Global Interactions (1200-1650)
Year
Dates and Events
A. D. -------- 12008: First invasions of China by Mongol nomads under Genghiz Khan
1200
Italian banks set up branches in Europe, North Africa, Middle East
/1237-14008: Mongols invade and control Russia
/ ;1260: Kublai Khan becomes first Mongol emperor of China
1I{;
12 72-1292: Itall'an. merchant Marco Poloreache, and explores China befi ore
voyagmg home
12 95 :Persl'anrulerGhazan'sconversio nt 0 Islam stI'mulatesflowofMu sll'm
and European culture to Asia
13008-15008: Renaissance-expansion of trade, exploration, technology,
intere~t in classic culture
1337-1453:H undredYears'Warbankrup tsEurope ; Hanse a tl'cLea guecontro Is
more trading markets
1 347:Bu bonl'cpla guespreadsfromA s ia toEur ope,' pop ulationloss ,rebellions,
decline in influence of the Church
13 6 8-1644:M in gDynastYl'nChl'na;n ewcash cropsincreas etr adewithAsia,
Philippines, Europe
1394-1460: Advances in navigation by Prince Henry of Portugal spur trade by I sea
~
~
1299
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1300
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~ 1399
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1400
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1699
1405 -14 33:ZhengHe opens new mark etsthrou ghou tA sl'a for Chl'nese goods
and culture
1485-1509: Henry II of England centralizes power, expands trade and
exploration
,1492: Columbus seeks westward sea route to Asia; opens up European contact
with the Americas
1492-1500: Isabella and Ferdinand expel all unconverted Jews and Muslims
from Spain
1497-1499: Vasco da Gama's expedition sparks Portuguese domination of
spice trade with India
15008: Portuguese control of gold trade by sea with Africa eliminates costly land routes
Reformation to change Christianity as defined by Roman
Catholic Church
1526: India falls under control of Mogul (Islamic) invaders
1534: Ignatius Loyola founds Jesuit Society of teachers and missionaries to
promote Catholicism
1542: Portuguese traders arrive in Japan
1545-1563: Council of Trent initiates Counter-Reformation to strengthen
Roman Catholic Church
1549: Jesuit Francis Xavier begins mission to Japan
15508: Jesuit and Franciscan missionaries arrive in Japan and begin
conversions to Christianity
1558-1603: Elizabeth I of England spurs trade, exploration, arts
16008: Japan forbids teaching of Christianity, expels missionaries, executes
converts
1610-1643: Louis XIII of France and Cardinal Richelieu expand industry,
foreign trade
1618-1648: Thirty Years' War involves most of Europe, devastates German
economy and population
1641: Shoguns initiate 200-year isolation of Japan from foreign trade and
culture
Global Interactions (1200-1650)
Dates and Events
Year
'
A.D. --------- 12008: First invasions of China by Mongol nomads under Genghiz Khan
1200
/;
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0
~
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1300
. 1399
1
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1400
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/:
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~/
.
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, ,~,,'
'
Italian banks set up branches in Europe, North Africa, Middle East
1237-14008: Mongols invade and control Russia
1260: Kublai Khan becomes first Mongol emperor of China
12 72-1292: Itall'an, merchant Marco Polo re ache, and explores C hinabetiore
voyaging home
1295:P ersi an ruler Ghazan's con versl'o ntoIslam stI'mulatesflowofMusli m
and European culture to Asia
13008-15008: Renaissance-expansion of trade, exploration, technology,
interest in classic culture
1337-1453: Hundred Years' War bankrupts Europe; Hanseatic League controls
more trading markets
1347:B ub onl'cplague spreads from As ia to Europe; pop ulationl oss ,rebellions,
decline in influence of the Church
136 8-1644:M in gDynas tyinChl'na; n ewcash crops increase trade with Asia,
Philippines, Europe
1394-1460: Advances in navigation by Prince Henry of Portugal spur trade by
, sea
1405-1433:ZhengHe opens new marketsthrou ghou tA sia forC hines e goods
and culture
1485-1509: Henry II of England centralizes power, expands trade and
exploration
1492: Columbus seeks westward sea route to Asia; opens up European contact
with the Americas
1492-1500: Isabella and Ferdinand expel all unconverted Jews and Muslims
from Spain
1497-1499: Vasco da Gama's expedition sparks Portuguese domination of
spice trade with India
15008: Portuguese control of gold trade by sea with Africa eliminates costly land routes
Reformation to change Christianity as defined by Roman
Catholic Church
1526: India falls under control of Mogul (Islamic) invaders
1534: Ignatius Loyola founds Jesuit Society of teachers and missionaries to
promote Catholicism
1542: Portuguese traders arrive in Japan
1545-1563: Council of Trent initiates Counter-Reformation to strengthen
Roman Catholic Church
1549: Jesuit Francis Xavier begins mission to Japan
1550s: Jesuit and Franciscan missionaries arrive in Japan and begin
conversions to Christianity
1558-1603: Elizabeth I of England spurs trade, exploration, arts
16008: Japan forbids teaching of Christianity, expels missionaries, executes
converts
1610-1643: Louis XIII of France and Cardinal Richelieu expand industry,
foreign trade
1618-1648: Thirty Years' War involves most of Europe, devastates German
economy and population
1641: Shoguns initiate 200-year isolation of Japan from foreign trade and
culture
f6~9
c
H A p T E R
12
.
Asian Empires: Japan,
China, and Mongolia
After practice, Mitsuo wiped his sword, polished its handle, and care- .... fully
placed it in its silk-lined sheath. Then he put it away in the chest' under the window.
There it must rest between training sessions for, ' two more years. Mitsuo would
not be entitled to wear the sword until,
at age 15, he became a warrior.
!
Sighing, Mitsuo stripped off his sweaty clothes and took a bath. As he splashed
in the cold water, he remembered the test question that the Zen teacher, Yozan, had
put to a warrior. "If you were naked. in the bathtub and one hundred armed men
came to kill you, would you beg for your life or die fighting? Or could you, as
a follower of Zen, : i survive without doing either?" The warrior had said that he
wanted to win without pleading for his life or fighting.
Mitsuo sighed again. Well, of course. Who wouldn't? But was that possible?
He had been learning swordsmanship ever since he was five. His master often
praised his timing and accuracy. But he could not, perform wonders. He thought of
all the tales he had heard about fa- mous warriors. One had been able to sense a
threatening thought in the mind of his servant. Another had conquered an
opponent simply' by showing the resolve in his eyes.
Mitsuo wondered if these tales were true. He hoped they were. Perhaps the
.
,
next two years would show if he were capable of such ~.
feats. During that period, he would be studying meditation under a master at
the nearby monastery. He lay back in the tub and pictured himself fighting five
opponents at once. He would be like a playful...
229
230
GLOBAL INTERACTIONS (1200-1650)
wind passing among them. All five would fall like leaves caught in a swirl of
air.
Mitsuo felt a conceited smile curve his lips. Ah, he must be careful. Such
vanity would ruin his technique. He must learn to clear his mind of daydreams
about the future and to fix it firmly on the present.
m
!ll!
itsuo is a young boy of noble birth living in feudal Japan. Like
noble European boys living at about the same time, he is train
ing to be a knight. In Japan, knights were called samurai. Zen, one form of
Buddhism practiced in Japan, was very popular with the samurai. The concepts
of this religion suited their a<#ve, highly disciplined way of life.
Besides Buddhism, the Japanese adopted other features of Chinese culture.
All of these features eventually took on markedly Japanese qualities. What
were these adaptable but highly individualistic people like? How did their
civilization begin?
EARLY JAPANESE HISTORY AND FEUDALISM
People have lived in Japan for thousands of years. Because the early
Japanese had no written history, much remains unknown about their
beginnings. Scholars continue to search for answers to such questions as,
Where did the people who settled in Japan come from? What was their society
like at its very beginning?
By the time historians began to describe the Japanese, their society had
already been influenced by the Chinese. Nonetheless, their way oflife remained
unique. Although impressed by Chinese culture, the Japanese did not let it
replace their own. Instead they adapted
the parts of Chinese culture that they admired to their own way of life.
The Geography of Japan
,.
Japan is close to the eastern coast of mainland Asia. It is an archipelago, a
country made up of many islands. The four largest are Kyushu, Shikoku,
Honshu, and Hokkaido.
All of the islands are mountainous and have only small amounts ofland flat
enough for farming. Plentiful rainfall and warm summers enable the Japanese
to grow rice, vegetables, and fruits. They also get an abundance of food from
the sea.
Japan's rugged terrain makes land travel difficult. A body of water called
the Inland Sea provides a water route between Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu.
This water route made it possible for early Japanese groups on these islands to
communicate and trade with each
23
1
Asian Empires: Japan, China, and Mongolia
Japan: Physical Map
c
?
"
t)
r:J
NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN
D
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other. For much of Japan's early history, the Korean Strait and the Sea of Japan
kept out invaders from the Asian mainland. The Pacific Ocean kept away
invaders from the east.
The islands have about 150 major volcanoes. About half are active. The
earth's crust near Japan is unstable, causing frequent earthquakes. Underwater
quakes occasionally cause tidal waves. Called tsunamis, they can be destructive
to coastal areas.
The Development of Japanese Culture
In A.D. 297, a Chinese historian, Wei Zhi, described the Japanese
as farmers and warriors. Korean histories mention warring clans in
232
GLOBAL INTERACTIONS (1200-1650)
Japan. A clan is a group of families. The leaders ofthe families have a common
ancestor. For a long time, Japan had no central government. Separated by
rugged mountains, Japanese clans remained independent of one another. As
time went on, they began to compete for power. In the 300s, one of these clans,
the Yamato, conquered most of the others. Yamato rulers became known as
emperors.
The Y amato Years. During the early years ofYamato rule (250710), the
official state religion was Shinto, "the way of the gods." Shinto honors the
spirits thought to inhabit such natural features as trees, rocks, and mountains.
(Animism, a common belief system among Africans, has similar ideas about
nature.)
The Yamato emperors claimed to be descendants of the sun goddess who
ruled all the other nature spirits and protected Japan. This made the emperors
representatives of the goddess. Consequently, they controlled both religion and
the government.
From its earliest history, Japan had invaded and tried to conquer Korea to
gain territory and tribute. In the 5th century, the Yamato emperors increased
these efforts. Although unsuccessful, the invasions had important results. The
contact between the two countries led to new developments in Japanese culture.
Korean and Chinese Influences. From the Koreans, the Japanese learned
many Chinese ways. Their temple architecture, clothing styles, and methods of
preparing food all began to show Chinese influence. More important, the
Japanese learned the Chinese writing system and adapted it to their own
language. Once the Japanese could write and keep records, they were able to
imitate the Chinese bureaucratic method of governing. Writing also led to the
development of Japanese literature, philosophy, and written history.
The Koreans introduced Buddhism and Confucianism to Japan. The
Buddhist idea of gaining peace through discipline and methods of concentrating
the mind appealed to the Japanese. A powerful group of nobles converted to
Buddhism and wanted to make it the official state religion. Other members of
the nobility objected. A civil war broke out and ended in the victory of the
pro-Buddhist group.
A New Constitution. Once Japan's rulers accepted Buddhism, they used it
as a basis for reforming their government. In 604, Prince Shotoku wrote a new
constitution called the "Seventeen-Article Constitution." Using Buddhist moral
principles and Confucian political theory, the constitution stated Shotoku's
ideas about how to govern morally and efficiently. These ideas included the
establishment of a bureaucracy similar to China's.
After a period of civil conflict, supporters of Shotoku's ideas won control
of the government. (Shotoku had died in 629.) They then reformed the Japanese
government to conform to Chinese political concepts.
In 710, the emperor built a new capital city, called Nara, in the same style
as the Chinese imperial court. The period in Japanese
.,
"
Asian Empires: Japan, China, and Mongolia
Woodblock print illustrating
the Tale of Genji, from a
17th-century edition
history when the rulers continued to introduce Chinese ideas from the Tang
Dynasty to their society is called the N ara period.
The Move to Kyoto. About 180 years later, the emperor moved the capital
to Kyoto. The ruling families in Kyoto turned away from Chinese ways and
encouraged the development of a distinctive J apanese culture. The men and
women of the imperial court wrote poetry and stories in their native Japanese
language using the Japanese system of writing. They developed an entirely new
form ofliterature called the novel. The Tale of Genji, written by a woman
named Murasaki Shikibu in the early 1000s, is one of the most famous
Japanese novels. It is about the romantic adventures of Prince Genji and the life
of his family over a long span of time.
The Shogunate
As time passed, the emperors lost authority. Powerful clans (families)
carried out the functions of the government in the name of the
emperor. Sometimes, the clans fought one another to gain control of the
government. In 1185, the Minamoto clan defeated its rivals. Seven years later,
the emperor named the leader ofthe clan, Minamoto Yoritomo, the first shogun.
The shogun was the chief military general ofthe country. He also controlled
the country's financial affairs, courts, and government appointments. Although
the emperor still sat on the throne, the shogun actually ruled Japan. Soon,
Kamakura, the city in which Yoritomo's palace was located, became more
important than Kyoto. The Kamakura Shogunate lasted from 1192 to 1333.
Feudalism. Outside the capital, large landholders, or daimyos, controlled
local affairs. In return for promises of loyalty and service,
233
234
GLOBAL INTERACTIONS (1200-1650)
Vanguard force of samurai warriors charging into battle
warriors known as samurai received land from a daimyo. This warrior class
kept order. The peasants who worked the land were the lowest class. They
could not own land.
The daimyo-samurai relationship was like the European feudal system.
Both combined features of older systems. European feudalism developed from
Germanic and Roman traditions. Japanese feudalism grew out of a merging of
the clan tradition with Confucianism. This philosophy encourages respect for
the authority or' family and state.
The two systems also had economic and social similarities. Both European
and Japanese feudalism made land the most important measure of wealth. In
both systems, the landowners held greater political and military power than the
kings and emperors did.
Knights and samurai were also very much alike. Both swore loyalty to the
lords who supported them. Both fought on horseback with carefully crafted
weapons and armor. Just as knights lived by the code of chivalry, the samurai
followed the Bushido, or ''Way of the Warrior." The ideal samurai was obedient
to authority, had a strong sense of duty, lived simply, showed kindness to
others, and was honest. Samurai and knights spent many years learning the
skills they would need to fight for their lords. They started young, as Mitsuo in
the story at the beginning of the chapter did.
The two systems had differences, however. The manors of European lords
usually included only one village and its surrounding farmland. The daimyos'
holdings could include pieces of land scattered through several areas and might
contain more than one village. Unlike the European peasants, the Japanese
peasants never became serfs. They were free to leave the land whenever they
liked. Feudalism in Europe lasted for about six centuries. In Japan, it lasted for
about eight centuries.
Asian Empires: Japan, China, and Mongolia
Bushido. Although both the knights of Europe and the samurai had strict
codes of honor, the samurai code was stricter. According to the Bushido, a
samurai who had dishonored himself had to commit suicide. The ritual of
suicide was called seppuku and required the samurai to slash open his belly
with a knife. By having the courage to commit seppuku, a disgraced samurai
could regain his honor.
The Divine Wind. During the Kamakura Shogunate, the Japanese faced
two major crises. The Mongol emperor of China, Kublai Khan, decided to
conquer Japan. In 1274, he sent an army through Korea to invade Kyushu. The
Japanese defeated the invaders. The Mongols tried once more in 1281. Again
they failed when a typhoon destroyed most of their ships and forced them to
withdraw. The Japanese called the typhoon "Kamikaze," the "Divine Wind."
They felt that the gods had sent the wind to help them.
A Period of Disunity
In the 1330s, the Ashikaga family took control ofthe government. It ruled
until 1568. The Ashikagas did not have a firm hold on the shogunate. A long
period of civil wars occurred. Daimyos became even more important in
controlling local areas.
Finally, in 1568, one daimyo, Oda Nobunaga, captured Kyoto. He gained
the loyalty of many nobles in central Japan. But he was killE)d in 1582 before
he could take full control of Japan.
Nobunaga's chief general, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, won the support of the
most important daimyos and became the ruler of a unified Japan in 1590. He
then sent armies to Korea and attempted to invade China. Hideyoshi wanted to
create an empire in eastern Asia. He did not get his wish. After he died in 1598,
the Japanese forces returned home from Korea.
Europeans Arrive. During the time ofthe civil wars, Europeans first
came to Japan. Before the Portuguese arrived in 1542, the J apanese had had no
known contact with the West. From the Portuguese, the Japanese learned about
muskets (long-barreled firearms). Such weapons changed the way the samurai
fought. They now used guns as well as swords.
Along with the traders came Roman Catholic Jesuit missionaries. Led by
Francis Xavier, who arrived in 1549, Jesuits converted many Japanese to
Christianity. Franciscans arrived in 1593 and expanded the missionary work.
Within 30 years, thousands of Japanese had
. converted to Christianity.
Zen Concepts. In spite of the political unrest in this period, many
developments occurred that continue to influence the culture of Japan. Direct
trade with China opened up. Monks introduced a different version of Buddhism
called Zen. Many Buddhists believed that they could gain enlightenment
through special kinds of medi
235
237
Asian Empires: Japan, China, and Mongolia
-~ .
,.
During World War II (1941-1945), Japan and
the 4nited States fought over control of
strategically located islands in the Pacific
Ocean. A few American soldiers who fought
in the battles reported seeing a different kind
of Japanese soldier. Instead of wearing
ordinary military uniforms, these men were
dressed in black. They seemed able to
move through the tropical jungles
noiselessly, disappearing almost as soon as
they had been seen. Since the black
clad soldiers were not invol
any ma
jor battles, little attention was n to these
reports. Few, if any, Americans knew that
the men so briefly glimpsed were ninjas.
Ninjas first appeared in feudal Japan in
the 12th century. They were the descendants of warriors who were on the losing
side in wars between rival warlords. As
whole families went into hiding, an alternative society, or counterculture, developed. It
was based on mastery of the martial arts
needed for survival within a hostile larger
society.
In time, dozens of regional and family
ryu, or schools of the warrior tradition of
ninjitsu, developed.
ad its own phi
losophy and specia d ways offighting. Often,
the ryu of a particular region would be under
the control of the local daimyo, or feudal
lord. During the power struggles of medieval
Japan, the ninjas became exJremely
valuable as spies to infiltrate enemy ranks
and as assassins of leaders and authority
figures. With their ability to move with stealth
and their reputation for mystic powers,
ninjas were sometimes able to destroy the
morale of armies.
In addition to the techniques of unarmed combat, the ninja was trained to
fight with sword, spear, and throwing
blades. Fire and explosives were also part
of the ninja arsenal. Many ninjas were
skilled at preparing their own explosives
from natural elements. Several of the larger
ninja organizations had their own chemists
to produce quantities of explosives.
Traditional building materials in Japan were
wood, paper, and rice straw. These burn
easily. Thus, the threat of fire contributed to
the fear with which the ninja was regarded.
The traditional clothing of the ninja
consists of special trousers that tie onto the
body and a jacket with overlapping lapels.
The jacket is tucked into the trousers. The
nirija also wears protective arm and hand
sleeves and a tied scarf used as a
combination mask and hood. This costume
is made of strong, dark-colored cotton cloth.
It enables the ninja to move easily and to
blend with the shadows.
The medieval Japanese believed that
ninjas could cloud the minds of their enemies in order to make themselves invisible.
In fact, ninja training did include mind control. This had more to do, however, with the
ninja's mental discipline, perseverance, and
endurance, than with anything magical.
1. Explain the difference between a ninja
and a samurai in medieval Japan.
2. Why do you think people study ninjitsu
today?
238
GLOBAL INTERACTIONS (1200-1650)
-~.
keeping their two houses furnished and staffed with servants. The daimyos also
had to help pay for public projects supported by the shogun. They had no
money left over to raise armies and stockpile weapons.
Rigid Social Structure. Another measure made the Japanese social
structure more rigid. Society was organized into four classes. The highest class
consisted of the samurai. Second in importance were the peasants, who
produced food for the state. Artisans, who produced goods less necessary than
food, ranked third. Because they made money from things produced by others,
merchants were placed in the lowest class.
Although the Tokugawas gave special distinction to the samurai and the
peasant groups, they took away some of the advantages that these groups had
formerly enjoyed. The once independent samurai now had to rely on the
daimyos for their salaries and weapons. The peasants lost many of their rights.
The government also taxed them
so heavily that their lives became almost as hard and as limited as those of
European serfs. Peasants in Japan did not, however, lose their freedom of
movement. Many sought better ways of life in the towns.
Isolation. The Tokugawas were strict rulers, but they brought peace to
Japan. They encouraged the growth of industry and trade. However, in the early
1600s, the shoguns became suspi~ious of the influence of Christians and
European traders. They feared that trade would give wealth and power to rivals.
The Christians, who were Roman Catholics, might put their loyalty to the
Church and the pope above their loyalty to the emperor and the shogun. In 1612,
the shogun forbade the teaching of Christianity and began to persecute
Christians in Japan. He ordered missionaries to leave the country or be killed.
He had thousands of Japanese converts executed.
The Tokugawas also restricted the activities offoreign traders. By 1641,
they had closed all but one port to outsiders. Only ten Chinese ships and one
Dutch ship could land each year at the port ofN agasaki. Any Japanese who was
away from the country at the time could not return. Japan isolated itself from
the outside world for more than 200 years.
Cultural Achievements. Japan enjoyed a long period of peace and
prosperity. During this time, its culture flourished. Art lovers still marvel at the
beauty and craftsmanship of the wood-block prints made during the Tokugawa
Shogunate. Japanese dramatists devel
oped a new form of theater called kabuki. Kabuki theater included acting,
dancing, music, and colorful costumes. Other writers produced novels and
poetry.
A kind of poem called the haiku appeared at this time. The haiku must
contain exactly 17 syllables divided into three lines. These poems are usually
vivid descriptions of nature. The best of them suggest
240
GLOBAL INTERACTIONS (1200-1650)
-~ "
China: The Sung Empire
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Two Empires
Early in the Sung period, nomads from Manchuria fought their way into
northern China. The invaders captured the Sung emperor and began their own
dynasty, the Chin Dynasty, in the north. Beijing
became their capital city. The son of the captured emperor set up a new Sung
capital at Hangzhou in southern China. By 1127, China split into the Chin
Empire in the north and the Sung Empire in the south.
Science, Technology, and the Arts
Despite this division, advances in science, technology, and the arts
continued under the Sung. Doctors developed an inoculation against smallpox.
Mathematicians invented the abacus, the world's first adding machine. Soldiers
began to use gunpowder as a weapon. Printers now used movable wooden type,
which made it possible to produce more books in a shorter time.
Landscape painting reached its highest level during the Sung period.
Potters became even more skilled in making porcelain objects. Unusual glazes
gave the porcelain a rich color. The most used colors were greenish and
lavender blues, transparent green, reddish brown, and whites.
240
GLOBAL INTERACTIONS (1200-1650)
China: The Sung Empire
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EAST
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Two Empires
Early in the Sung period, nomads from Manchuria fought their way into
northern China. The invaders captured the Sung emperor and began their own
dynasty, the Chin Dynasty, in the north. Beijing
became their capital city. The son of the captured emperor set up a new Sung
capital at Hangzhou in southern China. By 1127, China split into the Chin
Empire in the north and the Sung Empire in the south.
Science, Technology, and the Arts
Despite this division, advances in science, technology, and the arts
continued under the Sung. Doctors developed an inoculation against smallpox.
Mathematicians invented the abacus, the world's first adding machine. Soldiers
began to use gunpowder as a weapon. Printers now used movable wooden type,
which made it possible to produce more books in a shorter time.
Landscape painting reached its highest level during the Sung period.
Potters became even more skilled in making porcelain objects. Unusual glazes
gave the porcelain a rich color. The most used colors were greenish and
lavender blues, transparent green, reddish brown, and whites.
Asian Empires: Japan, China, and Mongolia
Trade and Prosperity
Trade made the Sung Empire highly prosperous. Large ships carried
cargoes of silk and porcelain to Korea and Japan. The ships also sailed to
Southeast Asia, the Persian Gulf area, and Mrica. Prosperity enabled the cities
to become centers of learning and art. Hangzhou, the imperial capital, was
larger than most European cities ofthe same period. Many streets in the capital
were paved. An efficient garbage collection system kept the city clean.
Social Rights
By the 12th century, Sung China may have been the most advanced society
in the world. But not everyone shared equally in its benefits. The peasants lived
in poverty. The government taxed them heavily and forced them to labor on
public works. The lives of Chinese peasants remained harsh until modern times.
Women in Sung China enjoyed few rights. In public, wives had to walk ten
steps behind their husbands. Among the wealthy, it was fashionable to bind the
feet of little girls to keep their feet small. The tight wrappings bent the toes
toward the heel. This practice crippled many women. Some could not walk
without support.
Military weakness and the corruption of government officials contributed
to the downfall of the Sung. The problems of the Sung rulers continued until
the Mongol invasion of 1279 ended their rule.
INFO CHECK
1. Explain how the Sung Empire prospered economically and culturally
between A.D. 960 and 1279.
2. In what ways were women at a disadvantage in medieval China?
THE MONGOL EMPIRE
In the 13th century, nomadic Mongol horsemen in Central Asia united
under a great leader named Genghiz Khan. He led his fierce warriors on a wave
of conquest that lasted for 20 years. Russia and portions of the Muslim Empire
fell to the Mongols. The conquests continued after Genghiz Khan died in 1227.
Kublai Khan, grandson of Genghiz, became the Mongol emperor in 1260 and
conquered the Sung in 1279.
The map on page 242 shows the vast size of the Mongol Empire. How did
the Mongols, a relatively small group, manage to conquer such a large
territory? Like other nomadic peoples, the Mongols were accomplished
warriors with excellent survival skills. Herding sheep and horses on the dry,
windswept steppes of their homeland had
241
242
GLOBAL INTERACTIONS (1200-1650)
The Mongol Empire 1300
D(/
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A
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MONGOLIA
EAST
CHINA SEA
I
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1000 Kilometers
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1000
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trained them to live for months with little food and rest. Hunting the small,
swift animals of the steppes gave them practice in using weapons while on
horseback. Then, too, Mongols were intensely loyal to their clan chiefs, men
chosen for their leadership ability. The desire to win their leaders' approval
made Mongol warriors courageous and well disciplined in battle.
Conquests by the Mongols
After Genghiz Khan united the Mongols, he sent elite officers to train the
warriors in each tribe to be professional soldiers. Their skill in the arts of war
was not the only reason for their success. They also conquered through cruelty
and terror. When they took a city, they usually destroyed its buildings and
killed all of its inhabitants.
Southwest Asia. Mongol soldiers destroyed Muslim cities and mosques in
Southwestern Asia and Central Asia. Early Mongol rulers almost wiped out
Muslim culture in these areas. In 1295, however, a Mongol ruler named Ghazan
converted to Islam. Under Ghazan and his successors, Muslim culture became
stronger than ever. The Mon
Asian Empires: Japan, China, and Mongolia
gols stimulated trade in Southwest Asia as well as in China. As longdistance
trade increased, so did the flow of Western European goods and ideas to Asia.
Russia. The Mongols invaded Russia in 1237 and controlled it for about
200 years. Although the Mongols were exceptionally cruel soldiers, they were
tolerant rulers. They demanded only tribute and soldiers from the Russians. The
Mongol overlords did not interfere with the Russian government, religion,
language, or customs.
Eastern Europe. Mongol armies swept through Hungary and Poland in
1241. This campaign might have brought large parts of
central and western Europe into the Mongol Empire and changed the course of
Europeari history. But the Mongol khan (ruler) died before its completion, and
the army had to return home to elect a new khan.
India. In 1398, Tamerlane, a descendant of Genghiz Khan, led his army
into India. His forces destroyed the city of Delhi and slaughtered both Indian
soldiers and civilians. The Mongols left India after
a year. During this short time, they weakened the military power of the Delhi
sultans. In 1526, India fell under the control of a new Muslim group called the
Moguls.
The Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368)
In spite of their military skill, it took more than 45 years for the Mongols to
conquer China. Kublai Khan completed the conquest and established the Yuan
Dynasty.
Kublai Khan, ruler of the Mongol Empire, out hunting
243
244
GLOBAL INTERACTIONS (1200-1650)
Time Line
Dates and Events
Year
A.D.
250 ~250' Beginning of 450-year rule of Japan by Y =ato clan; ri,e of Shinto as ,tate
"'" religion
~ 400s: Yamato attempt to conquer Korea; Japanese exposed to Chinese culture
699 ' 604: Prince Shotoku writes constitution based on Buddhist and Confucian ideas
100--710: Beginning of Nara period in Japan; strong influence from China's Tang
Dynasty
j /900s: Kyoto becomes new Japanese capital; emperors favor native culture
:>999i;~960-1279: .under ~ung Dynasty, China becomes advanced but repressive society
i
i.
.. .,..,. !,/r--llOOs:"1200s:
Chinese
Buddhist
monks
... .
r:~~::;;";-~ 1000-1871.
Japan
s feudal
penodbring Zen to Japan
<J---1l27: Chin Dynasty begins rule of northern China; Sungs rule southern China
1~!00~
1185-1333: Japanese emperor names as first shogun Minamoto clan leader
Y orimoto; beginning of Kamakura Shogunate
1237-1400s: Mongol invaders begin 200-year control of Russia
1244: Mongols invade Hungary and Poland; retreat after death of ruling khan 1260: Kublai
Khan becomes first Mongol emperor of China
1274,1281: Kublai Khan's two invasions of Japanese island of Kyushu turned
back by typhoons ("Kamikaze")
1279-1368: Kublai Khan establishes Yuan Dynasty in China
1295: Ghazan, Mongol ruler of Persia, converts to Islam; stimulates flow of
Muslim and western European culture to southwest Asia and China
1330s-1568: Ashikaga family control Japanese government; long period of civil
wars 1368: Chu Yan-chang becomes first ruler of Ming Dynasty 1398:
Mongol Tamerlane invades India, destroys Delhi, retreats
1526: India falls under control of Mogul invaders
1542: Portuguese traders arrive in Japan, introduce firearms
1550s: Jesuit and Franciscan missionaries arrive in Japan
1590-1598: Toyotomi Hideyoshi becomes ruler of unified Japan; invades Korea
and China
1600s: Japan forbids teaching of Christianity, expels missionaries, executes
converts
1600-1868: Tokugawa Ieyasu appointed shogun, moves capital to Edo (Tokyo),
makes shogunate hereditary, centralizes Japanese government
1641: Shoguns initiate 200-year isolation of Japan from foreign trade and
culture
Asian Empires: Japan, China, and Mongolia
Restrictions and Good Works. As emperor, one of his main concerns was
to prevent the Chinese from rebelling against his rule. To avoid this, he placed
Mongols in all the important government positions and the Chinese in the
lowest ones. He also limited the freedom of the Chinese. He made it illegal for
them to own weapons, to meet in large groups, and to travel at night.
In spite of these harsh measures, Kublai Khan brought many advantages to
China. He constructed roads and canals and rebuilt the city of Beijing. He gave
aid to orphans and old people and provided
hospitals for the sick. He also purchased food supplies in times of plenty to
store away for use when famine struck.
Tolerance. Kublai Khan is famous for his tolerance. Most Mongols
practiced Lamaism, the Tibetan form of Buddhism. But Kublai Khan did not
force Lamaism on the lands he ruled. He allowed people in the different lands to
worship in their own way. He appointed Muslims, Christians, Buddhists, and
Taoists to minor posts in local governments. In China, he supported the
concepts of Confucianism. Many Mongolians stationed in Persia converted to
Islam. He allowed members of the Dominican and Franciscan Roman Catholic
orders to set up missions in China.
Trade. Kublai Khan realized that he could obtain great wealth by
developing Chinese trade. The new roads that were constructed during his rule
allowed Chinese merchants to travel to Persia and Russia more easily and
quickly. The Mongol policy of tolerance and good will toward different cultural
groups also encouraged merchants of other countries to visit China. This policy
brought a period of peace to Eurasia that is known as the "Pax Mongolia."
The increased trade resulted in more contact between China and distant
lands. During this period, Marco Polo of Venice, Italy, went to China with his
father and uncle, who were merchants. Polo, just 21 years old, became a
favorite ofKublai Khan and remained in China for 18 years. He spent these
years traveling through the empire, sometimes serving as a government official.
Mter Polo returned to Italy in 1295, he wrote a book about what he had
seen. Many of his readers refused to believe his descriptions of the size,
wealth, and wonders of China. In time, however, Europeans came to accept
what Polo had written as the truth. Some ofthe wonders he described were
the burning of black stones (coal) as fuel, paper money (instead of metal coins),
and an official postal system.
Other traders followed Polo's route to China. Marco Polo's book helped
promote the exchange of goods and ideas between China and the West. It may
have inspired later explorers to search for new lands.
A visitor from the Middle East also made his way to China. This famous
Muslim traveler, Ibn Batutta, mentions China in his travel journal. He was in
Beijing in the 1340s. Over a period of 30 years, Ibn Battuta traveled some
75,000 miles throughout the Middle East, southern and eastern Asia, and Mrica.
245
-~ .
246
GLOBAL INTERACTIONS (1200-1650)
Effect on China. Aside from promoting contact between China, Europe,
and Southwest Asia, Mongol rule had surprisingly little effect on Chinese
culture. The khans made no attempt to force Mongol culture on the Chinese.
The Chinese, who looked down on the Mongols as barbarians, showed no
interest in adopting any of their ways.
The Decline of the Mongol Empire
After the death of Kublai Khan in 1298, the Mongol Empire split into
smaller empires. These were the Golden Horde in southern Russia and the
Balkans, the Yuan Empire in China, and the Ilkhan Empire in western Asia.
The rulers who followed Kublai Khan lacked his strength and ability. As
Mongol rule weakened, Chinese opposition increased. In 1368, Chu
Yan-chang, who had studied to be a Buddhist monk and became a rebel leader,
drove the Mongols out of Beijing. A new Chinese dynasty, the Ming, replaced
Mongol rule.
Chapter 13 shows how the increased contact between East and West
affected Europe's economy, politics, and culture.
INFO CHECK
1. Explain why you AGREE or DISAGREE with the following statement:
Genghiz Khan was a great man and an admirable ruler.
2. List the changes brought to China by Kublai Khan. Indicate which of
these you regard as most important or significant.
3. What did Marco Polo have in common with Ibn Batutta?
Multiple Choice
1. Before China heavily influenced Japan, one
could describe the Japanese as
1. writers and scholars
2. farmers and warriors
3. industrialists
4. none of the above.
2. The Japanese religious belief in Shinto, or
"the way of the gods," is most similar to
1. Buddhism 2.
Hinduism 3.
Islam
4. animism.
3. Cultural diffusion resulted in the Japanese
adopting
1. a class of warriors and a code of
honor
,
2. religious and bureaucratic prac
tices
248
GLOBAL INTERACTIONS (1200-1650)
4. The Mongol Empire included
Russia and Persia.
12. Study the time line on page 244 and choose
the most accurate statement.
1. The beginning of Yamato rule of
Japan and the rise of Shinto as the state
religion occurred in A.D. 250.
2. Buddhist and Confucian ideas influenced Japan's government dur
ing Japan's feudal period.
3. Zen originated in Japan.
4. The shoguns opened Japan to for
eign trade during the 1600s.
live long lives. Our country is full of sickly
looking, skinny persons, simply because we
do not drink tea."
Do you think the writer is Japanese or
Chinese? Give reasons for your answer. How
does this reading selection illustrate cultural
diffusion?
2. Look at the illustration on page 234.
How does the artist convey the function of
the samurai?
3. From the Japanese government's Act of
Seclusion (1636).
"1. Japanese ships shall by no means be
sent abroad.
Thematic Essays
1. Cultural diffusion influenced the de
velopment of Japan, China, and Mongolia.
Task: Select ONE of these societies and
give specific examples of the influence of
cultural diffusion.
2. In East Asia, each society developed much
that was unique to itself. Task: From among
the societies presented in this chapter, select
one important contribution made by each
that is still valued today.
Document-Based Questions
2. No Japanese shall be sent abroad.
Anyone violating this prohibition shall
suffer the penalty of death, and the
shipowner and the crew shall be held
together with the ship.
3. All Japanese residing abroad shall be put
to death when they return home... .
11. The samurai shall not purchase goods
on board foreign ships directly from
foreigners."
What steps did Japan take to isolate
itselffrom foreign influences? Why do you think
this was done?
Use your knowledge of Global History and
4. From a study of Asian civilizations.
Geography and the documents to answer the
following questions.
"Buddhist learning is broader in scope than
Confucian, but Japanese learning is even
1. From a book about Asian civilizations.
more embracing. All the various types of
learning. . . are embraced in Japanese
"Tea is the most wonderful medicine for
learning. . . . [The] Japanese should study
nourishing one's health; it is the secret of
all the different kinds of learning-even
long life. India and China both value it
though they are foreign-so that they can
highly. . . . I wonder why the Japanese do
choose the good features of each and place
not care for bitter things. In the great
them at the service of the nation. . .. [The]
country of China they drink tea, as a result
Japanese differ from
of which there is no heart trouble and
people
~
248
GLOBAL INTERACTIONS (1200-1650)
4. The Mongol Empire included
Russia and Persia.
12. Study the time line on page 244 and choose
the most accurate statement.
1. The beginning of Yamato rule of
Japan and the rise of Shinto as the state
religion occurred in A.D. 250.
2. Buddhist and Confucian ideas influenced Japan's government dur
ing Japan's feudal period.
3. Zen originated in Japan.
4. The shoguns opened Japan to for
eign trade during the 1600s.
live long lives. Our country is full of sickly
looking, skinny persons, simply because we
do not drink tea."
Do you think the writer is Japanese or
Chinese? Give reasons for your answer. How
does this reading selection illustrate cultural
diffusion?
2. Look at the illustration on page 234.
How does the artist convey the function of
the samurai?
3. From the Japanese government's Act of
Seclusion (1636).
"1. Japanese ships shall by no means be
sent abroad.
Thematic Essays
1. Cultural diffusion influenced the de
velopment of Japan, China, and Mongolia.
Task: Select ONE of these societies and
give specific examples ofthe influence of
cultural diffusion.
2. In East Asia, each society developed much
that was unique to itself. Task: From among
the societies presented in this chapter, select
one important contribution made by each
that is still valued today.
Document-Based Questions
Use your knowledge of Global History and
Geography and the documents to answer the
following questions.
1. From a book about Asian civilizations.
"Tea is the most wonderful medicine for
nourishing one's health; it is the secret of
long life. India and China both value it
highly. . . . I wonder why the Japanese do
not care for bitter things. In the great
country of China they drink tea, as a result
of which there is no heart trouble and
people
2. No Japanese shall be sent abroad.
Anyone violating this prohibition shall
suffer the penalty of death, and the
shipowner and the crew shall be held
together with the ship.
3. All Japanese residing abroad shall be put
to death when they return home... .
11. The samurai shall not purchase goods
on board foreign ships directly from
foreigners."
What steps did Japan take to isolate
itselffrom foreign influences? Why do you think
this was done?
4. From a study of Asian civilizations.
"Buddhist learning is broader in scope than
Confucian, but Japanese learning is even
more embracing. All the various types of
learning. . . are embraced in Japanese
learning. . . . [The] Japanese should study
all the different kinds of learning-even
though they are foreign-so that they can
choose the good features of each and place
them at the service of the nation. . .. [The]
Japanese differ from
Asian Empires: Japan, China, and Mongolia
3. harmonious relations with their
neighbors
4. nomadic and pastoral lifestyles.
3. were often well educated and in
volved in trading ventures
4. none of the above.
4. Match the terms that represent so
cial or political similarities between
Japan and Europe.
1. A clan was to Japan as a dynasty
was to Europe.
2. A king was to Japan as a vassal
was to Europe.
.
3. A Zen master was to Japan as the
patriarch was to Rome.
4. The Tale of Genji was to Japan as
Homer's epics were to Greece.
5. The Tokugawas established a rigid social
structure in Japan. Select the answer that
correctly ranks the highest to the lowest
social classes.
1. samurai, artisans, farmers, mer
chants
2. merchants,
artisans,
farmers,
samuraI
3. samurai, merchants, artisans,
peasants
4. samurai, peasants, artisans, mer
chants
6. The Sung Empire became extremely wealthy
because
1. it totally controlled all of the
lands known as China
2. it gained great wealth from the
nations it conquered
3. it discovered deposits of gold and
oil in the north
4. it exported silks, porcelain, and
other trade goods.
7
247
. Women of noble families in China
1. were able to participate in social
and political activities
2. were considered inferior to their
husbands and suffered from foot
binding practices
8. The Mongols conquered other peoples and
established several longlasting dynasties
because of their
1. vast armies and heavy cannons
2. use of secret police and repressive
rule
3. hardy warriors and tolerant rule 4. hired
mercenaries and religious
beliefs.
9. The Yuan Dynasty is important because it
1. united the Chinese and Mongo
lian peoples forever
2. was the first time China was
ruled by outsiders
3. encouraged religious tolerance
and economic development
4. united the Chinese people to rise
up and rebel against their ruler.
10. The causes leading to the decline of the
Mongol and Sung empires were similar in
that
1. weak leaders or conflict over who
was to rule resulted in loss of power
2. natural disasters destroyed both
empires' economies
3. new, more peaceful, religions de
stroyed the armies' spirit
4. nomadic warrior tribes from the
north destroyed the empires.
11. The map on page 242 proves that
1. tile Great Wall prevented Mon
gols from conquering China
2. Korea was not part of the Mongol
Empire in A.D. 1300
3. Mongols captured Constantinople
and A.D. 1300