reached the ground-state electronic
surface after internal conversion and does not include the time
for decay from the excited electronic states to the ground
electronic state. In earlier studies on the electronically excited
states of the allyl radical using picosecond time-resolved pump−
probe photoelectron spectroscopy, the decay time of the B̃ 2A1
and C̃ 2B2 excited states of allyl in the 250−238 nm region were
shown to range from 20 to 9 ps.38,39 It is plausible that the excited
states of 1-propenyl in the UV region have similar decay times.
The overall UV photodissociation time scale of >10 ps implied by
the isotropic angular distribution could then be consistent with
the combined time scale of the decay of the electronic excited
states (∼10 ps) and the unimolecular dissociation on the ground
electronic state (∼1 ps). Another uncertainty in the current
experiment is that the degree of rotational excitation of the
1-propenyl radical was not actually measured and was not well
established. If present in the 1-propenyl radical, high rotational excitation might both decrease the rate of dissociation
and decrease the anisotropy, as observed in earlier investigations.36,40−44
The CM P(ET) distributions for the H + C3H4 channel show
small product translational energy release. The P(ET) distributions have the shape of a typical statistical distribution in unimolecular dissociation, peaking at a low energy of ∼8 kcal/mol
and extending to high kinetic energy, approaching the maximum
available energy for the cyclopropene + H channel in a onephoton dissociation process of 1-propenyl. The onsets of the
other two H-elimination channels, propyne + H and allene + H,
are at higher energies (Figure 4). The experimental P(ET)
distributions at various excitation wavelengths have similar shape
and do not change significantly with increasing excitation energy
(with only a small amount of increase in the translational energy
release). The ⟨f T⟩ values stay around 0.12 for the photolysis
wavelength region of 224−248 nm (Figure 5). The observed
P(ET) distributions support the dissociation mechanism of
unimolecular decomposition of the hot 1-propenyl radical on
the ground electronic state following internal conversion of the
excited state.
The experimental P(ET) distribution alone cannot differentiate the contributions from the three H-loss dissociation
channels. As shown in Figure 1, in addition to direct dissociation
of 1-propenyl to CH3 + C2H2 and H + propyne isomerization of
1-propenyl to 2-propenyl and allyl could compete and lead to the
H + allene products. The trajectory calculations can help identify
the branching ratios of the H-loss channels. Our trajectory
calculations, along with the RRKM calculations, show that the
H + propyne channel is the dominant H-loss channel, indicating
that isomerization of 1-propenyl is not important and could not
compete with the direct H-loss dissociation. This is consistent
with the higher isomerization barrier than the direct H-loss
barrier of 1-propenyl (Figure 1). The P(ET) distribution from the
trajectory calculations for the H atom dissociation of 1-propenyl
at the equivalent excitation of 230 nm is in qualitative agreement
with the experimental P(ET) distribution at 230 nm (Figure 8).
The overall H atom P(ET) distribution by the trajectories shows
a peak around 10 kcal/mol, along with another peak near
20 kcal/mol, and extends to high kinetic energy of ∼60 kcal/mol.
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mainly to H + allene in a simple C−H bond rupture and to a lesser
extent to H + propyne after isomerization to 1-propenyl and
2-propenyl over higher barriers; the CH3 loss channel is a minor
channel as it also requires isomerization to 1-propenyl.8,21,22,24−26
The 1-propenyl radical, 24.0 kcal/mol higher in energy than allyl,
can dissociate to H + propyne in a simple C−H bond rupture and
to a lesser extent to H + allene after isomerization to 2-propenyl
and allyl; furthermore, 1-propenyl can directly dissociate to CH3 +
C2H2 with the lowest energy barrier, making the CH3 elimination
(as indicated by the trajectory calculations) the main dissociation
channel of 1-propenyl. Because of its lowest energy and higher
dissociation and isomerization barriers, the allyl radical in the
ground electronic state has a lifetime of 16 ps at 115 kcal/mol
internal excitation energy (by trajectory calculations).21 1-Propenyl,
due to its higher energy and lower dissociation barriers, dissociates
faster in the ground electronic state and has a lifetime of ∼1 ps at the
excitation energy of 124 kcal/mol (230 nm).
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■
CONCLUSION
The H atom product channel in the UV photodissociation of
jet-cooled 1-propenyl radicals is studied at the photolysis wavelengths from 224 to 248 nm using the HRTOF technique. In this
region, the H atom PFY spectra have a broad feature peaking at
230 nm and show the UV absorption feature of 1-propenyl for
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the H-loss channels on the calculated potential energy surface is
somewhat too repulsive. The calculated dissociation time scale is
∼1 ps, shorter than but close to the time scale of ∼10 ps for
the overall UV photodissociation implied by the isotropic
H atom product angular distribution. The UV photodissociation
mechanism of 1-propenyl is consistent with internal conversion
from the electronically excited state of 1-propenyl followed by
unimolecular decomposition of the hot radical on the ground
electronic state.
■
Article
AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
*E-mail: [email protected].
Notes
The authors declare no competing financial interest.
■
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work is supported by the U.S. National Science Foundation
(CHE-1214157). The trajectory calculations were supported by
the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Science, Office of Basic
Energy Sciences, under Award Number DE-FG02-97ER14782.
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