BEGINNING AGAIN:
DEREK WALCOTT'S ANOTHER LIFE AND
WILLIAM WORDSWORTH'S PRELUDE
by
FRANCES MARY SPROUT (SCHMIDT)
B.A., The University of Victoria, 1994
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF ARTS
in
THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES
(Department of English)
We accept this thesis as conforming
to the required standard
THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA
July 1996
(&)
Frances Mary Sprout, 1996
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Department of £ ^\i«,L
ft
The University of British Columbia
Vancouver, Canada
Date
DE-6 (2/88)
fLy«4*
s
111C
my
written
Abstract
In "Beginning Again:
Derek Walcott's Another L i f e
W i l l i a m Wordsworth's Prelude."
through/against
and
I read Another L i f e
The Prelude, f o c u s i n g on how
Walcott
claims
arid c o n t i n u e s the i n h e r i t a n c e represented by The P r e l u d e
w e l l as on ways he r e - w r i t e s t h i s work, m o d i f y i n g
s u b v e r t i n g i t t o s u i t h i s p o s t - c o l o n i a l needs.
as
and
Like
Abrams, I use The Prelude as a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e t e x t ,
M.H.
reading
i t as a c u l m i n a t i o n and embodiment of Romantic t h e o r y
and
practice.
In my
i n t r o d u c t i o n , I note other comparisons of the
works, o f f e r an overview
c r i t i c a l response
two
of the t h e s i s , and d i s c u s s the
which l a b e l s Walcott's work too
E u r o c e n t r i c t o be r e l e v a n t .
I respond
t o t h i s by
offering
p o s t - c o l o n i a l theory which a s s e r t s the l e g i t i m a c y of
" a p p r o p r i a t i o n and r e c o n s t i t u t i o n of the language of t h e
centre"
( A s h c r o f t e t a l . 38), and
I d i s c u s s Graham Huggan's
and R e i Terada's work on the use of mimicry i n the
Caribbean.
Walcott's
simultaneous
love f o r and f r u s t r a t i o n
with
the Western canon which i s p a r t of h i s h e r i t a g e i s
p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t i c e a b l e i n t h r e e areas, each of which i s the
focus of one of my
chapters:
1)nature and
landscape
imagery; 2), the n o t i o n of the d i v i d e d s e l f ; and
3)
the
form, s t r u c t u r i n g p r i n c i p l e s , and n a r r a t i v e p a t t e r n s .
the f i r s t
chapter, I c o n s i d e r how
In
Walcott w r i t e s back t o a
canon which p r e s e n t s Nature e i t h e r as p a r a d i s a l , as d i v i d e d
Ill
i n t o e i t h e r the b e a u t i f u l or the sublime, or as a p a r t n e r i n
a n u r t u r i n g , r e c i p r o c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p with the poet.
second
In the
chapter, I d i s c u s s the,two poets' shared p e r c e p t i o n
of t h e i r d i v i d e d s e l v e s , arguing t h a t w h i l e
Wordsworth's
c o n c l u s i o n p r e s e n t s a confidence i n the p o s s i b i l i t y of
r e g a i n i n g i n t e g r i t y , Walcott i n s i s t s t h a t t h e r e never
has
been such i n t e g r i t y i n the c o l o n i e s , and thus, i t can never
be r e c o v e r e d .
The t h i r d chapter c o n s i d e r s W a l c o t t ' s
choice
of the e p i c form, as w e l l as h i s m o d i f i c a t i o n of
Wordsworth's n a r r a t i v e p a t t e r n s and s t r u c t u r i n g
principles.
I conclude by a s s e r t i n g t h a t , l i k e the Romantic p r o j e c t
as Abrams summarizes i t ,
Another L i f e i s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y
s u b v e r s i v e and c o n s e r v a t i v e , r e f o r m u l a t i n g the e p i c i n order
t o ensure
i t s continued p o s t - c o l o n i a l r e l e v a n c e .
iv
Table of Contents
Abstract
i i
T a b l e o f Contents
iv
Acknowledgement
v
INTRODUCTION
1
Chapter One
" A l l That Romantic Taxidermy"
Chapter Two
"What E l s e Was He But A D i v i d e d C h i l d ? "
Chapter Three
"Heroic Argument"
11
36
55
Conclusion
78
Works C i t e d
93
V
Acknowledgment
I thank my husband, Paul, my c h i l d r e n , Bronwen,
Rhiannon, Megan, and Zachary, and my parents,
Pat and Ken
Schmidt, f o r encouraging and supporting me i n my academic
endeavours.
I a l s o thank the i n s t r u c t o r s a t M a l a s p i n a
U n i v e r s i t y - C o l l e g e f o r t h e i r encouragement
p a r t i c u l a r l y Katharina
and i n s p i r a t i o n ,
Rout, whose c l a s s e s I h o l d as a model
f o r t h e best k i n d of academic l e a r n i n g , Ron Bonham and L i z a
P o t v i n whose c o n t i n u i n g f r i e n d s h i p I a p p r e c i a t e ,
and C r a i g
Tapping, from whose c l a s s came the idea f o r t h i s t h e s i s .
1
Introduction
S i m i l a r i t i e s between W i l l i a m Wordsworth's The
and
Prelude
Derek Walcott's Another L i f e abound, and have been noted
s i n c e the l a t t e r s p u b l i c a t i o n .
1
Another L i f e through and
In t h i s t h e s i s , I read
a g a i n s t The
Prelude.
acknowledging the s t r o n g l y c o n s e r v a t i v e
I do
trend
so
i n Walcott's
re-working, but defending i t a g a i n s t those c r i t i c s who
r e j e c t the work as "too European."
I a s s e r t the
would
subversive
nature of t h i s r e - w r i t i n g , by demonstrating ways i n which
W a l c o t t ' s a p p r o p r i a t i o n of form and
c o l o n i a l aim
suggested i n The
s t y l e a c h i e v e s the
Empire W r i t e s Back:
post-
Theory
and
P r a c t i c e i n P o s t - c o l o n i a l L i t e r a t u r e s , t h a t of " s e i z i n g
the
language of the centre and r e - p l a c i n g i t i n a
f u l l y adapted t o the c o l o n i z e d p l a c e "
My
primary focus w i l l be on how
continues
the i n h e r i t a n c e represented
w e l l as on how
subverting
( A s h c r o f t e t a l . 38).
Walcott c l a i m s
by The
i t t o s u i t h i s p o s t - c o l o n i a l needs.
E n g l i s h " and
prolonging
["Twilight"
t h a t he once "saw
Unwilling
to
ancestors
language of e x e g e s i s i s
[him]self l e g i t i m a t e l y
the mighty l i n e of Marlowe, of M i l t o n "
31]),
i n h e r i t a n c e was
("Twilight"
as
and
d i s c a r d the language or the canon of h i s E n g l i s h
t h a t "the
and
Prelude,
he r e - w r i t e s t h i s work, m o d i f y i n g
(he s t a t e s u n e q u i v o c a l l y
discourse
31).
Walcott admits t h a t h i s "sense of
stronger
because i t came from estrangement"
He does, however, i n s i s t on making
the
2
language r e l e v a n t t o h i s c o n d i t i o n , by "making c r e a t i v e use
of h i s s c h i z o p h r e n i a , an e l e c t r i c f u s i o n of the o l d and
new
( " T w i l i g h t " 17).
language t h a t
Walcott
His hope i s i n the " f o r g i n g of a
[goes] beyond mimicry" ( " T w i l i g h t " 17).
then w r i t e s an a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l v e r s e
r e c o g n i z a b l y patterned a f t e r The
Prelude,
Rather, he i s attempting
continued
and
relevance
When
epic
he i s not
i m i t a t i n g t o f l a t t e r or to i n s i n u a t e h i s way
w h i l e modifying
the
i n t o the canon.
t o conserve t h a t which i s v a l u a b l e
s u b v e r t i n g the canon t o assure i t s
i n the West Indies and
expand the
p o s s i b i l i t i e s of i t s d i s c o u r s e .
Ashton N i c h o l s sums up p r e v i o u s comparisons of Another
L i f e and The
and
i n " C o l o n i z i n g Consciousness:
I d e n t i t y i n Walcott's
Prelude,"
Culture
Another L i f e and Wordsworth's
n o t i n g t h a t while Kenneth Ramchand f i r s t made the
connection
it,
Prelude
between the two,
and Edward Baugh l a t e r extended
n e i t h e r developed the Wordworthian s i d e of the
parallel.
T r a v i s Lane, i n "A D i f f e r e n t 'Growth of a Poet's M i n d :
1
Derek Walcott's
Prelude,
Another L i f e , " does look more c l o s e l y a t
The
but does so mainly to demonstrate the poems' "very
g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e s " (65).
Walcott's
N i c h o l s ' essay not o n l y examines
debt t o the "Wordsworthian t r a d i t i o n of
verse
autobiography" (173), but a l s o suggests t h a t a comparison of
the two
works can deepen understanding
of Wordsworth's poem.
N i c h o l s sees the i n t e r t e x t u a l r e l a t i o n between the
poems as o f f e r i n g an understanding
of the c u l t u r a l
two
context
3
of a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l w r i t i n g s i n t h e l y r i c a l mode.
He sees
the a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l v o i c e i n both as emerging "out o f an
i n t e r a c t i o n between s o c i o c u l t u r a l f o r c e s and an a e s t h e t i c
posture
t h a t seeks t o c r i t i q u e a l l c u l t u r a l
identifications"
(174), w i t h t h e r e s u l t i n g d i f f i c u l t y t h a t t h i s v o i c e then
seeks an " a r t i s t i c " p o s i t i o n f r e e from s o c i a l l i m i t a t i o n s a t
the same time as i t demonstrates t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f such a
c u l t u r a l l y neutral position.
My own i n t e r e s t i s p r i m a r i l y i n Another L i f e .
poem, t h e i n f l u e n c e of The Prelude
i s c l e a r i n t h e way i t s
s u b l i m i n a l presence u n d e r l i n e s an important
Walcott's:
In t h i s
theme o f
h i s simultaneous love f o r and f r u s t r a t i o n
the Western canon which i s p a r t of h i s h e r i t a g e .
with
This i s
p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t i c e a b l e i n three areas, each of which w i l l
be t h e focus of one of the f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r s :
1) nature
and
landscape imagery; 2) the n o t i o n of t h e d i v i d e d s e l f ;
and
3) t h e form, s t r u c t u r i n g p r i n c i p l e s , and n a r r a t i v e
patterns.
The
f i r s t chapter w i l l c o n s i d e r Walcott's
Wordsworth's p r e s e n t a t i o n of Nature.
1
r e - w r i t i n g of
Wordsworth
insists
on an o r i g i n a l i n t e g r i t y with Nature, and p o i n t s t o t h e Eden
of c h i l d h o o d as proof of t h i s .
Walcott,
has
i t i s important
t o expose the Nature i n t o which he
been born as a l r e a d y f a l l e n .
"begin here again"
For t h e p o s t - c o l o n i a l
Thus i t i s h i s t a s k t o
(145), t o somehow r e c l a i m t h e garden
through "Adam's task of g i v i n g t h i n g s t h e i r names" (294).
4
Although both poems are a l i k e i n weighting landscape
o t h e r imagery
of nature with symbolic and
and
philosophical
meaning, these images always p o i n t Wordsworth towards a
g r e a t e r transcendent Nature, a Supreme Being, whereas such
s o l a c e seems u n a v a i l a b l e t o Walcott who
sees Nature
as
c o n t i n u a l l y i n s p i r i n g or c h a l l e n g i n g , but a l s o as
continually erasing his a r t .
Walcott's r e f e r e n c e s t o
Nature
a l s o a l l u d e t o a c o l o n i a l h i s t o r y and t o the i s s u e s of
language
surrounding t h a t h i s t o r y , so t h a t the un-named p r e -
European landscape and the indigenous f l o r a and fauna are
juxtaposed w i t h the nature f o r which he has been g i v e n
language.
The second chapter i s concerned w i t h the treatment i n
both poems of the d i v i d e d s e l f .
Although the n a r r a t i v e
s t r u c t u r e of The Prelude works towards i n t e g r a t i o n ,
Another
while
L i f e acknowledges d i v i s i o n a t almost every p o i n t ,
the concept of a d i v i d e d s e l f i s a c e n t r a l concern of both
works.
Wordsworth speaks of two
consciousnesses,
d i s t i n g u i s h i n g between thoughts and f e e l i n g s , the l i f e of
the s o u l and t h a t of the mind.
Another d i v i s i o n i s apparent
i n the i n s e r t i o n of censorious comments by h i s mature s e l f
of h i s a c t i v i t i e s d u r i n g h i s e a r l y student y e a r s .
Walcott's
own
t h e r e i s , f o r example the
division
between h i s European and h i s A f r i c a n h e r i t a g e ; the
division
d i v i s i o n s are many:
o c c a s i o n e d by h i s love of Western l i t e r a t u r e and h i s
awareness of i t s p a r t i n denying the l o c a l o r a l c u l t u r e ;
and
5
the d i v i s i o n caused by h i s love f o r Anna and h i s
simultaneous detachment
from her i n order t o observe and
d e s c r i b e her i n the name of a r t .
F i n a l l y , the t h i r d chapter w i l l look a t t h e form,
s t r u c t u r i n g p r i n c i p l e s , and n a r r a t i v e p a t t e r n s o f t h e two
poems.
Both, o f course, share (and modify) t h e e p i c form
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the great works of Homer, V e r g i l ,
Spenser, and M i l t o n .
Dante,
By u s i n g t h i s form t o d e s c r i b e t h e
growth of a poet's mind, Wordsworth makes a q u i n t e s s e n t i a l l y
Romantic
statement, c l a i m i n g f o r the s u b j e c t i v e and t h e
i n d i v i d u a l a s t a t u r e p r e v i o u s l y r e s e r v e d f o r heroes and
gods.
Walcott's seemingly c o n s e r v a t i v e c h o i c e o f a c a n o n i c a l
form i s e q u a l l y s u b v e r s i v e .
Although f r u s t r a t e d by t h e
c o l o n i z e r s who w i l l not/cannot see the l o c a l landscape i n
terms of p o e t r y , n e i t h e r w i l l he r e j e c t h i s European
heritage.
C l e a r l y capable of u s i n g the C r e o l e " n a t i o n
language" Edward Brathwaite promotes as t h e n a t i o n a l
language of the E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g West I n d i e s ,
2
Walcott
i n s i s t s on a l s o drawing from h i s European background.
To
those who "jump[] on" him from "both s i d e s f o r
p r e t e n t i o u s n e s s or p l a y i n g white," c a l l i n g him " t r a i t o r " or
" a s s i m i l a t o r , " the s e l f - s t y l e d "mulatto of s t y l e " responds:
" P a s t o r a l i s t s of the A f r i c a n r e v i v a l should know t h a t what
i s needed
i s not new names f o r o l d t h i n g s , or o l d names f o r
o l d t h i n g s , but the f a i t h of u s i n g the o l d names anew"
6
( " T w i l i g h t " 9-10).
Walcott thus r i s k s c r i t i c a l comments such as those of
A l i c e Walker, who
c l a i m s of Another L i f e t h a t "very
little
t h a t i s r e c o g n i z a b l y Black West Indian s u r v i v e s , " and
who
f i n d s t h a t "there i s too much f o r e i g n t a l k and f a r too much
British style"
(576).
P a t r i c i a Ismond, i n summing up
"Walcott versus Brathwaite" debate
the
i n her a r t i c l e of the
same name, says t h a t " i n b r i n g i n g these two poets t o g e t h e r .
. . i t would be d i s h o n e s t not t o r e c o g n i s e a t once t h a t i t
i s Walcott above a l l t h a t needs t o be v i n d i c a t e d "
(55).
As
she says, the "stock a t t i t u d e s " are t h a t Walcott "seems t o
be a type of poet's poet, the k i n d of l u x u r y we
a f f o r d , and which remains
E u r o c e n t r i c " (54).
can i l l
But w h i l e some
see Walcott's work as e i t h e r s l a v i s h l y i m i t a t i v e or
politically
q u i e t i s t i n i t s focus on s t y l e ,
Ismond sees
W a l c o t t ' s "'acceptance' of the Western Word,"
rather revolutionary claim.
T h i s i s the c l a i m t o an
i n h e r i t a n c e e v i d e n t i n the way
it
Walcott
" f e e l s f r e e t o mould
[the Western Word], bend i t t o h i s own
expose i t s shortcomings,
competently
now
as making a
purposes,
now
draw upon i t s s t r e n g t h s — a s
as the o r i g i n a l p o s s e s s o r s " (69).
Ismond's assessment of Walcott's s t r a t e g y shows i t s
s i m i l a r i t y t o those " i n t e l l e c t u a l s from the c o l o n i a l or
p e r i p h e r a l r e g i o n s " of whom Edward S a i d speaks,
who
wrote i n an
themselves
' i m p e r i a l ' language,
who
those
felt
o r g a n i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o the mass
to
7
r e s i s t a n c e t o empire, and who s e t themselves t h e
r e v i s i o n i s t , c r i t i c a l task of d e a l i n g
with the metropolitan
techniques,
frontally
culture, using the
d i s c o u r s e s , and weapons of s c h o l a r s h i p
and c r i t i c i s m once r e s e r v e d e x c l u s i v e l y f o r t h e
European. (243)
When Ismond s t a t e s t h a t the "confidence
[Walcott's]
and t e n a c i t y o f
approach c h a l l e n g e s and d e f i e s any such
notions
of i n f e r i o r i t y , " she p a r a l l e l s Said's comments t h a t t h e work
of those
i n t e l l e c t u a l s w r i t i n g i n an ' i m p e r i a l * language i s
"only a p p a r e n t l y dependent (and by no means p a r a s i t i c ) on
mainstream Western d i s c o u r s e s ; the r e s u l t of i t s o r i g i n a l i t y
and c r e a t i v i t y has been the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
t e r r a i n o f the d i s c i p l i n e s "
o f t h e very
(243).
Both Ismond and Said suggest t h a t a w r i t e r from t h e
p e r i p h e r y can use the language of the m e t r o p o l i t a n power
without
being e i t h e r dependent, p a r a s i t i c , or q u i e t i s t .
f a c t , as B i l l A s h c r o f t , Gareth G r i f f i t h s ,
say
and Helen
In
Tiffin
i n The Empire Writes Back, the " c r u c i a l f u n c t i o n o f
language as a medium of power demands t h a t p o s t - c o l o n i a l
w r i t i n g d e f i n e i t s e l f by s e i z i n g the language o f t h e c e n t r e
and r e - p l a c i n g i t i n a d i s c o u r s e f u l l y adapted t o t h e
colonized place"
authors
and
(38). One of the two processes
these
d e s c r i b e f o r a c h i e v i n g t h i s i s "the a p p r o p r i a t i o n
r e c o n s t i t u t i o n of the language of the c e n t r e , t h e
process
o f c a p t u r i n g and remoulding the language t o new
8
usages [which] marks a s e p a r a t i o n
privilege"
(38).
from the s i t e of
colonial
They c i t e as an example of t h i s W a l c o t t ' s
a p p r o p r i a t i o n as w e l l as h i s "Adamic c e l e b r a t i o n of
language"
(51).
Besides a p p r o p r i a t i n g the
' i m p e r i a l ' language,
Rei
Terada p o i n t s out t h a t Walcott i s a l s o "address[ing]
o p p o s i t i o n between mimicry and
o r i g i n a l i t y " (3).
the
Terada
makes the extremely p e r t i n e n t comment t h a t i n
at
l e a s t t h r e e ways . . . Walcott's work throws
i n t o r e l i e f the simultaneous inadequacy
resilience
of the idea of
and
'originality':
by
p r o v o k i n g c r i t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n s of i t ; by
the
s t r e n g t h with which i t presses a g a i n s t
i t s tendency n e v e r t h e l e s s
i t ; and
by
t o f a l l back upon i t .
(44)
T h i s p a r a l l e l s Walcott's i n s i s t e n c e on
countering
Wordsworth's Edenic imagery with h i s own
nature w h i l e simultaneously
vision
of a f a l l e n
embracing the Edenic myth i n
order t o c l a i m the empowering language of Adam.
Graham Huggan a l s o c o n s i d e r s mimicry i n W a l c o t t ' s work
i n h i s essay "A T a l e of Two
Parrots:
Uses of C o l o n i a l Mimicry."
He
Bhabha on mimicry, and
Walcott, Rhys, and
sums up Fanon, N a i p a u l ,
suggests t h a t
Caribbean w r i t e r s have been eager t o t u r n
mimicry t o t h e i r own
colonial
advantage, c a p i t a l i z i n g
the mischief-making a l l i a n c e between parody
on
and
the
and
9
'parrotry*
i n order t o p r o v i d e a d e l i b e r a t e l y
embarrassing
reminder
difference.
(646)
of t h e i r own
The w i l f u l "mischief-making"
and
cultural
"embarrassing"
here
also
c a l l t o mind Harold Bloom's Oedipal s t r u g g l e between the
"ephebe" and h i s " p r e c u r s o r " .
3
Laurence
Breiner provides a
v e r y u s e f u l summary of Bloom's theory and
i t s relevance to
Caribbean w r i t i n g , comparing i t t o both Edward
and Derek Walcott's own
Brathwaite's
t h e o r i e s of i n f l u e n c e , i n h i s essay
" T r a d i t i o n , S o c i e t y , The F i g u r e of the
Poet."
Throughout these t h r e e chapters, I r e f e r o f t e n t o
Abrams, from whom I adopt the p r a c t i c e of u s i n g The
M.H.
Prelude
as a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e t e x t , as a c u l m i n a t i o n and embodiment of
Romantic t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e .
T h i s i s perhaps a t the c o s t
of i g n o r i n g much of the more contemporary t h e o r y r e g a r d i n g
the Romantic p e r i o d , but I b e l i e v e t h i s i s j u s t i f i e d by
project:
my
Abrams' r e a d i n g of The Prelude i s r o u g h l y
contemporaneous w i t h the p u b l i c a t i o n of Another L i f e .
have chosen t o work with the 1805
v e r s i o n of The
I
Prelude,
not o n l y f o r the r a t h e r a r b i t r a r y reason t h a t i t i s the
v e r s i o n I know best, but a l s o because of
Jonathan
Wordsworth's c l a i m t h a t i t i s the v e r s i o n p r e f e r r e d by
B r i t i s h readers
(Walcott's St. L u c i a n e d u c a t i o n b e i n g
modeled o b v i o u s l y on the
British).
4
The e d i t i o n of Another L i f e t o which I r e f e r
i s t h a t found i n C o l l e c t e d Poems:
1948-1984.
throughout
This edition
10
does use a d i f f e r e n t p a g i n a t i o n
(1973) e d i t i o n ; a s w e l l ,
inscription,
Glissant's
from t h a t
i t includes
of the f i r s t
neither
the opening
" f o r Margaret," nor the quotation
Le L e z a r d e
from
Edouard
(The R i p e n i n g ) , w h i c h a p p e a r on p a g e s
b e f o r e t h e poem i n b o t h t h e 1973 and t h e 1982 e d i t i o n s .
These a r e t h e only
laid
out as i t i s i n the f i r s t
occupying,
pages.
will
respectively,
however, and t h e poem i s
edition with the four
o f f e r page numbers o n l y ,
numbers.
books
44, 32, 34, and 35
A l l q u o t a t i o n s f r o m t h e poems t h r o u g h o u t t h i s
Prelude follow
line
differences,
w h i l e my r e f e r e n c e s
the convention of including
thesis
t o The
b o t h book and
11
Chapter One
—
" A l l That Romantic Taxidermy"
Before l o o k i n g a t how
Walcott acknowledges,
i n t e r r o g a t e s , and f i n a l l y re-shapes the p o e t i c s of nature he
i n h e r i t s from/through
Wordsworth's The Prelude, i t w i l l
u s e f u l t o d e l i n e a t e those p o e t i c s i n terms of how
be
they
r e p r e s e n t the Western canon g e n e r a l l y , the Romantic movement
e s p e c i a l l y and, most s p e c i f i c a l l y , Wordsworth h i m s e l f .
Three
important aspects of the t r a d i t i o n i n t o which Walcott
i s w r i t i n g are:
and redemption;
the B i b l i c a l n a r r a t i v e of the garden,
fall,
the o r g a n i z i n g c a t e g o r i e s of the b e a u t i f u l
and the sublime; and the paradigm of the a r t i s t
in a
r e c i p r o c a l and n u r t u r i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h nature.
Walcott's task i s to include p o s t - c o l o n i a l r e a l i t i e s i n t h i s
Western l i t e r a r y d i s c o u r s e of nature, and t o do so, he must
work w i t h i n , y e t somehow subvert, a l o n g - e s t a b l i s h e d
iconography
of nature which has excluded or m a r g i n a l i z e d the
non-European.
These t h r e e aspects c e n t r a l t o and
continuous
throughout Western t r a d i t i o n a l l share an important
element:
a commitment t o a nature which, a t l e a s t b e f o r e man's f a l l ,
was
b e a u t i f u l , n u r t u r i n g , and p a r a d i s a l .
T h i s i s the
p a r a d i s e , the Garden of Eden, of the B i b l i c a l
narrative.
(Such a p a r a d i s e i s a l s o found i n C l a s s i c a l w r i t i n g i n such
v e r s i o n s as the Greek E l y s i a n f i e l d s , and the L a t i n
amoenus.)
locus
In E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e , the most important v e r s i o n
12
of t h i s n a r r a t i v e i s , of course, M i l t o n ' s P a r a d i s e L o s t , and
Wordsworth
a t s e v e r a l p o i n t s i n The Prelude makes s p e c i f i c
a l l u s i o n t o t h i s work, r e i n f o r c i n g
w i t h i n the longer t r a d i t i o n .
the p l a c e of h i s own work
5
Besides r e p r e s e n t i n g the longer Western t r a d i t i o n of
w r i t i n g about nature i n terms of the B i b l i c a l Garden and
fall,
The Prelude a l s o r e p r e s e n t s a Romantic impulse.
M.H.
Abrams, i n N a t u r a l Supernaturalism, c l a i m s as t y p i c a l l y
Romantic i n i t the move from an e a r l y i n t e g r i t y w i t h i n
nature t o a f a l l
thought,
i n t o the d i v i s i v e n e s s of a n a l y t i c a l
w i t h a redemptive r e t u r n t o oneness w i t h n a t u r e .
A l s o t y p i c a l l y Romantic i s t h a t t h i s f i n a l i n t e g r i t y i s on a
h i g h e r l e v e l which c l e a r l y acknowledges a r e c i p r o c i t y
between mind/imagination
offers
and nature.
Thus, what The
Prelude
i s a r e t e l l i n g i n s e c u l a r terms of the B i b l i c a l
Paradise/Fall/Redemption
naturalizing
n a r r a t i v e , or as Abrams says, a
of the s u p e r n a t u r a l .
Wordsworth's
own use of the t r o p e of a p r e - f a l l
P a r a d i s e makes such a p e r i o d i n h i s t o r y
analogous w i t h
c h i l d h o o d i n g e n e r a l , and i n terms of autobiography,
with
h i s own c h i l d h o o d and c h i l d h o o d memories i n p a r t i c u l a r .
T h i s i s e x e m p l i f i e d , i n the f o l l o w i n g passage, by the image
of Wordsworth
as a c h i l d bathing i n the r i v e r Derwent
and
running j o y o u s l y and f r e e l y through the c o r r e s p o n d i n g
landscape.
innocence
P a r t i c u l a r l y suggestive of Eden i s the naked
and the emphasis on i n t e g r i t y w i t h Nature
13
r e p r e s e n t e d by the r e p e t i t i o n of the word "one":
Oh! many a time have I, a f i v e y e a r s ' C h i l d ,
A naked Boy,
i n one d e l i g h t f u l
Rill,
A l i t t l e M i l l - r a c e severed from h i s stream,
Made one long b a t h i n g of a summer's day,
Basked
i n the sun, and plunged, and basked a g a i n
A l t e r n a t e a l l a summer's day, or coursed
Over the sandy f i e l d s ,
Of y e l l o w g r u n s e l .
l e a p i n g through groves
. . ( I , 291-398)
Yet even as Wordsworth i s r e c r e a t i n g , i n h i s c h i l d h o o d ,
a B i b l i c a l Eden, he i s modifying t h a t Eden t o f o c u s on
h i m s e l f alone i n oneness with nature, thus e x c l u d i n g Eve.
As w e l l , the l i n e s immediately f o l l o w i n g these t u r n r a t h e r
q u i c k l y t o harsher, darker aspects of N a t u r e — t h e c r a g ,
hill,
and woods—and then t o the sublime: " d i s t a n t Skiddaw's
l o f t y h e i g h t . . . bronzed with a deep r a d i a n c e " ( I , 299300).
The mountain
r e v e a l s him as "alone beneath the sky"
and h i s nakedness i s now
Savage" who
"sport[s]
H
judged t o be t h a t of "a naked
" i n wantonness . . .
i n the thunder
shower" ( I , 303-4).
S i m i l a r l y , the opening which s i t u a t e s the poet alone i n
the
landscape p l a c e s him i n a p a r a d i s a l s e t t i n g .
The g e n t l e
breeze o f f e r s b l e s s i n g , the f i e l d s are green, and i f t h e r e
are
of
c l o u d s , they are g e n t l y wandering
ones.
The language i s
groves and sweet streams, and i n c o n t r a s t w i t h the c i t y
from which the poet has j u s t r e t u r n e d , t h i s i s c l e a r l y
14
Edenic.
At the same time, however, although the poet has i n
f r o n t of him
" [ l ] o n g months of peace . . .
undisturbed d e l i g h t "
(1,2 6-29)
of ease
and
he must make c h o i c e s about
the journey he i s about t o undertake: whither s h a l l I t u r n /
By road or pathway or through open f i e l d ,
/ Or s h a l l a t w i g
or any f l o a t i n g t h i n g / Upon the r i v e r , p o i n t me
course?
( I , 29-32).
out
my
As h i s a l l u s i o n t o P a r a d i s e L o s t makes
c l e a r , h i s stance here i s s i m i l a r t o Adam's o u t s i d e of the
garden:
position
"The
e a r t h i s a l l before me."
6
His
liminal
(between p a r a d i s e and the r e s t of the world) a l s o
suggests the hero of the c l a s s i c a l e p i c , l e a v i n g home t o
venture i n t o / a g a i n s t the Other which i s the unknown world.
What t h i s f i g u r e a l s o s u b t l y c o n f l a t e s are the
b e a u t i f u l and the sublime, two responses t o the
Other/nature
around which metaphysical t h i n k i n g has been o r g a n i z e d
throughout Western i n t e l l e c t u a l h i s t o r y .
Herbert
Lindenberger, r e f e r r i n g t o the poet's statement
that
"grew up / F o s t e r e d a l i k e by beauty and by f e a r "
he
( I , 305-6),
notes t h a t "Wordsworth q u i t e n a t u r a l l y assumed a dichotomy
between conceptions of 'beauty' and
'fear'.
. . behind h i s
use of these words t h e r e stands a whole c e n t u r y of
d i s c u s s i o n on the nature of the b e a u t i f u l and the
sublime"
(23). Lindenberger makes the u s e f u l c o n n e c t i o n between the
b e a u t i f u l / s u b l i m e dichotomy and Wordsworth's " t r a i n i n g i n
t h a t a n c i e n t r h e t o r i c a l t r a d i t i o n which d i s t i n g u i s h e s
between pathos
and ethos
as the opposing types of emotion
15
which p o e t r y seeks t o d e p i c t "
(25).
p r o g r e s s from pathos
i s Wordsworth's image o f t h e
t o ethos
h i s t o r y of h i s own l i f e ,
He argues t h a t
"[t]he
and as such i t p r o v i d e s a p a t t e r n
of o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r The Prelude" (36).
As M.H. Abrams p o i n t s out, along w i t h these terms
Wordsworth " i n h e r i t e d a long t r a d i t i o n of f i n d i n g moral and
t h e o l o g i c a l meanings i n the a e s t h e t i c q u a l i t i e s o f t h e
landscape, as w e l l as of conducting an i n q u i r y i n t o
cosmic
goodness and j u s t i c e by r e f e r e n c e t o t h e c o n t r a r y a t t r i b u t e s
of t h e n a t u r a l world"
(102).
This t r a d i t i o n
inevitably
excluded those aspects of nature which f i t n e i t h e r category,
and many d e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s t and New H i s t o r i c i s t c r i t i q u e s o f
The Prelude and other Romantic w r i t i n g have focused on such
exclusions.
Walcott, of course, takes another
approach,
r e w r i t i n g The Prelude t o i n c l u d e those a s p e c t s of nature
which c h a l l e n g e the l i m i t a t i o n s of the d i s c o u r s e .
Besides drawing
a t t e n t i o n t o the two p o t e n t i a l
c a t e g o r i e s of t h e b e a u t i f u l and the sublime, t h e opening
f i g u r e of t h e poet a g a i n s t the landscape most o b v i o u s l y
foregrounds t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between poet and n a t u r e .
Wordsworth uses t h e wind as a symbol of t h e p o e t s
1
i n s p i r a t i o n i n Nature, as do so many of t h e Romantics,
C o l e r i d g e i n h i s " A e o l i a n Harp" f o r example, o r S h e l l e y i n
h i s "Ode t o t h e West Wind."
essay "The Correspondent
As M.H. Abrams notes i n h i s
Breeze:
A Romantic Metaphor,"
P r e l u d e i s marked from t h e beginning by i t s use o f t h e
The
16
r e c u r r e n t wind as a k i n d of unobtrusive
leitmotif,
" r e p r e s e n t i n g the c h i e f theme of c o n t i n u i t y and
interchange
between outer motions and the i n t e r i o r l i f e and powers"
(28) .
Herbert Lindenberger
a l s o comments on Wordsworth's use
of wind imagery, as w e l l as of water imagery, p o i n t i n g out
that
the dominating
images of The Prelude are wind
and
water, images which by t h e i r very n a t u r e — t h e i r
flowing, transforming q u a l i t y , t h e i r a b i l i t y
to
i n t e r a c t with other n a t u r a l elements . . . a l l o w
the poet f r e e range between the observable
world
and the h i g h e r t r a n s c e n d e n t a l r e a l i t y which he
wishes t o make v i s i b l e t o us.
Their chief
f u n c t i o n , one might say, i s t o a c t as
i n t e r m e d i a r i e s between the two worlds.
(71)
Wordsworth's c h o i c e of r e p r e s e n t i n g nature through some of
i t s most p o t e n t i a l l y t r a n s f o r m i n g images r e f l e c t s a
t r a d i t i o n of confidence i n the p o s s i b i l i t y of r e g a i n i n g a
u n i t y between mind and nature.
b e g i n i n the everyday
understand,
they w i l l
As w e l l , although the images
where the mind attempts
and even r e - c r e a t e them i n p o e t r y ,
l e a d , as i n the Mt.
t o experience,
ultimately
Snowdon v i s i o n w i t h which the
poem ends, t o the t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i d e a l .
Lindenberger
history,"
argues, a g a i n s t " c o n v e n t i o n a l l i t e r a r y
t h a t "Wordsworth's attempt
to locate visionary
17
power i n n a t u r a l scenery seems l e s s the b e g i n n i n g of a
tradition
. . . than the c u l m i n a t i o n of a way
of t h i n k i n g
f o r which the groundwork has been l a i d long b e f o r e . "
For
him,
able
the d i f f e r e n c e i s i n the language Wordsworth was
t o d e v i s e " f o r the i n t e r a c t i o n of the mind w i t h e x t e r n a l
nature"
(94). Lindenberger goes on t o say t h a t Wordsworth
s t r u c t u r e d h i s work around observed images not o n l y
of h i s l o v e of nature, but a l s o because
he had
inherited.
because
of the epistemology
He c i t e s Tuveson's demonstration of
u n i t y of outer and i n n e r f o l l o w s from Locke's
how
epistemology,
but f i n d s Wordsworth's poetry unique not f o r i t s combination
of "sense-impressions of nature w i t h more complex
ideas,"
but f o r "the p e c u l i a r method which he developed t o draw the
i n t e l l e c t u a l from the v i s u a l "
(96).
What i s s p e c i f i c a l l y
Wordsworthian, a c c o r d i n g t o Lindenberger, i s t h a t
he
r e p r e s e n t s the e x t e r n a l world only i n order t o get beyond
it;
i f he l e t s h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l i z i n g s e l f i n t r u d e ,
the
i n t r u s i o n seems t o f o l l o w so n a t u r a l l y from the c o n c r e t e l y
p e r c e i v e d premise with which he s t a r t e d t h a t the r e a d e r i s
s c a r c e l y aware he has c r o s s e d the border which commonly
s e p a r a t e s the simple idea from the complex, the e m p i r i c a l
realm from the t r a n s c e n d e n t a l . " (96)
The Western l i t e r a r y d i s c o u r s e of Nature of which
The
P r e l u d e i s p a r t , then, accepts as g i v e n a Nature which
r e p r e s e n t s the P a r a d i s e which i s both p r e - and
and which i s where h i s t o r y began.
ahistoric,
Although Wordsworth
18
i n s e r t s i n t o t h i s d i s c o u r s e some m o d i f i c a t i o n s or
r e s e r v a t i o n s , h i s opening i s c l e a r l y s i t u a t e d i n a
which, w i t h i t s g e n t l e breezes, green f i e l d s ,
stream,
i s s u g g e s t i v e of Eden.
and
Nature
sweet
Walcott's opening,
by
c o n t r a s t , i s s e t i n a d i s t i n c t l y un-Eden-like t w i l i g h t ocean
scene.
The sun i s harsh even as i t s e t s , g l a r i n g
"mesmeriz[ing]
and
l i k e f i r e without wind" (a combination
i s r e m i n i s c e n t of h e l l r a t h e r than Eden);
which
i t s decline i s
a s s o c i a t e d both with the end of the B r i t i s h empire and w i t h
drunkenness.
The sea i s a book whose pages can be read, but
the master who
c o u l d g i v e them meaning i s absent.
That
this
i s a p o s t - l a p s a r i a n landscape i s c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d i n the
comment t h a t : "The dream / of reason had produced i t s
monster: / a p r o d i g y of the wrong age and c o l o u r " (145).
S i m i l a r l y , Wordsworth's a s s e r t i o n t h a t each
individual
l i f e begins i n the P a r a d i s e of c h i l d h o o d i s q u e s t i o n e d by
Walcott who
t u r n s , as Wordsworth does,
the landscape about him,
memories.
self
from contemplation of
t o a m e d i t a t i o n on h i s e a r l y
L i k e Wordsworth, Walcott remembers h i s c h i l d h o o d
i n a s s o c i a t i o n with Nature, but w h i l e Wordsworth
a s s i g n s a u n i t y between s e l f and Nature
in this period, for
Walcott, t h i s supposedly P a r a d i s a l time was
a l r e a d y marred
by a d i v i s i o n which i s s i g n i f i e d , a t t h i s e a r l i e s t p o i n t , by
Nature.
Walcott a s s o c i a t e s h i s c h i l d h o o d s e l f w i t h the
Moon, a symbol of inconstancy, and he r e c a l l s h i s e a r l i e s t
s i n , t h a t of b e t r a y i n g the Caribbean r e a l i t y by c o n s i d e r i n g
19
its
"palms / i g n o b l e r than imagined
elms" and "the
b r e a d f r u i t ' s s p l a y e d l e a f c o a r s e r than t h e oak's" (148), and
p r a y i n g " n i g h t l y f o r h i s f l e s h t o change"
(149).
A comparison of Another L i f e and The P r e l u d e i n terms
of
t h e i r d e p i c t i o n of c h i l d h o o d f o r c e s a q u e s t i o n i n g of
Wordsworth's r e p r e s e n t a t i o n .
in
Walcott, by copying Wordsworth
i n c l u d i n g a memory of a c h i l d ' s death i n h i s c h i l d h o o d
memoirs, s u b t l y reminds us t h a t Wordsworth's c h i l d h o o d
P a r a d i s e i s c o n s t r u c t e d through h i s n a r r a t i v e c h o i c e s .
W a l c o t t ' s f u n e r a l scene f o r the c h i l d Pinky
(AL, Chapter I,
S e c t i o n I I I ) cannot help but r e c a l l Wordsworth's "Boy o f
Winander" who "was taken from h i s Mates, and d i e d / In
c h i l d h o o d , e r e he was f u l l t e n years o l d " (V, 414-15).
Similarly,
i n Book XI, Wordsworth admits
t h a t when he "was
then not s i x years o l d , " so young, i n f a c t , t h a t h i s hand
could "scarcely
. . . hold a b r i d l e "
(XI, 280-1), he came
a c r o s s a Gibbet on which a Murderer had been hanged y e a r s
earlier.
(This memory i s one of h i s "spots i n time;" h i s
a d u l t s e l f draws s o l a c e from the memory's sure evidence t h a t
he has f a c e d and s u r v i v e d a d v e r s i t y i n h i s e a r l y l i f e , and
thus, w i l l be a b l e t o do so again.)
The s t r i k i n g
d i f f e r e n c e between the two poets' c h i l d h o o d memories o f
death i s , of course, i n the n a r r a t i v e
sequencing:
Wordsworth chooses t o e s t a b l i s h c h i l d h o o d as Edenic and o n l y
much l a t e r t o a l l o w the reader t o glimpse
i t s other
r e a l i t i e s ; Walcott, on the other hand, o f f e r s a c h i l d ' s
20
memory of a playmate's death as h i s f i r s t p r e s e n t a t i o n o f
c h i l d h o o d , and does t h i s w i t h i n the poem's opening
pages.
Another L i f e , then, i n s i s t s on c h i l d h o o d as a l r e a d y enmeshed
w i t h and aware of death, and speaks back t o a Wordsworthian
d i s c o u r s e which attempts
t o enshrine c h i l d h o o d as P a r a d i s e .
D i s c o u r s e s of P a r a d i s e have, of course,
implications i n colonial settings.
particular
Many of these
settings
c o n t i n u e t o be e x p l o i t e d f o r commercial purposes,
so t h a t
the contemporary t r a v e l i n d u s t r y d i s c o u r s e i s v e r y much
continuous w i t h t h a t of Western l i t e r a t u r e .
7
Walcott
r e s i s t s t h i s d e p i c t i o n of h i s i s l a n d as a t r o p i c a l P a r a d i s e ,
c o u n t e r i n g with such r e a l i t i e s as "a s t i n g i n g haze / o f
t h o r n t r e e s bent l i k e green flames by the Trades
. . . while
the a s p h a l t sweats i t s mirages and the beaks / o f f l e d g l i n g
g i n g e r l i l i e s gasped f o r r a i n "
H e l l than P a r a d i s e .
p a s t o r a l storms:
I t i s an i s l a n d of d e c i d e d l y non-
"Lightning frequently / crackled across
the watersheds, thunder
parchment" (253).
(194), more s u g g e s t i v e o f
/ r a t t l e d the sky's t i g h t e n e d
Instead of being o n l y a p l a c e o f p e r f e c t
beginnings, t h i s i s l a n d i s one of many which c o n s t r i c t s w i t h
i t s own hopelessness:
"He haunted beaches, / t h e h o r i z o n
t i g h t e n e d round h i s t h r o a t . . . The i s l a n d s were a s t r i n g
of barges towed nowhere, / every view / assembling
say f a r e w e l l "
i t s e l f to
(253).
P a r a d o x i c a l l y , a t e x a c t l y the moment i n which Walcott
d e n i e s t h a t the Caribbean
i s Edenic, he embraces t h e myth by
21
s t e p p i n g i n t o the r o l e of Adam, and naming i t s r e a l i t i e s .
For Walcott, the o n l y redemption p o s s i b l e f o r t h i s a l r e a d y
c o r r u p t landscape i n t o which Caribbean man
through the Adamic a c t of naming.
i s born comes
T h i s i s most c l e a r l y
i n d i c a t e d i n h i s c l a i m t h a t he and G r e g o r i a s , when l i t were
"the l i g h t of the world," C h r i s t - f i g u r e s who
"were b l e s t
w i t h a v i r g i n a l , unpainted world / with Adam's t a s k of
g i v i n g t h i n g s t h e i r names" (294).
(This i s , though,
a d m i t t e d l y a r e t r o s p e c t i v e c l a i m made i n the p a s t t e n s e ; i t
i s not a t a l l c l e a r t h a t he r e t a i n s any such c o n f i d e n c e
d u r i n g h i s m i d - l i f e w r i t i n g of t h i s poem.)
Yet t h i s
sense
of c o n s e c r a t i o n t o a redemptive task must encompass the
r e v e l a t i o n of t h i s yet-unpainted world as d i s t i n c t l y
Edenic:
paint,
"we
non-
swore . . . t h a t we would . . . put down, i n
i n words . . . a l l of i t s sunken, l e a f - c h o k e d
r a v i n e s , / every n e g l e c t e d , s e l f - p i t y i n g i n l e t / m u t t e r i n g
in brackish dialect,
/ the ropes of mangroves / from which
o l d s o l d i e r crabs s l i p p e d / s u r r e n d e r i n g t o s l u s h , / each
ochre t r a c k seeking some h i l l t o p and / l o s i n g i t s e l f
u n f i n i s h e d phrase"
i n an
(194).
Not o n l y i s the landscape Walcott names not as p r i s t i n e
as Adam's, but the language which he must use i s a l s o
compromised by p r e v i o u s use.
When Walcott says t h a t "no
had y e t w r i t t e n of t h i s landscape / t h a t i t was
(195),
one
possible"
he suggests an a l r e a d y - e x i s t i n g d i s c o u r s e which i s
inadequate or e x c l u s i v e .
When he speaks of the v a r i e t i e s
22
of
wood which respond t o t h e i r sounds but are not y e t named,
he l i k e n s them t o "bastard c h i l d r e n , h i d i n g i n t h e i r names";
of
these c h i l d r e n , "whole g e n e r a t i o n s d i e d , u n c h r i s t e n e d "
(195).
He can never be t r u l y Adamic, then; an e s t a b l i s h e d
t r a d i t i o n of naming has a l r e a d y c r e a t e d the
H i s t a s k i s r e a l l y more l i k e C h r i s t ' s :
illegitimacy.
He must name,
b a p t i z e , C h r i s t - e n the p o s t - c o l o n i a l r e a l i t y i n t o a system
of
The
legitimacy.
Father, who
As C h r i s t , he must always a c t i n r e l a t i o n t o
i s , from the beginning of t h i s
"an absent master / i n the middle of another
narrative,
life"
(145).
8
N e v e r t h e l e s s , Walcott does i n s i s t on c e l e b r a t i n g h i s
"task of g i v i n g t h i n g s t h e i r names," thereby perhaps
attempting t o redeem h i s e a r l i e r inconstancy i n p r e f e r r i n g
elms t o b r e a d f r u i t .
his
Again, however, the Adamic q u a l i t y of
c a t a l o g u i n g i s c u r i o u s l y compromised by the
c o n n o t a t i v e language he uses.
intensely
Much of the f l o r a of the
r e g i o n , f o r example, i s d e s c r i b e d with m i l i t a r y
associations.
Thus t h e r e are the "coconut
lances"
the " d i s c o n s o l a t e plumes / of the cabbage palms'
(176), and
casques"
"the golden cocoa's t a t t e r e d e p a u l e t t e s " (179).
The allamandas*
charges"
(145),
(156).
flowers suggest
"bugles" but "nobody
As the allamandas f a l l ,
they are
n e v e r t h e l e s s "medalling the shoulders of the l a s t
visitor"
(256), w h i l e other flowers "medalled the gravestones
Inniskillings"
The
of the
(172).
language t h i s Adam must use t o i n s c r i b e the
flora
23
of t h e Caribbean
i s weighted
with other a s s o c i a t i o n s and
e x p e r i e n c e s b e s i d e s the m i l i t a r y ones.
The b o u g a i n v i l l e a
which grows o u t s i d e the poet's c h i l d h o o d home, f o r example,
i s d e s c r i b e d as having thorns which "moult l i k e o l d
fingernails"
(156), s i g n a l l i n g i t s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e home
and thus w i t h the poet's mother, now dead from cancer.
i n t h e f o l l o w i n g passage which i n s c r i b e s such
r e a l i t i e s as banyans, mangroves, gibbons
And
tropical
( i f only
o b l i q u e l y ) , whelk p i c k e r s , lagoons, and r e d s o l d i e r crabs,
the language suggests some i n e s c a p a b l e h i e r a r c h i e s :
p a t r i c a r c h a l banyans,
bearded
with v i n e s from which b l a c k
schoolboys
qibboned.
brooded on a lagoon seasoned
with dead l e a v e s ,
mangroves knee-deep i n water
crouched
l i k e whelk p i c k e r s on brown, s p i n d l y l e g s
scattering red soldier
crabs
scrabbling f o r redcoats'
meat (148, my emphasis)
What i s a l s o f a s c i n a t i n g about t h i s extremely
passage i s the Ovidean ambiguity
metaphors and syntax.
red
c r e a t e d through
both
The humans t u r n i n t o animals
the t r e e s become brooding bearded
pickers.
connotative
while
p a t r i a r c h s and whelk
I t i s u n c l e a r whether the mangroves s c a t t e r t h e
s o l d i e r crabs or whether t h a t i s done by t h e whelk
pickers
(who e x i s t only as metaphor).
24
As w e l l as the t r o p i c a l f l o r a and fauna, t h i s Adam must
try
t o name i n t o the Western l i t e r a r y d i s c o u r s e a c l i m a t e
which i s not y e t represented.
In p l a c e of Wordsworth's
g e n t l e breezes, clouds, and m i s t s , t h e r e i s the mesmerizing
sun
(145).
I t s s e t t i n g and dawn are " l i k e manacles [which]
chafed h i s w r i s t "
(217), thus r e c a l l i n g the
h i s t o r y of s l a v e r y .
Caribbean
Twilight i s also associated with
drunkenness: "as i t s amber climbed / the b e e r - s t e i n o v a l s of
the B r i t i s h f o r t / above the promontory, the sky / grew
drunk w i t h l i g h t "
throughout,
(145).
T h i s drunkenness i s a minor theme
a s s o c i a t e d not only with the B r i t i s h
" c o l o n e l s i n the whisky-coloured
G r e g o r i a s and h i s f a t h e r .
sun:
light"
military—
(148)—but
also with
Gregorias i s a l s o compared t o the
the poet says t h a t he so c h r i s t e n e d him
because
G r e g o r i a s "sounds e x p l o s i v e , / a black Greek's!
A sun t h a t
stands back / from the f i r e of i t s e l f , not shamed, p r i z i n g /
i t s shadow, watching
i t b l a z e ! " (294).
The poet's f i r s t love, Anna, i s a l s o d e s c r i b e d i n terms
of
the sun, which i s dated from her b i r t h :
y e a r - o l d sun / p l a t e s her with l i g h t "
"The s i x t e e n -
(229).
Not o n l y does
the sun date from her b i r t h , but Anna becomes the sun f o r
the young poet as "he wished h i m s e l f moving / y e t f o r e v e r
t h e r e . / The d i s c of the world turned / s l o w l y , she was i t s
centre"
(229).
T h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of h i s l o v e i n t e r e s t s
w i t h the sun continues when, much l a t e r i n l i f e ,
he begins a
p r a y e r by c a l l i n g the sun "holy," and then addresses h i s
25
w i f e , Margaret,
as holy, s a y i n g t h e r e i s n o t h i n g f o r him now
but t o " s i t i n the sun t o burn"
(290).
He goes on t o
remember Anna, s a y i n g t h a t he wishes " t o have burnt out
desire,
fire"
/ l u s t , except f o r the sun / w i t h her corona o f
(290).
Thus the two women a r e connected
through
this
imagery, which e s t a b l i s h e s them as c e n t r a l i n h i s l i f e , but
a l s o as p o t e n t i a l l y
The
destructive.
sun's dominance i n t h a t landscape
i s clearly
i n d i c a t e d i n the poet's prayer when he i s " [ b j u r n e d i n t h e
pyre o f t h e sun" and s i t s i n i t s r o a r " l i k e a l o t u s y o g i
f o l d e d on h i s bed of c o a l s [ h i s ] head . . . c i r c l e d w i t h a
r i n g of f i r e "
(288).
H i s p r a y e r f u l r e f e r e n c e s t o i t as "my
son, my sun" (289) o f f e r the p o t e n t i a l o f an a l t e r n a t i v e t o
the imposed C h r i s t i a n "Son" d e i t y .
Despite
(or because of)
i t s c l e a r l y d e s t r u c t i v e p o t e n t i a l , he prays towards i t s
"holy, r e p e t i t i v e r e s u r r e c t i o n " and he " r e p e a t [ s ] [ h i m ] s e l f
/ p r a y e r , same prayer, towards f i r e ,
repeats i t s e l f "
same f i r e
/ as t h e sun
(289) .
F i n a l l y , however, as much as he can t r y t o make t h e
language new by d e s c r i b i n g h i s own landscape, t h e Adamic
Walcott must work w i t h i n an e s t a b l i s h e d iconography of
n a t u r e ; a f t e r he has added t o i t , he must a l s o c h a l l e n g e o r
subvert that discourse.
(Thus, a c c o r d i n g t o H a r o l d Bloom,
he i s as much S a t a n i c as he i s Adamic. )
9
In The P r e l u d e ,
Wordsworth uses imagery and symbols which have a l o n g e s t a b l i s h e d meaning w i t h i n Western l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n .
The
26
river,
for
instance,
tradition.
The
specifically
does
use
breeze,
Romantic
some o f
Wordsworth,
landscape
i s often
but
or
the
as
Abrams
to
refer to
has
pointed
association with
same s y m b o l s
modifies
nature
used
he
them
to
inhabits
and
that
out,
has
creativity.
images
better
as
just
of
Walcott
nature
represent
well
as
to
a
as
the
suit
his
themes.
While
he
does
this,
Walcott
traditional
categories
of
categories,
of
leave
agency.
They
inevitable
awe
which
change.
who
allow
Perhaps
with
finally
this
and
categories
even
of
throughout
The
beautiful
(or
sublime.
"glorious"
The
Sea
the
In
Book
IV,
pomp,
be
the
the
fear
challenges
1 0
of
reflect
The
his
Prelude
Adamic
tawdry,
to
and
the
Walcott
the
exclusive
sublime.
references
to
asserting
variant
for
a
The
as
example,
than
distance"
the
sea
i t as
thereof—the
"Magnificent
at
but
name t h e
/ More g l o r i o u s
laughing
or
silences
dichotomy,
generally
Romantic
must
possibility
must
several
Prelude,
political
perfection,
any
the
These
any
which
tradition.
comic
landscape:
was
the
discourse
makes
quietism
excluding
the
for
Wordsworth's
b e a u t i f u l and
Wordsworth
room
precluding
some o f
this
no
the
thus
challenging
beautiful/sublime.
aesthetic
perpetuate
inherits
memorable
to
paralyse,
pathetic,
or
only
response
discomfort
does
course,
is also
i t forms
/ The
I
picturesque)
part
morning
ever
had
(330-35).
either
of
was,
beheld.
I t moves
a
a
/
from
27
t h i s c a t e g o r y t o the sublime and back i n Book V, when h i s
f r i e n d f a l l s a s l e e p by i t s shores and has h i s s t r a n g e dream
about the Arab with the Books of Stone and S h e l l , which the
"waters of the deep" (V.130), the " f l e e t waters of the
drowning
world"
(V.136) t h r e a t e n t o o b l i t e r a t e .
Some
ambiguity i n the Sea's d e p i c t i o n i s suggested i n Book X I I I
when "the Sea, the r e a l Sea
up i t s majesty"
. . . seemed t o dwindle and g i v e
(XIII.49-50), but only t o be r e p l a c e d by
another " s t i l l Ocean" formed by the r e v e r s a l of p e r c e p t i o n
which sees the mountains as a huge sea, and which a l l o w s the
redemptive v i s i o n which culminates the work.
Walcott's metaphors f o r the ocean a l l e s t a b l i s h i t as
v e r y m a t e r i a l and t a n g i b l e .
Yet some do suggest the
sublime: when he d e s c r i b e s i t as animal, the animal i s
e i t h e r somewhat dangerously f u r r e d and clawed
(263), or
s t u n n i n g l y huge-eyed, a c r e a t u r e whose waves are
blows from "weary, p e l a g i c e y e l i d s "
(198).
And
lumbering
although a
human sea i s o b v i o u s l y l e s s than sublime, W a l c o t t ' s
p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n g i v e s i t the mouth of an " o l d gravekeeper /
white-headed,
lantern-jawed" (293).
do evoke something
But i f these metaphors
of the sublime, h i s sublime i s v e r y
d i f f e r e n t from t h a t of Wordsworth f o r whom the
t r a n s c e n d e n t a l sublime i s f i n a l l y a welcome i n v i t a t i o n back
t o an i n t e g r a t e d r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h Nature.
Walcott,
i n s t e a d , f i n d s i t impersonal, i n d i f f e r e n t , and
obliterating.
The sea he d e s c r i b e s i s , i f sometimes sublime, an a s p e c t of
28
nature which o f f e r s no nurture or guidance
denies:
but which
merely
"0 o c e a n i c past / we were l i k e c h i l d r e n / emptying
the A t l a n t i c with an enamel cup. / I crouched under each
c r e s t / t h e s n e e r i n g wave . . . " (208).
Here t h e s e a i s
a s s o c i a t e d with h i s t o r y , which f i n a l l y ,
like
Naipaul's
comments, renders the Caribbean a r t i s t s
irrelevant.
Walcott's r e f e r e n c e s t o the sea suggest both t h e
o b l i t e r a t i n g power of the b o o k / h i s t o r y and the Caribbean's
a b s o l u t e l a c k of h i s t o r y .
h i s t o r y book.
The sea i s r e a l l y the Caribbean's
Not only d i d i t b r i n g the B r i t i s h
masters,
but i t a l s o , of course, c a r r i e d the s l a v e s from A f r i c a t o
St. L u c i a , and i t continues t o separate the Caribbean
s u b j e c t from both a n c e s t r a l lands.
The poet searches i t f o r
a r e c o r d o f h i s "white g r a n d f a t h e r ' s f a c e " o r h i s " b l a c k
g r a n d f a t h e r ' s v o i c e " (208).
I t carries a l l history,
the recorded of A l b i o n , Sidon, Tyre, and Byzantium
and t h e unrecorded
Ashanti"
(285).
both
(208),
of the "Madrasi, the Mandingo, t h e
And the sea which c a r r i e s a l l t h i s
is indifferent to i t :
The sand had seen b a t t a l i o n s come and go
the v i n e s had w r i t t e n t h e i r memorials,
a l l o f t h a t cannon f i r e taken up by c l o u d .
Nothing had a l t e r e d the t e a l or m a l l a r d ' s r o u t e ,
a l l t h a t s a l t blood t h i n n e d out i n the s a l t
There was no h i s t o r y .
No memory.
surf
history
29
Rocks haunted
by s e a b i r d s , t h a t was
all.
(256)
L i k e the f l o o d i n g waters which t h r e a t e n t o overtake
and
drown Wordsworth's Arab and h i s p r e c i o u s books, W a l c o t t ' s
sea o f f e r s t o o b l i t e r a t e h i s t o r y , a l l o w i n g us t o b e g i n
again, but a t the c o s t of r e n d e r i n g the poet's work
irrelevant.
The Adamic Walcott attempts t o counter
this
o b l i t e r a t i n g e f f e c t by h i s a c t of naming the a s p e c t s of the
ocean which cannot be c o n f i n e d under the headings
b e a u t i f u l or sublime.
of
He d e s c r i b e s i t i n very q u o t i d i a n and
m a t e r i a l terms, thus c r e a t i n g some space f o r q u e s t i o n i n g i t s
mastery.
The most r e c u r r e n t image, and t h a t which
i n t r o d u c e s the sea l i k e n s i t t o a book:
. . t h i s ocean's a shut book" (145).
something
"pages of the sea .
Although t h e r e i s
of the transcendent i n t h i s image, i t i s a l s o very
t a n g i b l e , m a t e r i a l , and contained.
After a l l ,
the r e a d e r of
these l i n e s holds a book and the speaker i s c r e a t i n g
one.
S i m i l a r l y , the engine t o which the sea i s compared, which
might suggest the powerful and even the sublime
(150,
292),
t u r n s out t o be the very q u o t i d i a n engine of a i r conditioners.
The ocean's shallows are d e s c r i b e d as s e r v e r s
i n a C a t h o l i c p r o c e s s i o n , another metaphor drawn from
Island's d a i l y l i f e .
trite
the
Walcott a l s o t u r n s the book i n t o a
"catalogue / of s h e l l s and a l g a e " (24) , and draws
a t t e n t i o n t o the tawdry by p e r s o n i f y i n g the ocean as a s l u t :
"Lost, l o s t , r a i n - h i d d e n , p r e c i p i t o u s , debased, / ocean's
30
s o i l e d l a c e around her d i r t y ankle"
(182).
Both Walcott and Wordsworth use t h e moon as a c e n t r a l
image.
For Wordsworth, again, t h e moon can be p a r t o f
either a beautiful
(or picturesque) landscape as i n h i s
c l a i m t h a t , j u s t as he loved the sun, so t o him was t h e moon
"dear" a l l o w i n g him t o "dream away my purposes,
/ Standing
t o look upon her while she hung / Midway between t h e h i l l s ,
as i f she knew / No other r e g i o n but belonged
t o thee
and t h y grey huts, my d a r l i n g V a l e ! " (11.196-202).
. . .
Or i t i s
p a r t o f t h e sublime as i n the Mt. Snowdon r e v e l a t i o n o f Book
X I I I where t h e "Moon stood naked i n t h e Heavens" ( X I I I . 4 1 ) ,
and
"looked down upon t h i s shew [of mountains
i n t o Ocean] / i n s i n g l e g l o r y "
transformed
(XIII.52-3).
Walcott draws on t r a d i t i o n a l Western iconography
which
reads t h e moon as a symbol of inconstancy and r e v e r s a l .
I
have a l r e a d y p o i n t e d out t h a t the poet's c h i l d h o o d s e l f , as
her s u b j e c t , i s g u i l t y of such inconstancy as b e t r a y i n g t h e
palms and b r e a d f r u i t of h i s i s l a n d f o r t h e elms and oak o f
the c o l o n i z e r ' s
poet's
(148).
The same inconstancy a f f e c t s t h e
i s l a n d audience; they "have drunk t h e moon-milk" and
are now o n l y "poor n e g a t i v e s , " t o whom he i s unsure how t o
t e l l h i s s t o r y , a s t o r y which w i l l r e t u r n him t o an e a r l i e r
moon which has long s i n c e faded "with t h e e l a t e
of a b u l b "
it,
(151).
extinction
T h i s l a s t image of t h e moon o f t e n l i n k s
i n Another L i f e , with the sea; the sea i s t h e book and
the moon i s the l i g h t b u l b which i l l u m i n a t e s i t .
Again, t h e
31
Mt.
Snowdon scene
Walcott
i s r e c a l l e d but with t h e d i f f e r e n c e t h a t
i s , i n s t e a d of r e c o u n t i n g h i m s e l f i n such a scene,
l o o k i n g back a t t h e f i g u r e of another poet p o i s e d between
sea and m o o n — t h a t o f h i s now-dead t e a c h e r and mentor, Harry
Simmons.
A l l o f these images of t h e moon seem t o r e s i s t a
confinement
t o e i t h e r t h e b e a u t i f u l or t h e sublime.
Although t h e moon has the power t o whiten t h e i s l a n d e r s and
t o magnify "the l i f e beneath her l i k e a r e a d i n g g l a s s "
(149), t h i s i s undercut both by the p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n which
e s t a b l i s h e s her as a s l u t
(152)
1 1
who lends t h e town h e r l a c e
and whose f i n g e r s s t r o k e the sea, and t h e s i m i l e which
l i k e n s her t o a bulb which, a f t e r a l l ,
can be t u r n e d on and
o f f , and must, e v e n t u a l l y , wear out, f a d i n g t o e x t i n c t i o n .
As w e l l , she i s presented as r a t h e r comic i n t h e l i n e , "a
moon b a l l o o n e d up from t h e W i r e l e s s S t a t i o n "
sublime
i s acknowledged.
(146).
Yet t h e
The w r i t e r ' s "dun f l e s h , " f o r
example, i s "peeled white by her l i g h t n i n g s t r o k e s , " s u r e l y
a t e r r i f y i n g , or sublime,
image.
And i n an image which
a g a i n l i n k s moon and sea, "the enormous, l i d l e s s e y e b a l l o f
the moon" swims "towards us . . . g i b b e r i n g w i t h
silence,
s t r u c k / by something i t cannot answer / or t h e worst, t h e
worst,
an oceanic nothing"
(263-4).
I f Walcott has been able t o i n t r o d u c e i n t o t h e
d i s c o u r s e s l i g h t m o d i f i c a t i o n s t o the r i g i d
categorization
of c e r t a i n accepted symbols of Nature as e i t h e r b e a u t i f u l or
32
sublime, h i s almost complete
r e j e c t i o n of the symbol of the
wind or breeze marks the d i f f e r e n c e between h i s and
Wordsworth's d e p i c t i o n of the r e l a t i o n s h i p between a r t i s t
and Nature.
use of amber.
Walcott chooses
i n s t e a d t o invoke the
T h i s n a t u r a l l y d e r i v e d substance
artist's
(a
f o s s i l i z e d p i n e sap) i s used as a f i x a t i v e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n
the most canonized r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of Western a r t .
References t o i t ,
then, allow Walcott t o a l l u d e e c o n o m i c a l l y
t o the canon and t o the a r t i s t i c p r o c e s s .
As w e l l ,
the
p a r t i c u l a r g r e e n i s h c a s t which i t imparts t o the p a i n t e d
s u r f a c e i s analogous t o the i n e v i t a b l e c o l o u r i n g of the
viewer's
(or reader's) p e r c e p t i o n which i s i n h e r e n t i n any
form of a r t , and as Edward Baugh p o i n t s out, t o the
t r a n s f i g u r i n g r o l e p l a y e d by the "amber g l a z e of the poet's
memory/imagination . . . [which]
[p]aradoxically
a c t u a l i s e s and i d e a l i s e s at the same time" ( 8 9 ) .
. . .
12
Wordsworth's c o n t i n u a l moves from s y n a e s t h e t i c
d e s c r i p t i o n s of m a t e r i a l Nature t o those of an
ineffable
t r a n s c e n d e n t one r e f l e c t h i s attempts t o move back t o a
r e a s s u r i n g oneness,
t o a r e l a t i o n s h i p between Nature
Mind i n which Nature i s accepted as primary guide
and
and
n u r t u r e r , y e t wherein t h e r e i s r e c i p r o c i t y between the
W a l c o t t ' s more p a i n t e r l y approach r e f l e c t s h i s own
two.
more
ambivalent r e l a t i o n s h i p with Nature. H i s i s a Nature which
i n s p i r e s and c h a l l e n g e s the a r t i s t ,
v i r g i n a l , unpainted world"
o f f e r i n g him
"a
(294), but which c o n t i n u a l l y
33
f r u s t r a t e s him,
o b l i t e r a t i n g any achievement
overwhelming him with
Walcott's
and
indifference.
a r t i s t s t r y t o achieve mastery over
landscape/nature.
the
Gregorias, f o r example, marches towards
the A t l a n t i c w i t h "the e a s e l r i f l e d on h i s s h o u l d e r , " l i k e a
s o l d i e r going i n t o b a t t l e .
western breakers
He s i n g s "0 P a r a d i s o " u n t i l
laboured to t h a t music" w h i l e h i s canvas i s
" c r u c i f i e d against a tree"
(194).
T h i s t w i s t e d passage
which e c o n o m i c a l l y i n c o r p o r a t e s r e f e r e n c e s t o both
and redemption
into
"the
paradise
(through a r t ? ) t u r n s Wordsworth's r e c i p r o c i t y
something more s i n i s t e r : Gregorias i s a b l e t o make the
waves submit t o the domination
of h i s song, y e t h i s canvas
i s f i n a l l y c r u c i f i e d against a tree.
Walcott draws on h i s own
e a r l y f r u s t r a t i o n s as a
d e v e l o p i n g p a i n t e r t o d e s c r i b e a Nature which r e f l e c t s h i s
inadequacy back t o him.
I f the poem o v e r a l l i s an
attempt
t o f i n d some meaning t o the poet's p o s i t i o n v i s a v i s the
landscape,
the c o n c e i t of Nature as an impatient
p o s i n g f o r an inadequate
i f poignant way
landscape
artist,
i s a wonderfully
of u n d e r l i n i n g t h a t theme.
sitter
effective,
Thus the
"frowns a t i t s image" over the p a i n t e r ' s shoulder,
w h i l e "the mountain's crouching back begins t o ache," and
" l i k e a t i r e d s i t t e r / the world s h i f t s i t s weight"
8).
(197-
When Walcott's r e f e r e n c e s to Van Gogh ("Dear Theo")
remind us t h a t other a r t i s t s have gone mad
i n response
to
t h i s c h a l l e n g e , h i s language echoes Lear i n h i s q u e s t i o n ,
34
"Is
t h a t where i t l i e s ,
g l i n t / of some g u l l y
/ i n the l i g h t of t h a t l e a f ,
the
. . . Nature i s a f i r e / through
door of t h i s landscape / I have entered a f u r n a c e "
the
(199).
13
T h i s q u e s t i o n , together with the f o l l o w i n g comment t h a t
"I
have t o i l e d a l l of l i f e f o r t h i s f a i l u r e "
r e c a l l s Wordsworth's "Was
of
i t for this?"
1 4
(200)
also
But Wordsworth,
course, i s l o o k i n g backward, wondering i f i t was
to allow
him t o reach t h i s l e v e l of p o e t i c awareness and s k i l l
that
the f a i r Derwent R i v e r nurtured him through c h i l d h o o d .
The
d i f f i c u l t q u e s t i o n seems d e l i b e r a t e l y balanced by the
n u r t u r i n g s e c u r i t y of a very tame nature.
is
Walcott,
instead,
l o o k i n g t o the f r i g h t e n i n g f u t u r e p o s s i b i l i t i e s which are
p a r t of s u b m i t t i n g t o the poet's r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h a nature
much more dangerous than Wordsworth i s w i l l i n g t o admit.
For Walcott, then, r a t h e r than the o p t i o n of a
r e c i p r o c a l l y n u r t u r i n g and c r e a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p between
mind and nature, the c h o i c e i s r a t h e r of s t r u g g l e ,
submission, or o b l i t e r a t i o n .
His mentor and
painting
t e a c h e r r e t r e a t s i n t o nature, G a u g u i n - l i k e . As
contemplates
h i s canvas,
to
(262).
bedstead"
he
a " s p i d e r began t o t h r e a d / e a s e l
T h i s image, which again r e c a l l s
Van
Gogh's t o r t u r e d s t r u g g l e with a r t , a l s o foregrounds
the
d i f f i c u l t y of the a r t i s t ' s task which i s u l t i m a t e l y
an
attempt
t o come t o terms with nature, knowing t h a t
which always o u t l a s t and supersede
the a r t i s t ' s
nature
efforts.
Yet the t r u e a r t i s t cannot r e s i s t the c h a l l e n g e , and
35
Simmons' death i s foreshadowed by h i s c l a i m , a g a i n i n a
p a i n t e r l y metaphor, t h a t i t "would be worth i t t o f a l l /
w i t h the meteor's orange brushstroke / from a f a l l i n g hand,
t o hope / t h e r e i s p a i n t i n g i n heaven" (267-8).
This
gorgeous image p a r a d o x i c a l l y a s s e r t s the ascendancy of
n a t u r e — h o w c o u l d an a r t i s t hope f o r an a c c e p t a b l e mimesis
of
a f i e r y meteor—yet
d e p i c t s the meteor i t s e l f as o n l y a
d y i n g p a i n t e r ' s a c c i d e n t a l brushstroke.
The
s e l f - i m m o l a t i o n i m p l i e d i n the a s s o c i a t i o n of the
meteor w i t h Simmons' eventual s u i c i d e i s s u b t l y r e c a l l e d i n
W a l c o t t ' s f i n a l address t o h i s f r i e n d and f e l l o w a r t i s t .
" G r e g o r i a s , " he says, " l i s t e n ,
world!"
(294).
l i t , we were the l i g h t
of the
Not only does t h i s image acknowledge the
d e s t r u c t i v e aspect of attempting t o redeem the world, but i t
a l s o , i n i t s use of the past tense, c o n t r a s t s w i t h
Prelude's c l o s i n g exhortation to Coleridge.
In the
The
latter,
Wordsworth, w i t h a confidence r e s t o r e d by a v i s i o n of a
n u r t u r i n g Nature,
of
pledges h i m s e l f and C o l e r i d g e as
Nature" t o i n s t r u c t others "how
A thousand
dwells"
the mind of man
of
becomes /
times more b e a u t i f u l than the e a r t h / On which he
(589).
Examining h i s past r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h Nature
g i v e s him the a b i l i t y t o face the f u t u r e w i t h f a i t h
hope.
"Prophets
Walcott's s i m i l a r examination,
and
however, reminds him
a time when he had s i m i l a r hope and optimism,
which i s not e n t i r e l y abandoned, but i s now
r e s i g n e d commitment t o "beginning again."
an
optimism
modified to a
36
Chapter Two - "What E l s e Was He But a D i v i d e d
In h i s treatment of the d i v i d e d s e l f ,
again both claims and m o d i f i e s
through and represented
Walcott i n h e r i t s
literature.
Walcott once
an i n h e r i t a n c e
by The Prelude.
Child?"
transmitted
Through Wordsworth,
a t r a d i t i o n long imbedded i n E n g l i s h
In t h i s t r a d i t i o n , the d i v i d e d s e l f i s
p r e s e n t e d as a f a l l
away from an o r i g i n a l p a r a d i s a l
i n t e g r i t y w i t h nature, a f a l l brought about through man's
own f a u l t
thought).
( i n Wordsworth, the f a u l t of overThis imperialist
c o n d i t i o n o f being
tradition
analytical
ignores
the c o l o n i a l
born i n t o a p o s t - l a p s a r i a n world; i t i s
W a l c o t t ' s task t o modify the model by d e s c r i b i n g h i s own
d i v i d e d s e l f as being,
i f a " f a l l e n " c o n d i t i o n , then one
which i s not h i s f a u l t but h i s i n h e r i t a n c e .
a c c e p t s and m o d i f i e s
He s i m i l a r l y
the i n h e r i t a n c e of a model whereby t h e
poet c e l e b r a t e s , by the very a c t of w r i t i n g , t h a t same
d i v i s i o n he c l a i m s as a f a l l e n and lamentable c o n d i t i o n .
F i n a l l y , Walcott i n h e r i t s through Wordsworth t h e i n c l i n a t i o n
t o w r i t e towards i n t e g r i t y .
w h i l e he t o o f i n a l l y presents
autobiographical
a formally
integrated
s e l f , he achieves t h i s by a r t i c u l a t i n g
doubts and d i v i s i o n s
The
Here, h i s m o d i f i c a t i o n i s t h a t
r a t h e r than s i l e n c i n g
o r denying them.
c r i s i s which shapes The Prelude i s t h a t o f t h e
d i v i s i o n w i t h i n Wordsworth, o s t e n s i b l y occasioned
response t o the French R e v o l u t i o n
by h i s
(or h i s response t o t h e
English reaction to that revolution).
This
crisis
37
i n t e r r u p t s an e a r l i e r i n t e g r i t y , an i n t e g r i t y which i s
u l t i m a t e l y r e s t o r e d through a r e t u r n t o an acceptance of
n a t u r a l order.
The
p a t t e r n here i s not only
B i b l i c a l model of P a r a d i s e - F a l l
as M.H.
Abrams p o i n t s out,
t h a t of
- Redemption.
the p a t t e r n of the
the
the
It i s also,
Romantic
p h i l o s o p h y which s e c u l a r i z e s t h i s model, r e t a i n i n g i t s
a s s e r t i o n of an i n i t i a l u n i t y f o l l o w e d
by a f a l l i n g
out
or away from t h i s i n t o "a p o s i t i o n of remoteness and
a l i e n a t i o n " with an eventual r e t u r n t o u n i t y and
thanks t o a "cohesive and
of
. . .
perfection
sustaining supernatural
energy"
(152) .
As Abrams sums up Romantic philosophy, the
f r a c t u r e r e s u l t i n g from man's r e f l e c t i o n and
i s "conceived of as having two
the other moral."
d i v i s i o n s , one
cognitive
outer nature,
the second m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f
himself
dimension . . . the
u n i t y with i t s e l f
in a s p l i t within
. . . .
the
In i t s moral
l o s s of the mind's o r i g i n a l
. . . through man's emergent
awareness of an o p p o s i t i o n
that
philosophizing
While the f i r s t of these i s seen i n a
d i v i s i o n between mind and
nature of man
primal
and
c o n f l i c t between
'nature' which i s the substratum of h i s human
nature
(man's n a t u r a l i n s t i n c t s , d e s i r e s ,
compulsions . . . ) and
his subjective
and
'reason'
(the c a p a c i t y t o d i s t i n g u i s h a l t e r n a t i v e
choices
which are r i g h t or wrong) together with h i s
and
38
s u b j e c t i v e realm of 'freedom' (the c a p a c i t y t o
choose what i s r i g h t and r e j e c t what i s wrong).
(182)
Wordsworth's d e s c r i p t i o n of h i m s e l f c o n t i n u a l l y r e f l e c t s a
sense o f s p l i t t i n g :
i n the beginning l i n e s ,
f o r example, he
n a r r a t e s being able, "by miraculous g i f t " t o shake o f f
" [ t ] h a t burthen of my own unnatural s e l f "
(1.21-23);
later,
he t e l l s t h e reader t h a t when he t h i n k s back t o h i s e a r l y
life,
he sometimes seems "[T]wo c o n s c i o u s n e s s e s "
Later s t i l l ,
(11.32).
Wordsworth speaks of moments i n which
"such a h o l y calm / D i d overspread my s o u l , t h a t I f o r g o t /
That I had b o d i l y eyes"
(11.367-369).
In such moments o f
overcoming h i s b o d i l y or sensory s e l f , the poet a c h i e v e s a
unity:
. . . i n a l l things
I saw one l i f e ,
and f e l t t h a t i t was j o y .
One song they sang, and i t was a u d i b l e ,
Most a u d i b l e then when the f l e s h l y ear,
O'ercome by g r o s s e r prelude of t h a t s t r a i n ,
Forgot i t s f u n c t i o n s , and s l e p t u n d i s t u r b e d .
As Abrams p o i n t s out, t h i s i s Wordsworth's own v e r s i o n o f
the Romantic p h i l o s o p h y :
u n i t y with h i m s e l f and h i s world i s the p r i m a l and
normative
s t a t e of man, of which the s i g n i s a
f u l l n e s s o f shared l i f e
a n a l y t i c thought
and the c o n d i t i o n o f j o y ;
d i v i d e s the mind from nature and
39
object
f r o m o b j e c t , and t h i s
absolute,
with
kills
division, i f
the object i t severs
spiritual
death
been s e v e r e d . "
(278)
and t h r e a t e n s
t h e mind f r o m w h i c h i t h a s
T h i s r e a d i n g o f t h e poem, t h o u g h p e r h a p s n o t c o m p r e h e n s i v e ,
is
a satisfying
the
concept
one w h i c h p r o v i d e s
of the divided s e l f
Walcott
takes
this
provides the central
artist's
both
life
structuring
crisis
b u t a l s o o f h i s work
i s found
experiences:
inherited
by
Walcott.
inheritance—a self-division
e n d o r s e s and m o d i f i e s
tradition
a v e r y u s e f u l summary o f
i t .
n o t o n l y o f an
(or v i c e
versa?)—and
H i s endorsement o f t h e
in his inscription
of the d i v i s i o n
about t h e t u r m o i l occasioned
Walcott
by t h e d i v i s i o n
d e s i r e t o p a i n t and h i s g r e a t e r s k i l l
w r i t i n g i n middle
also writes
between h i s
as a poet.
as
a poet
of
h i s y o u t h f u l o p t i m i s m and t h e more p r a g m a t i c
of
maturity.
not
such
r a t h e r than
age, he i s d i v i d e d by t h e memory
modifies the t r a d i t i o n
falling
into division,
a normal p a r t o f t h e c o l o n i a l
i n t o u n i t y and i n t e g r i t y
colonialism.
resignation
The t i t l e
i s in insisting
such
division
condition.
is,in
He i s b o r n
b u t i n t o a l a n g u a g e m a r k e d by
f o r the f i r s t
Another L i f e — " T h e Divided C h i l d " — i s
protest
Finally,
1 5
Where W a l c o t t
fact,
he
between h i s b l a c k / C a r i b b e a n / A f r i c a n a n d h i s
w h i t e / E u r o p e a n a n c e s t r y and c u l t u r e .
that
which
a g a i n s t Wordsworth's c l a i m s
chapter of
Walcott's
strenuous
f o r the i n t e g r i t y of
40
childhood.
Walcott i n s i s t s t h a t "from c h i l d h o o d
c o n s i d e r e d palms / i g n o b l e r than imagined
"had prayed
he'd
elms" (148)
and
/ n i g h t l y f o r h i s f l e s h t o change, / h i s dun
f l e s h p e e l e d white by her l i g h t n i n g s t r o k e s ! " (148-9).
own
i m a g i n a t i o n ' s i d e a l i z a t i o n of Europe d i v i d e d the
His
child
Walcott from h i s d a i l y experiences; the n i g h t l y p r a y e r f o r
s k i n t o match h i s imagination i s a poignant demonstration
i n t e r n a l d i v i s i o n and
of
self-hatred.
S i m i l a r l y , the d i v e r g i n g d i r e c t i o n s i n which the
child
i s p u l l e d are demonstrated by the bedtime j u x t a p o s i t i o n of
the "magic l a n t e r n shows" of the "black l a m p l i g h t e r w i t h
Demeter's t o r c h " with h i s C l a s s i c a l / W e s t e r n " c h i l d r e n ' s
l i t e r a t u r e " r e p r e s e n t e d by N a t h a n i e l Hawthorne's Tanqlewood
T a l e s and C h a r l e s K i n g s l e y ' s Heroes (158).
The two
stanzas
which d e s c r i b e the l a m p l i g h t e r frame the two which d e s c r i b e
the boy
i n bed,
forming a c o n t r a s t between h i s c o m f o r t a b l e
home and the surrounding w i l d .
Outside i s magical
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n as i r o n t r e e s are i g n i t e d , and the
" r e e l s " w i t h the r e f l e c t i o n of t h i s a c t i o n .
ceiling
T h i s magic i s
a s s o c i a t e d with the l a m p l i g h t e r ' s blackness, and both w i t h
the darkness
of n i g h t as w e l l as with the nearby
shacks.
A s c r i b i n g Demeter's t o r c h t o the b l a c k l a m p l i g h t e r i s a
r e f l e c t i o n of the boy's awareness t h a t , although
not
r e c o r d e d i n the w h i t e / l i t e r a r y / A n g l i c i z e d e d u c a t i o n he i s
r e c e i v i n g , t h e r e i s nonetheless p o t e n t i a l f o r s t o r y i n the
everyday
f o l k experience surrounding
him.
41
Iri t h e daytime, the boy l e a r n s the h i s t o r y o f h i s
European g r a n d f a t h e r s and imagines h i m s e l f i n b a t t l e a g a i n s t
the Other which r e p r e s e n t s p a r t of h i m s e l f :
"I butchered
f e l l a h e e n , thuggees, Mamelukes, wogs." (211)
The c h i l d ' s
imagined r e l a t i o n of h i m s e l f t o t h i s classroom
one
" l i k e a r i b b e d mongrel / t r a i l i n g the f a d i n g l e g i o n s "
(214).
Wordsworth experienced
although
The
h i s t o r y i s of
l i t t l e unhappiness a t s c h o o l
Cambridge proved a t r i a l
first
in his later
adolescence.
two books of The Prelude d e t a i l a c h i l d h o o d i n a
determinedly
joyous manner.
Even when Wordsworth and h i s
schoolmates " l i v e d / Through t h r e e d i v i s i o n s o f t h e
q u a r t e r e d year / i n pennyless
p r e s e n t s such poverty
poverty"
(11.83-85), he
i n p o s i t i v e terms, s a y i n g t h a t "we
knew t h e b l e s s i n g then / of vigorous hunger" (11.80-81, my
emphasis).
Walcott
i n s t e a d focuses on t h e c u r r i c u l u m which
g l o r i f i e d h i s European h e r i t a g e w h i l e t e a c h i n g him t o f e e l
ashamed o f , or ignore as i r r e l e v a n t , h i s A f r i c a n a n c e s t r y .
F u r t h e r evidence
c h i l d h o o d i s found
juxtaposes
of d i v i d i n g f o r c e s i n W a l c o t t ' s
i n Chapter Four, t h e chapter
C h r i s t i a n i t y with "negromancy."
which
That t h i s was a
v e r y e a r l y d i v i s i o n , and t h a t i t was p e r c e i v e d a t t h e l e v e l
of
the body, the t h r e s h o l d of the s e l f
level),
The
i s clear
( i . e . on a p e r s o n a l
i n the f o l l o w i n g l i n e s :
c l o v e n hoof, the h a i r y paw
d e s p i t e the p a s s i o n a t e ,
Methodism of my i n f a n c y .
pragmatic
42
crawled
till
through the t h i c k e t of my
sometimes the s k i n p r i c k l e d
even i n sunshine
Walcott
hair,
at "negromancy.
11
(166, my
emphasis)
p l a y s with the a l t e r n a t e s p e l l i n g of "necromancy"
s t r e n g t h e n i n g the emphasis on the a s s o c i a t i o n between the
"black a r t s " and h i s b l a c k s k i n ; as w e l l , the word i s p l a c e d
t o rhyme with and p l a y a g a i n s t " i n f a n c y . "
on "the body's memory" (167)
In h i s i n s i s t e n c e
which holds t h i s atavism
which i s a l s o the p l a c e "where A f r i c a began" (167),
p o i n t s t o a h i s t o r y and a geography which render
c h i l d h o o d a d i v i d e d one
and
Walcott
his
f a r d i f f e r e n t from the p a r a d i s a l
s t a t e which Wordsworth d e s c r i b e s .
The p a i n of t h i s d i v i s i o n i s obvious,
p a l p a b l e presence i n Walcott's
Instead of
and
i t is a
l i f e from h i s e a r l i e s t days.
Wordsworth's delayed plunge i n t o d e s p a i r
the French R e v o l u t i o n , Walcott
fragmentation
experiences
after
this
and s e p a r a t i o n c o n t i n u o u s l y , even throughout
the most j o y f u l episodes
of h i s youth;
i t i s e x e m p l i f i e d by
h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p s with Gregorias and Anna.
With h i s best f r i e n d and f e l l o w p a i n t i n g student,
G r e g o r i a s , the young poet shares a commitment t o "never
leave the i s l a n d / u n t i l we had put down, i n p a i n t , i n words
. . . a l l of i t s sunken, leaf-choked r a v i n e s . . . "
Yet t h i s f r i e n d s h i p which b o l s t e r s Walcott's
makes him more aware of h i s own
Walcott
(194).
commitment a l s o
internal division.
For
d e s p e r a t e l y wished t o p a i n t but had t o admit t h a t "I
43
lived in a different
gift,
/ i t s element metaphor, / w h i l e
G r e g o r i a s would draw with the l i n e a r e l a t i o n
(201).
of an e e l "
G r e g o r i a s i s a s s o c i a t e d with the Black-ness and
f o l k / o r a l , w i t h Walcott's own
African heritage.
i s a focus on h i s "black nudes gleaming
Thus t h e r e
sweat, / i n the
t i g e r shade of the f r o n d s " as w e l l as on the cherubim
he renders "brown-bottomed" (203).
"grotesque,"
the
which
Although h i s work i s
i t i s "whole" (201), and he "possess[es] /
aboriginal force"
(201).
Walcott c l e a r l y admires both h i s f r i e n d ' s a r t , and h i s
a b i l i t y t o "abandon[] a p p r e n t i c e s h i p / t o the e r r o r s of h i s
own
soul"
(201).
He f i n d s h i m s e l f i n c a p a b l e of
such
s p o n t a n e i t y , separated from t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y by h i s
E u r o p e a n - c o l o n i a l education:
style,
"my
hand was
crabbed
/ t h i s epoch, / t h a t s c h o o l / or the next"
by t h a t
(201).
While G r e g o r i a s i s "bent t o h i s handful of e a r t h " (203)
inspiration,
for
Walcott pores over books of r e p r o d u c t i o n s i n
his father's l i b r a r y .
1 6
The chapters which c e l e b r a t e
d i v i n e G r e g o r i a s / imprisoned
i n h i s c h o i c e " (208)
"mad,
(lines
which suggest t h a t the d i v i s i o n cannot be r e s o l v e d
s i m p l i s t i c a l l y , t h a t G r e g o r i a s ' c h o i c e a l s o comes a t a cost)
c l o s e p a i n f u l l y w i t h the image of a " t h i n ,
(209)
and
/ tortured
child"
l i s t e n i n g t o the sea v o i c e of h i s b l a c k g r a n d f a t h e r
l o o k i n g i n the sea-wrack f o r the f a c e of h i s white
grandfather.
Similarly,
the poet's f i r s t
love i s marked by
internal
V
44
c o n f l i c t s ; these c o n f l i c t s l i n e up an i d e a l i z i n g and c o u r t l y
l o v e a s s o c i a t e d with whiteness a g a i n s t s e x u a l f e e l i n g s which
are a s s o c i a t e d with blackness.
l i g h t , golden, and s u n - l i k e .
Anna i s always d e s c r i b e d as
She i s a European
Anna, drawn
from l i t e r a t u r e and a r t , an "Anna of t h e w h e a t f i e l d and t h e
weir
. . . of t h e s o l i d winter r a i n
p l a t f o r m and the c o l d t r a i n . "
. . . of t h e smoky
She i s " a l l Annas, enduring
a l l goodbyes . . . C h r i s t i e , Karenina, big-boned and
passive"
(238).
Anna r e p l y i n g ,
Although the mature poet can now imagine
"I am simple, I was s i m p l e r then"
(242),
the
younger poet's i m a g i n a t i o n transformed Anna so t h a t she
"became, i n f a c t , another country" (238) i n response t o h i s
need.
As such, she p r o v i d e d the i d e a l i z e d , c r e a t e d woman o f
the s u n l i g h t who countered t h e young man's baser
fascinations.
The c o n t r a s t she p r o v i d e s i s c l e a r e s t i n t h e
f o l l o w i n g l i n e s which a r e s e t apart from, but immediately
f o l l o w , l i n e s i n which t h e words " l e c h e r y " o r " l e c h e r o u s "
o c c u r s f o u r times i n nine l i n e s , a s s o c i a t i n g t h a t
lechery
w i t h women of c o l o u r , both "the Indian woman you f i n g e r poked i n t h e doorway" and the
. . . Negro whore on the drawing-room f l o o r
under t h e s i l e n t p o r t r a i t s of your p a r e n t s ,
w h i l e Anna s l e p t ,
her golden body l i k e a lamp blown out. (228)
The young poet's sexual g u i l t here i s c l e a r l y
with r a c i a l g u i l t .
1 7
associated
H i s sexual a t t r a c t i o n t o women who,
l i k e him,
are
white/golden
(of colour) i s s i n f u l " l e c h e r y " ; t o t h i s ,
Anna can only be the v i r g i n a l a n t i d o t e .
C l e a r l y then, although Walcott does d e s c r i b e
episodes
the
joyous
i n h i s youth, h i s e a r l y memories do not a f f o r d
the same nourishment t h a t Wordsworth's do.
him
Wordsworth's
r e c o l l e c t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y h i s "spots i n time," not only
p r o v i d e c o n t i n u i t y between h i s c h i l d h o o d and h i s mature s e l f
but a l s o l e a d him back towards i n t e g r i t y .
Since
Walcott's
c h i l d h o o d a l r e a d y encompassed d i v i s i o n , t h e r e i s no
i n t e g r i t y t o which he can r e t u r n .
By m o d i f y i n g
such
this
i n h e r i t a n c e of an i n s i s t e n c e on c h i l d h o o d as an unblemished,
happy time, Walcott has broadened the d i s c o u r s e , not o n l y
a r t i c u l a t i n g h i s own
paving the way
p o s t - c o l o n i a l r e a l i t y but a l s o perhaps
f o r such r e c e n t works as Jamaica K i n c a i d ' s
The Autobiography
of My Mother,
18
which even more
vehemently denies the p o s s i b i l i t y of s e e i n g Eden i n a
Caribbean
childhood.
The Prelude r e p r e s e n t s an i n h e r i t e d paradox which
Walcott
accepts but q u e s t i o n s ; the paradox i s t h a t the
d i v i d e d s e l f which the poet laments a l s o p r o v i d e s him
with
both the m a t e r i a l f o r h i s poem and an o p p o r t u n i t y t o c r e a t e
an i n t e g r a t e d s e l f i n w r i t i n g .
T h i s i s s i m i l a r t o the
r e l a t i o n s h i p between d i v i s i o n and
i n t e g r a t i o n i n the
Romantic p h i l o s o p h y which so h e a v i l y i n f l u e n c e d The
A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s philosophy, as M.H.
initial,
two-dimensional
Prelude.
Abrams p o i n t s out,
f i s s i o n between mind and
the
outer
46
nature, and
between the mind and
i t s own
natural
impulses, although i t i s i n i t s e l f an e v i l ,
i s the
a c t which r e l e a s e s the energy t h a t s e t s i n motion
s p e c u l a t i v e philosophy
whose b a s i c aim
i n a r e s t o r e d and
and
enduring u n i t y .
(18 2)
Abrams goes on t o p o i n t out t h a t Romantic p h i l o s o p h y
is
" p r i m a r i l y a metaphysics of i n t e g r a t i o n , of which the
p r i n c i p l e i s t h a t of the
'reconciliation,
whatever i s d i v i d e d , opposed, and
Without the d i v i s i o n ,
1
the
. . . i s to
c a n c e l a l l c o g n i t i v e and moral s e p a r a t i o n
opposition
very
key
or s y n t h e s i s ,
conflicting"
of
(182).
i n other words, t h e r e would be no need
or, perhaps more s i g n i f i c a n t l y , no o p p o r t u n i t y
for
integration.
Not
o n l y does the d i v i s i o n provide
and momentum f o r the poem, but
of a p a s t s e l f and
matter
i n each case, i t a l l o w s
w r i t e r t o c r e a t e an i n t e g r a t e d s e l f ,
both poets n e g o t i a t e
the s u b j e c t
i f o n l y on paper.
the
Thus
a c o n t i n u a l exchange between memories
commentary by the a d u l t w r i t e r ,
i n s c r i b i n g f o r themselves and
f o r t h e i r audience
autobiography whose apparent mimesis has h e a l i n g
integrating potential.
and
While Wordsworth i s a t b e s t
c o n s c i o u s about t h i s w r i t i n g towards i n t e g r a t i o n ,
i s openly s c o r n f u l both of h i s own
a l i e n a t i o n i t causes and
an
1 9
Walcott
c o m p l i c i t y i n the
of the p o s s i b i l i t y of
self-
further
final
resolution.
For w r i t i n g an i n t e g r a t e d l i f e means another d i v i s i o n ,
47
t h i s time not only between a r t ' s formal requirements
and a
demand f o r a c c u r a t e mimesis, but a l s o between the a b i l i t y t o
r e c o r d o b j e c t i v e l y and the d e s i r e t o l i v e
subjectively.
G a y a t r i Spivak has w r i t t e n about Wordsworth's r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
of
gender/sexual
i s s u e s and the h i s t o r i c a l Wordsworth's
p o s s i b l e experience with these i s s u e s , p o i n t i n g out h i s
effacement
its
of h i s r e a l - l i f e romance with Annette V a l l o n and
replacement
by the Vaudracoeur s t o r y .
2 0
Throughout
The
P r e l u d e , the d i s t a n c e between experienced or " r e a l " l i f e
a r t ' s c r e a t e d v e r s i o n of t h a t l i f e
and
i s perhaps most
n o t i c e a b l e i n the poem's gaps and s i l e n c e s .
Walcott more
d i r e c t l y addresses the d i s t i n c t i o n ; he says he " f e l l i n l o v e
w i t h a r t , / and l i f e began" (186).
Although t h i s q u o t a t i o n
i m p l i e s t h a t l i f e does not e x i s t f o r him without a r t ,
Walcott suggests throughout
o f t e n a t the expense of
that h i s dedication to a r t i s
life.
The d i s t a n c e Walcott's a r t i s t i c ego
h i m s e l f and h i s l i f e
Anna.
imposes between
i s evident i n h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h
H i s e a r l y love f o r her i s i n t r o d u c e d
immediately
a f t e r the c r e e d - l i k e stanza of c o n s e c r a t i o n t o a r t i n
Chapter
7, which ends with the above q u o t a t i o n c o u n t e r p o s i n g
art
life.
and
In h i s responses t o Anna, the young a r t i s t i s
i n v a r i a b l y t o r n between these two.
He d e s c r i b e s Anna i n
terms of a r t , "her golden p l a i t s a simple coronet / out of
Angelico"
(187), and d e s c r i b e s h i s hand as " t r e m b l i n g t o
r e c i t e her name" (187).
As he now
r e c o g n i z e s , " [ t ] h e hand
48
she
held already
had betrayed / them by i t s l o n g i n g f o r
d e s c r i b i n g h e r " (236).
While Walcott c a s t i g a t e s himself
f o r h i s n e g a t i o n of
the r e a l Anna i n favour of the one he c r e a t e s / i n s c r i b e s , h i s
most p a i n f u l s e l f - i n d i c t m e n t
the
i s found i n h i s d e s c r i p t i o n of
s u i c i d e of h i s mentor, Harry Simmons.
his g i f t
A f t e r musing on
i n r e l a t i o n t o those of G r e g o r i a s and Simmons, he
asks h i s master and f r i e n d f o r f o r g i v e n e s s :
Forgive
me,
i f t h i s sketch should ever t h r i v e ,
or p r o f i t from your g e n t l e ,
generous
spirit.
When I began t h i s work, you were a l i v e ,
and
w i t h one stroke,
you have completed i t ! (282)
The language here i s very concerned w i t h a r t as w i l l f u l
c r e a t i o n ; the nouns are a l s o p o t e n t i a l l y a c t i v e
v e r b s — " s k e t c h , " "work," "stroke".
which equates the p a i n t e r ' s
the
strong
And the h o r r i b l e pun
stroke with the r a z o r ' s
forces
e q u a l l y h o r r i b l e , p a i n f u l l y honest r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t the
poet b e n e f i t s from Simmons' s u i c i d e because i t so p e r f e c t l y
completes h i s poem.
Yet
although Walcott r e a l i z e s h i s own c o m p l i c i t y
in art
which perpetuates as much as or more than i t h e a l s d i v i s i o n ,
he has few a l t e r n a t i v e s and must accept t h i s
which Wordsworth o f f e r s .
to write
L i k e Wordsworth, he w i l l
attempt
towards i n t e g r a t i o n and, l i k e Wordsworth, he w i l l
do t h i s by r a t h e r
and
inheritance
s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y s i g n a l l i n g an i n s c r i b i n g
an i n s c r i b e d s e l f , and by l i n k i n g these r e s p e c t i v e l y , t o
49
the a d u l t w r i t e r and h i s younger c o u n t e r p a r t .
Wordsworth's f i r s t book, with i t s address
to Coleridge
about t h e nature of h i s present t a s k and i t s i n v o c a t i o n s t o
the muse which i s Nature, i s c l e a r l y w r i t t e n t o f o c u s
a t t e n t i o n on t h e w r i t i n g s e l f .
He speaks o f t h e "months t o
come [ i n which he] / May d e d i c a t e
(1:33-4).
[ h i m ] s e l f t o chosen t a s k s "
Wordsworth's s e l f - r e f l e x i v e n e s s c o n c e r n i n g h i s
task i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o h i s f a s c i n a t i o n with the layers
of c h r o n o l o g i c a l s e l v e s .
first
He i n t e r r u p t s h i m s e l f a f t e r h i s
54 l i n e s t o p o i n t out t h a t "Thus f a r , 0 F r i e n d ! d i d I,
not used t o make / A present j o y the matter of my Song, /
Pour out, t h a t day, my s o u l i n measured s t r a i n s ,
/ Even i n
the v e r y words which I have here / Recorded" (1:55-59, my
emphasis).
A d i s t i n c t i o n i s drawn between a f a i r l y
r e c o r d i n g and an e a r l i e r outpouring
recent
of song (the s p o n t a n e i t y
of which i s c u r i o u s l y modified by i t s "measured s t r a i n s " ) .
As r e a d e r s ,
we seem t o be c o n s i d e r i n g t h r e e c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y
d i s t i n c t a c t i o n s and/or s e l v e s : the speaker i n t h e n a r r a t i v e
present,
t h e r e c o r d e r i n a r e c e n t past, and t h e " s i n g e r " who
poured out h i s j o y i n an even e a r l i e r p a s t .
Walcott
f i n d s t h i s a u s e f u l model.
H i s opening a l s o
draws a t t e n t i o n t o the e f f o r t s of the present
here a g a i n "
self—"I
begin
(145) and p l a c e s t h a t s e l f i n r e l a t i o n t o
passing t i m e —
t h e moon's f i l a m e n t s w a n i n g — b u t a g a i n s t a
backdrop o f a p a s t a c t i o n , t h a t of the absent
master who has
opened and then abandoned the pages of t h e book which i s t h e
50
sea.
Although he begins i n t w i l i g h t i n the p r e s e n t tense,
the t w i l i g h t he d e s c r i b e s i s marked by i t s use o f verbs i n
the p a s t tense:
lowered
"when a g l a r e / which h e l d a c r y o f bugles
/ t h e coconut
lances of the i n l e t ,
/ as a sun, t i r e d
of empire, d e c l i n e d . / I t mesmerized l i k e f i r e without wind,
/ and as i t s amber climbed...the
light"
(145, my emphasis).
sky / grew drunk w i t h
T h i s o v e r l a p p i n g o f t h e p a s t and
h i s p r e s e n t i s as much a c e n t r a l f e a t u r e of Another L i f e as
it
i s of The Prelude, as each poet t r i e s t o understand and
a r t i c u l a t e h i s present by probing e a r l i e r e x p e r i e n c e s and
expectations.
While Wordsworth, through c h i l d h o o d memories,
p a r t i c u l a r l y the p o w e r f u l l y shaping "spots i n time", i s
f i n a l l y a b l e t o a s s e r t a renewed i n t e g r i t y , Walcott
a b l e t o understand
i s only
and a r t i c u l a t e h i s d i v i s i o n , and t o r e -
commit h i m s e l f r e s i g n e d l y t o the task of changing
c o n d i t i o n s which p r e d i c a t e d i t .
I f any redemption
those
from t h e
f a l l e n s t a t e i s p o s s i b l e , i t w i l l be achieved through t h e
a c t o f naming.
Where Wordsworth t u r n s t o h i s c h i l d h o o d t o
f i n d solace f o r h i s adult s e l f ,
inscribing,
i t i s Walcott's a d u l t ,
s e l f who r e - w r i t e s h i s p a s t f o r t h e h u r t
he c a r r i e s w i t h i n .
child
T h i s a d u l t , f o r example, b r i d g e s t h e
c h i l d ' s d i v i s i o n between the o r a l d a i l y s t r e e t / f o l k l i f e and
the l i t e r a r y s t o r i e s of the classroom by composing a Homeric
abecedary
which a s s e r t s an "alphabet o f t h e emaciated" as
the " s t a r s o f my mythology"
(164).
51
Walcott a s s e r t s h i s own d i v i s i o n , acknowledging t h e
p a i n i t has brought him, but without the need o r t h e a b i l i t y
t o overcome i t .
Perhaps t h i s i s because he has more openly
accepted h i s own c o m p l i c i t y i n t h i s p a i n by acknowledging
the p a r t i t p l a y s i n h i s w r i t i n g .
And perhaps because the
primary response he makes t o i t i s even more w r i t i n g which
will
i n e v i t a b l y cause more a l i e n a t i o n — b o t h
because i t
h o l d s him back, observing, from o t h e r s , and because i t
causes him t o judge h i s own work, which i s a l s o a p a r t o f
himself.
Wordsworth, through h i s "spots i n time," i s f i n a l l y l e d
back t o the u n i t y d e s c r i b e d i n the Mt. Snowdon passage.
Walcott p a r a l l e l s t h i s i n a moment of s i m i l a r l y a p o c a l y p t i c
r e v e l a t i o n which he experiences as a youth, and r e i n t e r p r e t s as an a d u l t .
At f o u r t e e n he " l o s t
somewhere above a v a l l e y " .
[his] s e l f
With a r e v e r s a l of c l o u d s and
sea very s i m i l a r t o Wordsworth's experience on Mt. Snowdon,
the young boy "drowned i n l a b o u r i n g breakers o f b r i g h t
c l o u d , / then u n c o n t r o l l a b l y . . . began t o weep . . . w i t h
a serene e x t i n c t i o n of a l l sense
everything"
(185).
. . . f o r n o t h i n g and f o r
Thus the s e l f seems t o d i s s o l v e i n t o a
u n i t y which, again, p a r a l l e l s Wordsworth's Mt. Snowdon
epiphany.
But when the poet t r i e s as an a d u l t t o understand
t h i s weeping submission, he a s s o c i a t e s h i m s e l f w i t h
doubleness
r a t h e r than with u n i t y :
my s i g n was Janus,
/ I
saw w i t h twin heads, / and e v e r y t h i n g I say i s c o n t r a d i c t e d "
52
(281) .
He a l s o a s s o c i a t e s h i m s e l f w i t h t h e f e m i n i n e which
might be h i s o p p o s i t e but which i s a l s o an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f
his self:
" I k n e l t because I was my mother" (281).
This
t u r n i n g t o t h e feminine f o r c o n s o l a t i o n and f o r b a l a n c e i s
a l s o a s s e r t e d i n h i s d e s c r i p t i o n of h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h
his wife:
I have married one whose darkness
i s a tree,
bayed i n whose arms I b r i n g my s t i f l e d howl,
l o v e and f o r g i v e me!
Who h o l d s my f e a r s a t dusk l i k e b i r d s which take
the l o s t or moonlit c o l o u r of her l e a v e s ,
i n whom our c h i l d r e n
and the c h i l d r e n of f r i e n d s
settle
simply, l i k e rhymes,
i n whose s i d e , i n the grim times
when I cannot see l i g h t f o r the deep l e a v e s ,
s h a r i n g her depth, the whole l e e ocean g r i e v e s . (282)
He l a t e r c l a i m s t h a t he can walk beside "the t i r e l e s s
anger of the waters
hoarse
. . . a renewed, exhausted man, /
balanced a t i t s edge by the weight of two dear
daughters"
(289). The s e x i s t e s s e n t i a l i s m of such l i n e s i s t r o u b l i n g ;
n e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e i s a p o s i t i v e movement here
from
Wordsworth's effacement of t h e sexual t o W a l c o t t ' s model of
s e x u a l union and/or h y b r i d i t y o f f e r i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l t o h e a l
division.
53
F i n a l l y , though, d e s p i t e the h e a l i n g and f o r g i v e n e s s
p r o v i d e d by h i s w i f e and the renewal and balance o f f e r e d by
h i s daughters, Walcott remains d i v i d e d .
who
U n l i k e Wordsworth
c l o s e s w i t h a commitment t o f u t u r e a c t i o n , a commitment
which j o i n s him t o C o l e r i d g e , i n t e g r a t i n g a p o t e n t i a l l y
second s e l f , Walcott looks back t o a time when he a l s o
such a commitment.
felt
He a l s o addresses a p o t e n t i a l a l t e r
ego,
and d i v i d e s t h a t f e l l o w a r t i s t f u r t h e r under h i s two names:
"Gregorias, A p i l o ! "
(294); the f i r s t the " a r t y " Greek name
w i t h which he has i d e a l i s e d him; and the second h i s common
name, the nickname of h i s c h i l d h o o d f r i e n d .
Rather than exhort h i s f r i e n d t o j o i n him i n a
commitment t o a f u t u r e task, he i s d i v i d e d from a time when
they shared such a commitment, a time when they "were the
l i g h t of the world!" and "were b l e s t
of g i v i n g t h i n g s t h e i r names" (294).
. . . w i t h Adam's t a s k
Although he
e a r l i e r l i k e n e d G r e g o r i a s t o the sun, he now
w i t h h i s "crude wooden s t a r "
has
a s s o c i a t e s him
(294), a t r a n s i t i o n which
links
him w i t h the t w i l i g h t mood of the poem's opening.
S i m i l a r l y , e a r l i e r i n the t h i r d s e c t i o n of t h i s
final
chapter, he r e t u r n s again t o " o l d verandahs" and t o a "book
l e f t open by an absent master"
(292).
which s e p a r a t e s him from "another l i f e "
The g u l f or d i v i s i o n
i n which he
and
G r e g o r i a s shared so much hope w i l l not be overcome.
He
will
not a c h i e v e the f i n a l i n t e g r i t y which Wordsworth c l a i m s .
Rather, h i s only hope i s t o move forward r e s i g n e d l y t o take
54
the
only a c t i o n p o s s i b l e , t h a t of c r e a t i n g y e t another
through the w r i t i n g a c t i o n which i s the poem: t h a t
"beginning a g a i n . "
of
life
55
Chapter Three —
"Heroic
Argument"
Walcott's use of t h e e p i c form f o r h i s "growth o f t h e
poet's mind" o b v i o u s l y
well,
r e c a l l s Wordsworth's P r e l u d e ;
i t p o i n t s t o an e n t i r e t r a d i t i o n o f t h e e p i c
as
within
Western l i t e r a t u r e , and a l s o , because of t h e e p i c ' s
original
a s s o c i a t i o n with t r a n s m i t t i n g h i s t o r y , t o t h e Western
discourse
of h i s t o r y i t s e l f .
In t h e a l l u s i o n s made t o The
P r e l u d e by t h e form of Another L i f e , Walcott acknowledges
the
i n s p i r a t i o n he has drawn from Western
literature,
c l a i m i n g h i s i n h e r i t a n c e by demonstrating h i s s k i l l
of i t s most e x a l t e d genres.
At the same time, he m o d i f i e s
Wordsworth's somewhat subversive
use o f t h e e p i c f o r
autobiography by i n t e r r o g a t i n g and s u b v e r t i n g
himself.
i n one
that
tradition
Through such m o d i f i c a t i o n , as w e l l as i n h i s
echoing o f and d e v i a t i o n from Wordsworth's n a r r a t i v e
patterns
and s t r u c t u r i n g p r i n c i p l e s , he i n s c r i b e s t h e
p o s t c o l o n i a l r e a l i t i e s p r e v i o u s l y excluded from t h e e p i c
form.
He n a r r a t e s
a l i f e s i m i l a r t o Wordsworth's i n i t s
y o u t h f u l optimism and eventual
d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t , but eschews
Wordsworth's f i n a l redemptive r e s o l u t i o n i n d e f e r e n c e t o t h e
Caribbean's l a c k of " h i s t o r y " which must condemn him t o a
perpetual
"beginning again."
Another L i f e ' s most obvious
a l l u s i o n t o The Prelude i s made i n i t s form:
autobiography w i t h e p i c q u a l i t i e s .
verse
This i n t e r t e x t u a l i t y
demands t h a t The Prelude be considered
not o n l y as The
56
Prelude.
but a l s o as a s i g n i f i e r f o r a whole t r a d i t i o n o f
Western w r i t i n g .
intended
Although Wordsworth may o r i g i n a l l y have
h i s poem only as a prelude,
a s o r t of t r y i n g ground
of h i s s k i l l s f o r the task of w r i t i n g a t r u e e p i c , i t i s now
recognized
as being
"a poem i n a r e c o g n i z a b l y
epic
style"
even by those c r i t i c s who f e e l t h a t i t f a i l s as an e p i c
(Lord 7 ) . As " r e c o g n i z a b l y
epic,"
the poem c a r r i e s t h e
weight o f Western l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n , w i t h a l i n e
t r a c e a b l e from C l a s s i c a l , B i b l i c a l ,
clearly
and O l d E n g l i s h
epics
through Dante, Spenser, and, e s p e c i a l l y , M i l t o n .
Paul Merchant c a l l s The Prelude an " e a r l y
autobiographical
epic."
2 1
He g i v e s reasons f o r f i n d i n g t h e
poem " q u i t e o v e r t l y , an e p i c , " c i t i n g s e v e r a l a s p e c t s o f t h e
poem which most c l e a r l y s i t u a t e i t w i t h i n t h i s
tradition.
He f i n d s s i g n i f i c a n t , f o r example, t h a t " [ t ] h e Muse, o r
i n s p i r a t i o n f o r the work, i s introduced
i n the f i f t h
as a 'welcome F r i e n d ' : he i s C o l e r i d g e ,
t o whom t h e poem i s
addressed"
has
line,
(84). Merchant p o i n t s out t h a t t h e poem "thus
the c h a r a c t e r
of a number of o r a l t a l e s t o l d t o t h i s
f r i e n d , t a l e s which d e s c r i b e t o him i n d e t a i l t h e speaker's
p o e t i c and s p i r i t u a l development" (84), and a l s o notes "the
poet's h a b i t of i n t r o d u c i n g s o l i t a r y f i g u r e s " which,
"together
with the many f i n e s i m i l i e s
the d i s t i n c t i v e c h a r a c t e r
. . . lends t h e poem
of an e p i c " (85).
Merchant f u r t h e r s t a t e s t h a t "Wordsworth b u i l t up h i s
own mythology o f experience" through "a long s e r i e s o f
57
deeply f e l t v i s u a l i n c i d e n t s . "
He d e s c r i b e s
the
"creation
of the complete poem from t h i s p a t t e r n of i n t e r r e l a t e d
i n c i d e n t s " as a "labour
of great
imaginative
skill,"
and
a s s e r t s t h a t " i t i s d u r i n g the o r g a n i z a t i o n of the work t h a t
the e p i c , r a t h e r than the a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l
(86).
novel,
i s formed"
Merchant's comments demonstrate both t h a t
Wordsworth's poem i s d i f f e r e n t enough from the
traditional
e p i c t h a t l a b e l i n g i t as such r e q u i r e s some defence,
and
a l s o t h a t the genre i s f l e x i b l e enough t o accommodate
modifications.
Besides the q u a l i t i e s which Merchant
suggests mark The
be,
i f not
Prelude as e p i c , an e p i c must n e c e s s a r i l y
long, at l e a s t " l a r g e i n s c a l e " (Merchant 4 ) .
Merchant sketches out two
e x p e r i e n c e s may
"surpassing
history"
poles w i t h i n which e p i c
be p l a c e d by u s i n g two
borrowed p h r a s e s :
the dimensions of r e a l i s m " and
(1).
"including
He demonstrates the f l u i d i t y of the
between these two
poles by t r a c i n g i t s development from
Homeric e p i c s , n o t i n g such m o d i f i c a t i o n s
2 2
and
Lost.
Wordsworth demonstrates h i s awareness both of
f l u i d i t y of the genre and
the
of the need t o argue f o r h i s
w i t h i n i t through h i s r e f e r e n c e s
Abrams and
the
as those made by
Dante i n h i s Commedia. Chaucer i n Canterbury T a l e s
M i l t o n i n Paradise
genre
to M i l t o n .
Both
place
M.H.
Herbert Lindenberger c a l l a t t e n t i o n t o
Wordsworth's c l a i m t h a t " [ T ] h i s i s i n t r u t h , h e r o i c
argument," a l i n e i n which, as Abrams s t a t e s , "Wordsworth
58
echoes, i n order t o supersede" M i l t o n ' s
claim that h i s
B i b l i c a l s u b j e c t matter i s as h e r o i c as t h e more t r a d i t i o n a l
C l a s s i c a l m a t e r i a l of e p i c s
(29).
And as Lindenberger
says,
through t h i s echoing, Wordsworth
not o n l y p o i n t s up t h e e p i c impulse behind t h e
poem, but c a l l s on M i l t o n ' s precedent i n
j u s t i f y i n g new areas worthy of e p i c :
M i l t o n must defend h i m s e l f
for i f
f o r w r i t i n g an e p i c
about man's moral r a t h e r than h i s m i l i t a r y
h i s t o r y , Wordsworth i n t u r n claims t o f i n d
heroic
argument i n man's (and, indeed, i n one man's)
personal
h i s t o r y . (12)
Thus Wordsworth c a r r i e s on not only t h e e p i c
tradition
i t s e l f but a l s o c a r r i e s on the t r a d i t i o n of i t s
modification.
At t h e most obvious l e v e l of form, Another L i f e i s
epic:
i t i s over 150 pages long, and d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r
s e c t i o n s o r books which a r e f u r t h e r s u b d i v i d e d
chapters,
into
a d i v i s i o n which not only emphasizes s i z e , but
a l s o t h a t t h e e p i c i s a book, a m a t e r i a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n
l i t e r a r y culture.
s e c t i o n s and eleven
reference
books
1805
23
of a
With twelve chapters i n t h e f i r s t two
i n the l a s t two, t h e r e
i s also a subtle
t o t h e e p i c ' s t r a d i t i o n a l d i v i s i o n i n t o twelve
(Wordsworth m o d i f i e d
t h i s t r a d i t i o n as w e l l :
Prelude has t h i r t e e n books).
the
Although o r i g i n a l l y an
o r a l form, the e p i c s we know a r e s t r o n g l y a s s o c i a t e d
with
59
books, p a r t o f a European
w r i t t e n over the o r a l .
t r a d i t i o n which p r i v i l e g e s t h e
Walcott's task throughout
i s to
q u e s t i o n t h i s p r i v i l e g i n g even as he i n d u l g e s h i s w r i t e r l y
s e l f by i n s c r i b i n g the o r a l .
Using the e p i c form i s a
powerful way of foregrounding t h i s c o n t e s t between "the
book" and the o r a l , and of reminding the European
that
this
p r i v i l e g e d l i t e r a r y form i s c l o s e l y l i n k e d t o o r a l i t y .
In
in
t h i s context, Walcott's double mention
of a "book"
t h e poem's opening stanza suggests a s u b v e r s i o n o f t h e
e p i c poet's i n v o c a t i o n of a muse.
Where Wordsworth invokes
both t h e b l e s s i n g of the g e n t l e breeze and a f e l l o w poet,
Coleridge,
Walcott t u r n s t o "the book."
But i t i s a book
which has been abandoned, as have the poet and t h e
Caribbean, by "an absent master
life"
/ i n the middle of another
(145), with the suggestion, through the f o l l o w i n g
l i n e s , of the other l i f e
being B r i t i s h l i f e ,
life
i n the
l i t e r a r y canon which does not care t o r e c o r d the Caribbean.
It
i s a l s o t h e o n l y book which has i n c l u d e d t h e Caribbean:
"the pages o f the sea" which h o l d the r e c o r d of t h e h i s t o r y
of
s l a v e r y and c o l o n i a l i s m .
Other books, those which more
c l e a r l y r e p r e s e n t the t r a d i t i o n a l muse of l i t e r a t u r e ,
will
be o f l i t t l e use t o Walcott as a poet t r y i n g t o w r i t e a
Caribbean
It
reality.
i s t o the books of the canon, those which have
i n s p i r e d y e t excluded him, t h a t Walcott now w r i t e s back, and
it
i s i n t o the dominant l i t e r a r y d i s c o u r s e t h a t he attempts
60
t o i n s c r i b e h i s own
p o s t - c o l o n i a l , Caribbean r e a l i t y .
The
e p i c s whose form he i m i t a t e s / r e c a l l s have always r e p r e s e n t e d
t h a t which the c o l o n i a l master i n s i s t e d the Caribbean
not b e — h e r o i c and h i s t o r i c .
But j u s t as Wordsworth moved
i n t o a space prepared by Dante
own
could
24
and M i l t o n t o a s s e r t h i s
p o e t i c development as worthy of the e p i c form, Walcott
s i m i l a r l y extends
Caribbean,
the use of the form t o i n c l u d e the
i n s c r i b i n g i t as h i s t o r i c while he
simultaneously
q u e s t i o n s the meaning and value of the t r a d i t i o n a l l y h e r o i c .
Wordsworth's use of the e p i c form i s marked by s e v e r a l
d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e s t o M i l t o n , the adoption of M i l t o n ' s blank
v e r s e , and a s i m i l a r i t y of n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e .
Walcott
s i m i l a r l y r e f e r s t o h i s l i t e r a r y f o r e b e a r s by making
numerous a l l u s i o n s t o Wordsworth and M i l t o n .
However,
W a l c o t t ' s most d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e s t o e a r l i e r e p i c s are those
t o Homer, f o r whom h i s t o r y and the sea were a l s o
intertwined.
abecedary
For example, i n Chapter
closely
3 he w r i t e s an
of the l o c a l c h a r a c t e r s of h i s c h i l d h o o d i n
Homeric terms, d e s c r i b i n g the " s u r l y c h a u f f e u r
C l a u z e l ' s garage [who]
from
bangs Troy's gate shut!"
(159).
Emanuel Auguste i s the "lone Odysseus, / t a t t o o e d exmerchant s a i l o r "
complexioned
(160), while " J a n i e , the town's one
whore" with "her black / h a i r e l e c t r i c a l
a l l t h a t t r o u b l e over Troy" i s a p o t e n t i a l Helen
clear/ as
(161).
What these examples make c l e a r , however, i s t h a t although
Walcott may
be r e - w r i t i n g Homer t o i n c l u d e h i s l o c a l
61
r e a l i t y , he does not always,
heroic.
i n so doing, c l a i m the l o c a l
as
Rather, by i n s i s t i n g t h a t " [ t ] h e s e dead, t h e s e
derelicts,
/ t h a t alphabet of the emaciated" were "the s t a r s
of my mythology"
(164), Walcott i s i r o n i c a l l y i n s c r i b i n g the
anti-epic.
S i m i l a r l y , the sea voyages made by " C a p i t a i n e Foquarde"
r e c a l l those of U l y s s e s , with whom he i s compared
(173, 181).
directly
But here Penelope, h i s M a r t i n i q u a n w i f e , i s f a r
from f a i t h f u l d u r i n g h i s absences.
She blooms each time he
" u l y s s e e s , " laughing w h i l e she s t i t c h e s r i p p e d k n i c k e r s (the
r i p p i n g and s t i t c h i n g a burlesque v e r s i o n of the
Penelope's weaving and unweaving).
original
The voyages on the
"Jewel, a s i n g l e - s t a c k , d i e s e l , f o r t y - f o o t c o a s t a l
[which] coughed l i k e a r e l i c out of Conrad"
f a r from romantic.
vessel
are s i m i l a r l y
They i n v o l v e the twice-a-week l o a d i n g of
a "cargo of p i g s , c h a r c o a l , food, lumber, / s q u a b b l i n g or
f r i g h t e n e d peasants, the odd p r i e s t , " and the
subsequent
d e l i v e r y of t h i s cargo by " t h r e a d i n g the i s l a n d ' s
villages,
jettied
/ Anse La Raye, Canaries, S o u f r i e r e ,
C h o i s e u l , / / a n d back" (174).
Again, r a t h e r than a s s e r t the
l i f e of the i s l a n d s as h e r o i c , Walcott draws a t t e n t i o n t o
i t s d a i l y tawdriness; t h i s i n s c r i p t i o n of t a w d r i n e s s
foregrounds the t r a d i t i o n a l e p i c ' s e x c l u s i o n of such
r e a l i t i e s , prompting
a q u e s t i o n i n g of i t s c l a i m s t o a c c u r a t e
representation.
The h i s t o r y of the t r a d i t i o n a l e p i c i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t
62
r e p r e s e n t e d by the l a r g e t a p e s t r y Walcott remembers from h i s
schooldays, a
c l a s s i c a l l y c h a o t i c canvas
of s n o r t i n g , dappled
chargers
T h e i r r i d e r s were a l e g i o n of dragoons
sabre-moustached, canted on s t i f f e n e d
t h e i r arms crooked
rein,
i n a s c y t h i n g sweep,
v a u l t i n g a heap of dying,
one
i n the stance of a r e c l i n i n g Venus,
as c a s u a l as G i o r g i o n e
the whole charge
l i k e a pukkha, without
blood
no mouth of p a i n ,
every c h i v a l r i c wound
r o s e - l i p p e d , d a n d i a c a l , sweet,
every s e l f - s a c r i f i c e perfumed
(210, my
emphasis)
W a l c o t t ' s d e s c r i p t i o n of the t a p e s t r y draws a t t e n t i o n , i n
i t s r e f e r e n c e t o the C l a s s i c a l p e r i o d , the r e c l i n i n g Venus,
and G i o r g i o n e , t o the r e n d e r i n g of h i s t o r y i n t o a r t u s u a l l y
w i t h a consequent effacement
chapter, Chapter
of blood and p a i n .
In t h i s
11, Walcott q u e s t i o n s other r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s
of h i s t o r y , p a r t i c u l a r l y h i s " r e d - j a c k e t e d W i l l i a m s o n ' s /
H i s t o r y of the B r i t i s h Empire" (211), and juxtaposes
" f i c t i o n / of r u s t e d s o l d i e r s f a l l e n on a schoolboy's
their
page"
63
w i t h the f o r e s t which "keeps no wounds" (212).
He
suggests
t h a t what has been c o n s i d e r e d a h i s t o r y of e p i c heroism
can
a l s o be seen as a h i s t o r y of "ennui, defence, d i s e a s e "
(212).
At the same time, he i m a g i n a t i v e l y r e c o n s t r u c t s the
l e a p of the C a r i b Indians t o demonstrate t h a t the
Caribbean
h i s t o r y which has been excluded from the t e x t s i s as h e r o i c
as any European e p i c
(213-4).
Walcott f u r t h e r questions the t r a d i t i o n a l parameters of
h i s t o r y by n o t i n g t h a t St. L u c i a i s f i n a l l y brought
i n t o the
scope of h i s t o r y by the f i r e which almost d e s t r o y s i t : "the
t h i c k tongue of a f a l l e n , drunken lamp / l i c k e d a t i t s
a l c o h o l r i n g i n g the f l o o r ,
furnace door / suddenly
/ and with the f i e r c e r u s h of a
opened, h i s t o r y was
t h i s drama renders the Caribbean
"[y]our ruined I l i o n "
here"
(221).
f i n a l l y somehow e p i c as
(226), Walcott i s again q u i c k t o
d e s c r i b e the tawdry r e a l i t y of t h i s d e s t r u c t i o n , the
p e r v e r t e d bedsprings, h e a t - s t a i n e d mattresses,
a l l of the melancholy,
of those who
thought
monotonous r u b b i s h
t h e i r l i v e s strange t o t h e i r
neighbours,
t h e i r s i n s repeated t i r e d l y by the same
p i c t u r e - f r a m e s , papers, blue magnesia b o t t l e s
(225)
Once again, he moves t o i n s c r i b e the Caribbean r e a l i t y
as
e p i c , but a l s o suggests the p o t e n t i a l l y tawdry background
e f f a c e d i n the t r a d i t i o n a l
epic.
The e p i c ' s power t o r e p r e s e n t and t o d e f i n e the human
If
64
c o n d i t i o n as w e l l as the power of the e p i c and t h e book t o
shape, measure, and v a l i d a t e the p o s t - c o l o n i a l l i f e
isa
power Walcott wants not only t o q u e s t i o n but a l s o t o c l a i m .
Yet
when he does so, r e n d e r i n q the o r a l and t h e
i m a g i n a t i v e l y r e c o n s t r u c t e d i n t o h i s own e p i c , he c a u t i o n s
the
reader:
P r o v i n c i a l i s m loves the pseudo-epic,
so
i f these heroes have been g i v e n a s t a t u r e
d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e t o t h e i r cramped
lives,
remember I beheld them a t knee-height,
and t h a t t h e i r thunderous
exchanges
rumbled l i k e gods about another l i f e ,
as now, I hope, some c h i l d
a s c r i b e s t h e i r grandeur t o G r e g o r i a s . (183)
T h i s ambivalence towards h i s own i n s c r i p t i o n i s perhaps
W a l c o t t ' s most s u b v e r s i v e m o d i f i c a t i o n o f the e p i c .
While
M i l t o n a s s e r t s the h e r o i c , e p i c q u a l i t i e s of the saga of
Man's s o u l , and Wordworth extends t h i s t o a d e p i c t i o n of an
i n d i v i d u a l l i f e as h e r o i c , Walcott q u e s t i o n s through h i s
mimicry of the form whether
all
it.
i t c o n t a i n s any p o s s i b i l i t y a t
f o r t h e mimesis t h a t readers a r e so eager t o g r a n t
2 5
S i m i l a r l y , Walcott's e x t e n s i v e use of iambic pentameter
throughout Another L i f e i s not simply a demonstration of h i s
mastery o f a European form.
Rather, the poem's moves both
towards and away from the blank v e r s e a r e so c l o s e l y
linked,
65
through M i l t o n and then Wordsworth, with the E n g l i s h
epic,
t h a t they demonstrate
and
a t e n s i o n between the language
form of the m e t r o p o l i t a n power and t h a t of the Caribbean
poet.
While c l e a r l y b u i l t on the framework of blank v e r s e
e p i c , Another L i f e e q u a l l y c l e a r l y s i g n a l s the inadequacy
t h a t form t o support i t and,
form t o s u i t i t s own
of
i n s t e a d , o f t e n m o d i f i e s the
needs.
The framework i s p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t i c e a b l e a t b e g i n n i n g s
and endings.
The f i r s t
l i n e of Another L i f e ,
i s w r i t t e n i n a rhythm s u g g e s t i v e of iambic
With the e x c e p t i o n of the f i r s t
the f i r s t
f o r example,
pentameter.
l i n e of s e c t i o n IV, so are
and l a s t l i n e s of each s e c t i o n of the
first
c h a p t e r ; almost h a l f of poem's 2 3 chapters begin t h i s
way.
As w e l l , some of the most important l i n e s are w r i t t e n i n
pentameter
which,
i f not always p e r f e c t l y iambic, i s
extremely c l o s e t o , or s u g g e s t i v e of t h a t rhythm.
For
example, t h e r e i s the Wordsworthian "spot i n time" which
r e s u l t s i n the young poet's c o n s e c r a t i o n of h i s l i f e t o a r t :
About the August
I l o s t my
of my
f o u r t e e n t h year
s e l f somewhere above a v a l l e y
(184)
The poem's c e n t r a l theme i s d e c l a r e d i n t h i s rhythm:
What e l s e was
he but a d i v i d e d c h i l d ?
(183)
and the major l o s s i t n a r r a t e s i s announced t h i s
A sodden l e t t e r thunders i n my
an eaten l e t t e r crumbles
hand
i n my hand
(274)
way:
66
Walcott a l s o uses iambic pentameter when he d i s c u s s e s
h i s t a s k as a poet, as i n t h e l i n e i n which he says t h a t he
and G r e g o r i a s were charged
w i t h Adam's t a s k of g i v i n g t h i n g s t h e i r names (294).
H i s d e s c r i p t i o n of a r t ' s attempt
master l i f e ,
t o c o n t a i n , frame, and
as w e l l of h i s own a r t ' s b e t r a y a l of l o v e , i s
v e r y c u n n i n g l y o f f e r e d i n a sonnet:
And which of them i n time would be betrayed
was never questioned by t h a t p o e t r y
which breathed w i t h i n t h e evening
naturally,
but by t h e noble t r e a c h e r y of a r t
t h a t looks f o r f e a r when i t i s l e a s t
afraid,
t h a t c o l d l y takes the pulse-beat of t h e h e a r t
i n happiness; t h a t p r a i s e d i t s need t o d i e
t o t h e b r i g h t candour of the evening sky,
t h a t p r e f e r r e d love t o i m m o r t a l i t y ;
so every step i n c r e a s e d t h a t
subtlety
which hoped t h a t t h e i r two bodies c o u l d be made
one body of immortal metaphor.
The hand she h e l d a l r e a d y had betrayed
them by i t s l o n g i n g f o r d e s c r i b i n g her. (236)
Here Walcott adds t h e a d d i t i o n a l c o n s t r a i n t o f rhyme t o
those o f rhythm and meter.
rhymes—a,b,c,d and e — b u t
He uses t h e c o n v e n t i o n o f f i v e
deploys these i n an
u n c o n v e n t i o n a l manner, u n d e r l i n i n g h i s a b i l i t y t o work
w i t h i n t h e l i m i t a t i o n s of the form w h i l e s u b v e r t i n g i t t o
67
his
own
ends.
As w e l l , the sonnet draws a t t e n t i o n t o
W a l c o t t ' s s k i l l with the l y r i c form, and foregrounds
the
t e n s i o n w i t h i n t h i s work ( s i m i l a r t o t h a t i n Wordsworth's)
between i t s o f t e n l y r i c content and i t s e p i c i n t e n t i o n s
and
form.
While Walcott o f t e n uses iambic pentameter t o p o i n t t o
important l i n e s or c e n t r a l themes, he a l s o uses
the
d i s r u p t i o n of blank verse t o achieve the same end.
S e c t i o n I I I of Chapter
In
11, f o r example, when Walcott
remembers the h i s t o r y he was
taught i n s c h o o l and
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y imagines a l t e r n a t i v e h i s t o r i e s , more than a
t h i r d of the 27 l i n e s have t e n s y l l a b l e s ,
i f not
five
s t r e s s e s ; f i v e of these are near-iambic.
T h i s has a
c h a l l e n g i n g and a r r e s t i n g e f f e c t on the reader who
s t r u g g l e both i n t o and a g a i n s t the rhythm.
must
In the f i r s t
s t a n z a which begins c o n v e r s a t i o n a l l y , "I saw h i s t o r y
through
the sea-washed eyes," i t puts the emphasis v e r y c l e a r l y
"a l o n e l y Englishman
who
loved parades"
on
(212), thus r e d u c i n g
the " c h o l e r i c , g i n g e r - h a i r e d headmaster" t o a n o s t a l g i a evoking, s l i g h t l y i n e f f e c t u a l ,
f i g u r e and
immediately
diminishing h i s capacity to represent h i s t o r y .
The
last
two
l i n e s of t h i s stanza suggest the l i m i t a t i o n s of such systems
of
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n as the E n g l i s h d i s c o u r s e of h i s t o r y
and
iambic pentametric v e r s e .
The next stanza begins i n an iambic pentameter which
c o n t i n u e s t o q u e s t i o n the schoolroom's
nostalgic
dubious
68
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of h i s t o r y :
not our own."
"Nostalgia!
Hymns of b a t t l e s
The iambic pentameter i s used here t o
c o n t r a s t the w r i t t e n h i s t o r y which the boys must memorize
w i t h the t r o p e of a r a c i a l h i s t o r y denied by the classroom:
"those dates we piped of redoubt and r e p u l s e , / w h i l e i n our
w r i s t s the k e t t l e drums p u l s e d on." The
l i n e s of
fairly
r e g u l a r metre and rhythm are i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h l o n g e r and
shorter lines,
l i n e s which begin as iambic but
end
otherwise, or l i n e s l i k e the f i v e beginning "How
said B i l l
( C a r r ) , " which completely d i s r u p t any
pattern.
These l a s t f i v e l i n e s are then
strange,"
suggested
immediately
f o l l o w e d by a r e t u r n , f o r one l i n e , t o near-iambic
pentameter which d e s c r i b e s the schoolroom
h i s t o r y of ennui, defence, d i s e a s e . "
h i s t o r y as
The s t a n z a then
c o n t i n u e s w i t h a catalogue of images of the death
and
d i s e a s e which are the i n e v i t a b l e c o u n t e r p a r t of war.
t h e r e are fragments
"A
Again,
i n iambic rhythm, but the l i n e which i s
c l o s e s t t o iambic pentameter p o i n t s t o the r i d i c u l o u s
h e r a l d r y of war
final
and heroism,
and leaves exposed the stanza's
l i n e with i t s r a t h e r p a t h e t i c a n t i - c l i m a x :
' l i k e the white plumes of the F i g h t i n g F i f t h / who
f e a t h e r without
The
"fade,
wore the
stain.'"
f i n a l stanza of t h i s s e c t i o n i s o n l y f o u r l i n e s
long, and i t forms a c o n t r a s t i n g image of heroism,
t h a t of
the C a r i b Indians jumping o f f the c l i f f s t o the r o c k s below
i n the 1651
battle.
2 6
69
The l e a p i n g C a r i b s whiten,
i n one f l a s h , the i n s t a n t
the r a c e l e a p t at Sauteurs,
a c a t a r a c t ! One
scream of bounding
lace.
Again Walcott p l a y s with the p o s s i b i l i t i e s and the l i m i t s of
iambic pentameter.
A n a t u r a l r e a d i n g of the f i r s t
line
combines i t with the f i r s t t h r e e words of the second
form a l i n e of iambic pentameter.
l i n e to
But the break the poet
has chosen puts the emphasis on the ending word, "whiten"
w e l l as on the i l l u m i n a t e d moment which i s an
concept of both h i s t o r y and p o e t r y .
I t also
as
important
demonstrates
the p o s s i b i l i t y of r e - a r r a n g i n g , of r e a d i n g i n d i f f e r e n t
ways, thus a l l o w i n g the reader i n t e r p r e t i v e engagement.
final
l i n e , however, i s the l i n e which i s most c l e a r l y s e t
out t o approximate
iambic pentameter.
The d i s r u p t i o n of the
p a t t e r n here focuses the imagination on the "One
which,
lace"
The
scream,"
between the surrounding " c a t a r a c t " and the
"bounding
(a n i c e c o n t r a s t t o the "white plumes of the F i g h t i n g
Fifth"),
resounds as f i x e d , e t e r n a l , wordless, and
finally,
u n c o n t a i n a b l e i n the d i s c o u r s e of the blank v e r s e e p i c .
J u s t as Walcott's use of the e p i c form a l l o w s him t o
r e f e r t o , q u e s t i o n , and modify the d i s c o u r s e of Western
l i t e r a t u r e and h i s t o r y , so too does h i s echoing of
Wordsworth's n a r r a t i v e p a t t e r n s and s t r u c t u r i n g
In
principles.
terms of n a r r a t i v e p a t t e r n s , t h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y
n o t i c e a b l e i n Walcott's simultaneous adoption of and
70
d e v i a t i o n from Wordsworth's use o f the e p i s t o l a r y
convention, the c o n f e s s i o n a l f i r s t - p e r s o n t o n e / v o i c e , as
w e l l as Wordsworth's n e g o t i a t i o n between p a s t and p r e s e n t
events.
These n a r r a t i v e p a t t e r n s i n both poems f o c u s on a
s t r u c t u r e whose ending u l t i m a t e l y c i r c l e s back t o i t s
b e g i n n i n g , but while t h i s ending-beginning
situates
Wordsworth l o o k i n g forward, Walcott looks backward t o a l o s t
optimism.
T h i s d e v i a t i o n r e f l e c t s the d i s t a n c e between
Wordsworth's Romantic r e - f a s h i o n i n g o f the B i b l i c a l and
M i l t o n i c meta-narrative t o p r o v i d e the s t r u c t u r e f o r h i s
life
story,
2 7
and the u n a v a i l a b i l i t y o f t h i s model t o a
p o s t - c o l o n i a l poet who was never a b l e t o b e l i e v e i n an Eden.
Wordsworth's s t o r y i s one t o l d t o a c l o s e f r i e n d and
f e l l o w a r t i s t who i s now absent and being addressed
from a
d i s t a n c e . I t i s a s e l e c t i v e r e t e l l i n g of a l i f e , one i n
which Wordsworth's poet persona remains c l e a r l y i n charge o f
the f i r s t - p e r s o n n a r r a t i o n .
Although t h e r e i s a continuous
n e g o t i a t i o n between past memories and p r e s e n t r e f l e c t i o n on
those memories, the poet i s c l e a r l y s i t u a t e d from t h e
b e g i n n i n g i n an u l t i m a t e l y forward-looking moment o f p r e s e n t
v i c t o r y over past d i f f i c u l t i e s .
Walcott s i m i l a r l y
begins
i n t h e f i r s t person by addressing an i m p l i e d s i n g l e
l i s t e n e r , and the reader does g a i n a sense throughout t h e
poem t h a t t h i s l i s t e n e r must be Walcott's f e l l o w a r t i s t ,
Gregorias.
Thus the "There / was your heaven!" o f t h e
poem's f i r s t page must be addressed t o the same l i s t e n e r as
71
the "You
sometimes dance with t h a t d e s t r u c t i v e f r e n z y " of
i t s l a s t page.
now
But i t i s much l e s s c l e a r where G r e g o r i a s i s
s i t u a t e d , not only i n the present p h y s i c a l world
a l s o i n h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p to the poet persona.
but
Further
c o n f u s i n g the q u e s t i o n i s the i n s t a b i l i t y throughout
of the
f i r s t - p e r s o n n a r r a t i o n , which switches s p o r a d i c a l l y t o a
third-person narrative.
addresses
As w e l l , the second-person
are made not only t o G r e g o r i a s , but a l s o t o the
poet's mother (Chapter 2), h i s grandfather
first
(p. 209),
to h i s
l o v e , Anna (Chapter 15), and h i s mentor, Harry
(Chapters 18,
21).
And
t h e r e i s a l l of Book Two,
Simmons
the
"Homage t o G r e g o r i a s " which seems to speak about G r e g o r i a s
t o a primary
audience which can only be the r e a d e r — a l l
t h i s i n e v i t a b l y has a r e t r o a c t i v e e f f e c t on the
apostrophe,
not only r e n d e r i n g the addressee's
opening
identity
u n c l e a r , but d e s t a b i l i z i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p between
and
of
speaker
listener/reader.
S i m i l a r l y , while Wordsworth's r e c o l l e c t i o n s of the p a s t
keep the poem's n a r r a t o r f i r m l y s i t u a t e d i n the p r e s e n t ,
Walcott's
o f t e n merge past and present, or abandon the
p r e s e n t f o r the past.
In the d e s c r i p t i o n of the
c h i l d h o o d s e l f a t bedtime, f o r example, p a s t and
poet's
present
tenses are combined so t h a t while the " c h i l d t e n t e d h i s
c o t t o n n i g h t d r e s s " and
h i s head," "[h]ands
" [ t ] w i l i g h t enshrined the l a n t e r n of
swing him heavenward," and a c a n d l e " r e -
l e t t e r s " the books by h i s bed
(158, my
emphasis).
72
These d e v i a t i o n s from Wordworth's n a r r a t i v e
p a r a l l e l the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the two
to t h e i r structuring p r i n c i p l e s .
his
on an o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e which allows
stability.
"I-you"
so too does he
and
insist
reinforces that
T h i s s t r u c t u r e i s , of course,
grand n a r r a t i v e of Western d i s c o u r s e ,
of the Garden, the F a l l ,
a stable
a clearly differentiated
"now-then" r e l a t i o n s h i p with the past,
c o n t r o l and
poems i n r e s p e c t
J u s t as Wordsworth a s s e r t s
c o n t r o l of the n a r r a t i v e , m a i n t a i n i n g
r e l a t i o n s h i p with the reader and
patterns
the B i b l i c a l
the
structure
and the Redemption, adopted
by
Wordsworth's l i t e r a r y hero, M i l t o n , f o r h i s e p i c work,
Paradise
Lost.
Wordsworth combines t h i s w i t h the
journey
t r o p e which r e i n f o r c e s both the l i n e a r i t y of h i s o v e r a l l
s t r u c t u r e , as w e l l as i t s p a r a d o x i c a l l y
c i r c u l a r i t y — t h e way
simultaneous
i n which i t s beginning and
ending
somehow merge t o form a moment which n o n e t h e l e s s i n s i s t s
on
a l i n e a r i t y , p o i n t i n g t o the shared f u t u r e t a s k t o which
Wordsworth and
C o l e r i d g e must d e d i c a t e
themselves.
Walcott adopts the c i r c u l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p between
b e g i n n i n g and
ending i n h i s poem, and he c e r t a i n l y r e f e r s
o f t e n t o the B i b l i c a l n a r r a t i v e .
As w e l l , the
continual
presence of the sea suggests the p o s s i b i l i t y of
journeys,
and
the poet does d e s c r i b e s e v e r a l which were s i g n i f i c a n t i n
his
life.
However, the overwhelming sense i n the poem i s
not of a forward progress away from the Garden, through
Fall,
and
towards/into Redemption, but r a t h e r of
the
the
73
p e r e n n i a l need t o "begin again" with both Adamic e x u l t a t i o n
and S i s y p h i a n r e s i g n a t i o n .
The avowed task a t the beginning of the poem i s : "I
b e g i n here a g a i n , "
the work.
and t h i s i s a theme repeated
In the f i r s t
throughout
chapter's second s e c t i o n , f o r
example, Walcott quotes from a poem "Holy" by the
poet, George Campbell.
T h i s poem, f i r s t
Jamaican
published i n
1945,
i s noted as "the beginning of the d i s t i n c t i v e West I n d i a n
l i t e r a r y t r a d i t i o n i n which Walcott has been such a
prominent
figure"
(Chamberlin 143).
"bound i n sea-green
linen," i t s colour c l e a r l y l i n k i n g i t s
s u g g e s t i o n t h a t "another l i f e
(149), w i t h Walcott's own
Another
Walcott reads the book
. . . would s t a r t a g a i n "
beginning a t the sea's edge.
beginning i s c i t e d when the young boy
w i t h a r t , and l i f e began" (186).
"fell
i n love
L a t e r , the poet hopes t o
"shake o f f the c e r e c l o t h s " of the p r i v i l e g e d European a r t of
Hemingway and P i s a r r o .
A cleansing rain offers a
new
b e g i n n i n g i n which can be p r i v i l e g e d the " s m e l l of our
speech,
own
/ the s m e l l of baking bread, / of d r i z z l e d a s p h a l t ,
t h i s / odorous cedar"
Another
(217).
important "beginning again" i s t h a t of C a s t r i e s
a f t e r the 1948
fire:
"the phoenix metaphor f l e w / from
tongue t o tongue" (246).
Gregorias must a l s o come c l o s e t o
d e s t r u c t i o n b e f o r e beginning again.
When he t e l l s
Walcott
about h i s f l i r t a t i o n with and r e j e c t i o n of s u i c i d e , i t
becomes obvious t o the poet t h a t "Gregorias . . . had
74
e n t e r e d l i f e " (272).
But d e s p i t e the triumphant
a s s o c i a t i o n s of these new beginnings, Walcott f i n a l l y i s
a b l e t o propose beginning again only as t h a t o f an a r t
p e r p e t u a l l y compromised by i t s h i s t o r y , and which must
u l t i m a t e l y be o b l i t e r a t e d by nature:
they w i l l absolve us, perhaps,
i f we begin a g a i n ,
from what we have always known, nothing,
from t h a t c a r n a l slime of the garden,
from the i n c a r n a t e s u b t l e t y of the snake,
from the Egyptian moment of the heron's f o o t
on the mud's e n t a b l a t u r e ,
by t h i s augury of i b i s e s
flying
a t evening from the m e l t i n g t r e e s ,
w h i l e the silver-hammered
charger of the marsh
b r i n g s towards us, again and again, i n beaten
light,
scrolls,
nothing, then nothing,
and then nothing.
(286-287)
28
L i k e t h e sun, with i t s "holy, r e p e t i t i v e
resurrection"
(288), the poet can only "repeat myself,
/ p r a y e r , same
p r a y e r , towards f i r e ,
same f i r e "
(289).
T h i s i n s i s t e n c e on "beginning a g a i n " i s r e i n f o r c e d by
the poem's s t r u c t u r e and by i t s n a r r a t i v e p a t t e r n s i n such a
way t h a t t h e reader i s c o n s t a n t l y being f o r c e d t o r e - o r i e n t
h e r s e l f and "begin again."
The f i r s t chapter, f o r example,
i s spoken by an " I " , who i s almost e f f a c e d by t h e end o f t h e
first
section.
Although
subsequent r e a d i n g e s t a b l i s h e s "the
75
s t u d e n t " who i s d e s c r i b e d here as t h e poet
n
l'"s
younger
s e l f , t h i s i s not c l e a r on a f i r s t r e a d i n g , but r e q u i r e s a
"beginning a g a i n . "
By the end of the chapter, we a r e a g a i n
being addressed by the poet who uses t h e f i r s t person, but
the next chapter a p p r o p r i a t e s t h i s " I " f o r an i m a g i n a t i v e
r e - v o i c i n g of t h e poet's mother's l i f e .
As soon as we
a d j u s t t o t h i s , t h e v o i c e i s again t h e poet's and "Maman" i s
addressed
i n t h e second person, as i n "Maman, / you s a t
folded i n silence"
(153).
Such s h i f t s tend t o emphasize t h e
s e p a r a t i o n of t h e work i n t o s e c t i o n s ,
2 9
and f o r c e t h e
reader t o be aware of "beginning again" with each
such
section.
T h i s i s a l s o the e f f e c t of Walcott's v a r i a t i o n i n s t y l e
from s e c t i o n t o s e c t i o n and from chapter t o c h a p t e r .
Whereas Wordsworth's pages a l l look very s i m i l a r w i t h
their
l i n e s of blank verse, Walcott combines v a r i o u s s t y l e s .
abecedary
The
of l o c a l c h a r a c t e r s , f o r example, w i t h t h e f i r s t
word of each s e c t i o n s e t apart, draws a t t e n t i o n t o i t s e l f as
a u n i t d i f f e r e n t from t h e r e s t of the work.
s e c t i o n e n t i t l e d "THE PACT' i n Chapter
s e c t i o n o f Chapter
litany.
So does t h e
4, and t h e f i r s t
6, whose short l i n e s r e c a l l a l i t u r g i c a l
Wordsworth, of course, a l s o e n c l o s e s n o t i c e a b l y
d i s t i n c t s e c t i o n s , as, f o r example, t h e dream s e c t i o n , and
the s e c t i o n d e s c r i b i n g the thwarted
Vaudracoeur.
love between J u l i a and
But t h e combined e f f e c t o f t h e continuous
blank v e r s e and t h e i n s i s t e n c e on a l i n e a r p r o g r e s s i o n
76
towards the Mt.
Snowdon r e v e l a t i o n i s t o f o r c e the r e a d e r t o
accept Wordsworth's mature s e l f as a guide
these p a r t i c u l a r d i f f i c u l t i e s .
past/through
Walcott, by c o n t r a s t ,
i n s i s t s t h a t we are a r r e s t e d r e g u l a r l y throughout,
it
and
that
i s o n l y w i t h some d i f f i c u l t y t h a t we are a b l e t o "begin
a g a i n " w i t h the next s e c t i o n or c h a p t e r .
30
Walcott's ending continues t h i s focus on b e g i n n i n g
a g a i n by r e t u r n i n g us t o the beginning:
r e c a l l s the opening's verandahs,
the l a s t
chapter
the t w i l i g h t , and the moon
swinging i t s l a n t e r n over the sea's pages.
This c i r c u l a r i t y
p a r a l l e l s t h a t of The Prelude which, as Abrams says i s "an
i n v o l u t e d poem . . . about
i t s own
g e n e s i s " (79) .
Abrams
goes on t o j u s t i f y t h i s c l a i m by p o i n t i n g out t h a t the
P r e l u d e ' s " s t r u c t u r a l end i s i t s own
The
b e g i n n i n g ; and i t s
temporal b e g i n n i n g . . . i s Wordsworth's entrance upon the
stage of h i s l i f e a t which i t ends.
The c o n c l u s i o n goes on
t o s p e c i f y the c i r c u l a r shape of the whole" (79).
b e g i n n i n g s and endings of The Prelude and Another
a l s o l i n k e d by t h e i r addresses t o a f e l l o w
The
L i f e are
artist,
r e s p e c t i v e l y , C o l e r i d g e and G r e g o r i a s / A p i l o / D u n s t a n S t .
Omer.
Again, however, Walcott m o d i f i e s the d i s c o u r s e
suggested by these s i m i l a r i t i e s .
Whereas Wordsworth ends
w i t h the p o s i t i v e v i s i o n o f f e r e d by h i s r e v e l a t o r y
e x p e r i e n c e on Mt.
Snowdon, l o o k i n g forward t o the t a s k he
urges C o l e r i d g e t o j o i n him i n ,
Walcott ends by remembering
77
such an e a r l i e r keenness.
He
looks back t o a time when he
and G r e g o r i a s were " l i t "
as Wordsworth and C o l e r i d g e seem t o
be.
found a c e r t a i n s o l a c e i n marriage
and
Although
he has now
f a m i l y , h i s confidence i n h i m s e l f as "the l i g h t of the
world"
(294)
resignation.
has abandoned him t o be r e p l a c e d by a mature
The
l a s t l i n e of the poem, however, w i t h i t s
n o s t a l g i c e x h a l a t i o n of two v e r s i o n s of h i s f r i e n d ' s name—
"Gregorias, A p i l o ! " — s u g g e s t s
t h a t although he can no
s u s t a i n the o p t i m i s t i c tone with which The
concludes,
he i s s t i l l
longer
Prelude
committed to p e r p e t u a l l y b e g i n n i n g
a g a i n at "Adam's task of g i v i n g t h i n g s t h e i r
names"
(294).
78
Conclusion
By
f o c u s i n g a comparison of Another L i f e and
P r e l u d e on nature and
and
The
landscape imagery, the d i v i d e d
on form, s t r u c t u r i n g p r i n c i p l e s , and
narrative
self,
patterns,
I hope t o have e s t a b l i s h e d both the s i m i l a r i t i e s which show
W a l c o t t c l a i m i n g and
continuing
a t r a d i t i o n , and
m o d i f i c a t i o n s which demonstrate h i s subversion
tradition.
the
of
that
Of course, as Paul Merchant p o i n t s out
in his
work on the e p i c , such c o n t i n u a l m o d i f i c a t i o n i s p a r t
that t r a d i t i o n .
And
M.H.
Abrams a s s e r t s the
e f f e c t s of the Romantic w r i t e r s
renewing
who,
in reinterpreting their cultural
developed new
inheritance,
modes of o r g a n i z i n g experience,
ways of seeing the outer world, and
a new
r e l a t i o n s of the i n d i v i d u a l to h i m s e l f ,
t o h i s t o r y , and
t o h i s f e l l o w men.
i n order
concepts, schemes, and v a l u e s "
t o nature,
(14)
subvert
which
(13) .
very c l o s e i n many ways
I f i n d a comparison of
P r e l u d e and Another L i f e i n t e r e s t i n g f o r e x a c t l y
reason.
one
"to save t r a d i t i o n a l
W a l c o t t ' s p r o j e c t seems t o me
t o the Romantic p r o j e c t , and
new
s e t of
Nonetheless, he f i n d s the movement a c o n s e r v a t i v e
u l t i m a t e l y reformulated
of
The
that
For p a r a d o x i c a l l y , i f Walcott attempts t o modify or
t h i s t r a d i t i o n he
i s simultaneously
claiming
and
79
c o n t i n u i n g a h e r i t a g e of j u s t such m o d i f i c a t i o n and
subversion.
T h i s i s perhaps one of the reasons Walcott has
been accused
by c r i t i c s of being too s l a v i s h l y European i n
form and s t y l e .
C e r t a i n l y , although Another L i f e i n many
ways suggests the s u b v e r s i v e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of mimicry,
Walcott
never attempts t o r e j e c t the canon.
Rather, h i s
commitment t o and love of t h i s canon a r e c l e a r i n h i s r a t h e r
e r u d i t e a l l u s i v e s t y l e which i n c l u d e s a v o c a b u l a r y
( " l a c e r t i l i a n , " f o r example) very r e f l e c t i v e of a
comprehensive European-modeled education.
However, such a c c u s a t i o n s seem t o miss t h e p o i n t t h a t
one
o f t h e c e n t r a l dilemmas faced i n Another L i f e i s
Walcott's
sense of d i v i s i o n between h i s A f r i c a n and h i s
European a n c e s t o r s . As w e l l , they ignore o r r e f u s e t o accept
h i s pragmatic
English"
i n s i s t e n c e t h a t "the language of e x e g e s i s i s
( " T w i l i g h t " 31), and h i s consequent d e c i s i o n t o use
t h a t language and s t y l e , but t o use i t i n a new way, "making
c r e a t i v e use o f h i s s c h i z o p h r e n i a " ( " T w i l i g h t " 17). What
these c r i t i c s d i s m i s s as merely i m i t a t i v e , I read as a
powerful
r e - w r i t i n g which allows Walcott t o c l a i m , r a t h e r
than s i l e n c e h i s European h e r i t a g e , m o d i f y i n g h i s
i n h e r i t a n c e t o ensure i t s continued r e l e v a n c e by i n s c r i b i n g
within i t the previously silenced r e a l i t i e s of the
Caribbean.
80
Notes
1.
C a p i t a l i z i n g "Nature" i s common both throughout The
P r e l u d e and throughout much of the c r i t i c i s m d e a l i n g w i t h
it.
T h i s c a p i t a l i z a t i o n i s u s e f u l t o d i s t i n g u i s h the Nature
which i s transcendent from the d a i l y m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of
"nature" through which the g r e a t e r "Nature" i s known.
W i l l i a m s , i n Wordsworth:
Politics
(Manchester:
Romantic
John
Poetry and R e v o l u t i o n
Manchester UP,
1989), uses the
c a p i t a l i z e d form t o p o i n t out t h a t , f o r the Romantics,
"Nature had become the source of d i v i n e r e v e l a t i o n , and i n
consequence
'Nature' and
synonymously"
(3).
'God' were o f t e n t r e a t e d
He d e l i n e a t e s Wordsworth's " d i s t i n c t i o n
between a love of n a t u r a l o b j e c t s f o r t h e i r own
sake"—what
we might c a l l small-n n a t u r e — " a n d a more profound l o v e
engendered
by a r e c o g n i t i o n of the permanent moral
and
s p i r i t u a l t r u t h s w i t h which n a t u r a l o b j e c t s were imbued"
(5).
The l a t t e r more profound love i s f o r t h a t Nature I
w i l l discuss using a c a p i t a l
2.
"N."
See Edward Kamau Brathwaite's H i s t o r y of the V o i c e :
The Development of Nation Language i n Anglophone
Poetry,
3.
London:
New
Beacon,
Caribbean
1984.
H a r o l d Bloom's theory about the r e l a t i o n s h i p
between poets and t h e i r p r e c u r s o r s i s o u t l i n e d i n h i s work,
The A n x i e t y of I n f l u e n c e
(New
York:
Oxford UP,
197 3) .
81
4.
I have not confirmed t h a t t h i s i s the v e r s i o n
i n c l u d e d i n Walcott's
reasonable
5.
c u r r i c u l u m , but i t does seem a
conjecture.
Endnotes t o Stephen G i l l ' s e d i t i o n of the
book Prelude i n W i l l i a m Wordsworth (Oxford:
1990)
thirteen-
Oxford
UP,
are very u s e f u l f o r p o i n t i n g out a l l u s i o n s made i n The
Prelude to Paradise Lost.
6.
M.H.
Abbrams c a l l s t h i s a l l u s i o n "the
first
prominent i n s t a n c e of Wordsworth's c a r e f u l l y chosen
a l l o c a t e d a l l u s i o n s t o Paradise L o s t . "
He says i t i s a
"very s t r i k i n g i n s t a n c e , because i n h i s opening
he
the c l o s i n g l i n e s of M i l t o n ' s e p i c , when Adam and
between sadness and expectancy,
echoes
Eve,
leave p a r a d i s e t o take
t h e i r journey i n t h i s world of a l l of us"
d i s a g r e e s with c r i t i c s who
and
(115).
Abrams
see t h i s as e s t a b l i s h i n g
The
P r e l u d e as a sequel t o Paradise Lost, p o i n t i n g out t h a t
though the preamble comes f i r s t
i n the
structural
order of the Prelude, i t inaugurates the stage of
the n a r r a t o r ' s l i f e which comes l a s t i n i t s
temporal
order.
I t i s not, then, The
Prelude
which Wordsworth meant t o d o v e t a i l i n t o the p l a c e
i n M i l t o n ' s poem at which man,
having
lost
p a r a d i s e , s e t s out on h i s p i l g r i m a g e t o r e c o v e r i t
again, but the n a r r a t i v e which f o l l o w s The
Prelude; namely, the opening
book of The
proper, Home a t Grasmere." (116-7)
up
Recluse
82
N e v e r t h e l e s s , the journey which the reader w i l l
w i t h Wordsworth's poet persona,
undertake
the journey i n which
Wordsworth w i l l re-shape h i s l i f e f o r n a r r a t i o n must begin
a t the o u t s i d e edge of a garden which r e c a l l s t h a t of
Paradise Lost.
Susan Wolfson, i n her a r t i c l e "'Answering Questions
Q u e s t i o n i n g Answers':
Prelude"
1993)
The
I n t e r r o g a t i v e P r o j e c t of
The
[The Prelude ed. N i g e l Wood (Buckingham: Open
125-165] c o n s i d e r s how
complexly
and
UP,
t h i s M i l t o n i c echo i s "more
s c r i p t e d with important c o u n t e r - i n t i m a t i o n s , "
l o o k i n g a t ways i n which the echo "not o n l y f o r e c a s t s
providence
[but] a l s o b r i n g s i n t o p l a y a s c r i p t of
and a l i e n a t i o n . "
"hero's
failure
She p o i n t s out t h a t although Wordsworth's
v o i c e does not pause over t h i s double
legacy,"
Wordsworth's sense of i t i n f l e c t s the v o i c i n g of h i s next
q u e s t i o n which, though s t i l l
c a s t i n a r h e t o r i c of
a f f i r m a t i o n , bears a more h e s i t a n t tone, and as a
consequence, an ambiguous sense"
7.
" ' I Met
(150).
Paul B r e s l i n makes t h i s connection i n h i s review,
H i s t o r y Once, But He A i n ' t Recognize Me':
Poetry of Derek Walcott"
T r i - O u a r t e r l v 68
(1987):
R u s s e l l Banks' s t r e e t - w i s e c h a r a c t e r , Bone,
h i s R a s t a f a r i a n mentor i n Rule of the Bone
V i n t a g e Canada, 1996)
The
168-183.
paraphrases
(Toronto:
a s s e r t i n g c o n t i n u i t y between, s l a v e r y ,
c o l o n i a l i s m , and tourism.
As he
says,
83
when t h e E n g l i s h found out how c o l o n i z a t i o n was a
cheaper and l e s s vexatious way than s l a v e r y f o r
g e t t i n g r i c h without having t o leave London
excpet
on v a c a t i o n , they went and f r e e d a l l t h e i r s l a v e s
and c o l o n i z e d them i n s t e a d .
And a f t e r t h a t when
the E n g l i s h queen f i n a l l y d i e d and they had t o l e t
Jamaica go f r e e the Americans and Canadians
invented tourism which was the same as
c o l o n i z a t i o n , he s a i d only without t h e c i t i z e n s of
the colony needing t o make or grow anything. (157)
8.
Harold Bloom d i s c u s s e s the contemporary
poet's
r e l a t i o n s h i p with h i s l i t e r a r y f o r e b e a r s i n terms o f Father
and son.
Walcott's use throughout
draws on i t s many Caribbean
of t h e word "master"
connotations as w e l l as
s u g g e s t i n g t h e i n e v i t a b l e "anxiety of i n f l u e n c e . "
9.
Harold
In The Anxiety of I n f l u e n c e :
Bloom develops
A Theory o f Poetry,
a r e a d i n g of P a r a d i s e L o s t "as an
a l l e g o r y of t h e dilemma of t h e modern poet"
(20).
In t h i s ,
he applauds s u b v e r s i v e or S a t a n i c r e s i s t a n c e t o a
p r e d e c e s s o r ' s poetry as s t r e n g t h i n c o n t r a s t t o Adamic
attempts and impulses which are seen as weak (20-24) .
goes on t o c i t e Blake who, as Bloom says,
names one s t a t e of being Adam, and c a l l s i t t h e
L i m i t of C o n t r a c t i o n , and another
c a l l s i t t h e L i m i t of Opacity.
s t a t e Satan, and
Adam i s g i v e n o r
n a t u r a l man, beyond which our imaginations
will
He
84
not c o n t r a c t .
Satan i s the thwarted or r e s t r a i n e d
d e s i r e of n a t u r a l man,
or r a t h e r the shadow of
Spectre of t h a t d e s i r e .
s t a t e , we
Beyond t h i s s p e c t r a l
w i l l not harden a g a i n s t v i s i o n , but
Spectre squats i n our r e p r e s s i v e n e s s ,
and we
hardened enough, as we
enough.
are c o n t r a c t e d
the
are
(24)
Bloom makes i t c l e a r t h a t poets " t h i s l a t e i n t r a d i t i o n
both Adams and
and
Satans" (24), and
t h a t "no
poet s i n c e Adam
Satan speaks a language f r e e of the one
precursors"
10.
are
wrought by
his
(25).
S e v e r a l c r i t i c s have concerned themselves w i t h
what Wordsworth does not
i n h i s a r t i c l e "The
(or cannot s a y ) .
Rhetoric
Douglas Kneale,
of Imagination"
(Ariel
[1984] 111-127) d i s c u s s e s Wordsworth's concerns w i t h
incompetence of language.
He quotes Roman Jakobson
15:4
the
as
p o i n t i n g out t h a t "the supremacy of p o e t i c f u n c t i o n over
r e f e r e n t i a l f u n c t i o n does not o b l i t e r a t e the r e f e r e n c e
makes i t ambiguous," and goes on to say of The
Prelude that
such ambiguity i s
most apparent i n a poem which f i n d s i t s e l f
instead
n a r r a t i n g the s e r a i o l o g i c a l problems of t h a t
narration.
S h i f t i n g between an
h i s t o r y troped
and
imaginative
as f i c t i o n , u s u r p a t i o n ,
a f i c t i o n which purports
autobiography, and
epitaph,
t o descant on i t s own
and
drama,
t o be h i s t o r y ,
the t e x t f e e l s o b l i g e d
deformity.
(12 5)
but
85
G a y a t r i Spivak's a r t i c l e
Prelude
(1805):
"Sex and H i s t o r y i n The
Books Nine t o T h i r t e e n " p r o v i d e s an
i n t e r e s t i n g r e a d i n g of The Prelude i n terms of what i s
s i l e n c e d or occluded:
The
i t i n e r a r y of Wordsworth's s e c u r i n g o f t h e
Imagination
of
Julia,
i s worth r e c a p i t u l a t i n g .
Suppression
unemphatic r e t e n t i o n of Vaudracour as
s u s t a i n e d and negative c o n d i t i o n o f p o s s i b i l i t y of
disavowal, h i s s u b l a t i o n i n t o C o l e r d i g e ,
rememorating through t h e mediation of t h e f i g u r e
of
Dorothy h i s own Oedipal a c c e s s i o n t o t h e Law,
Imagination
as the androgyny of Nature and Man
—
Woman shut out. I cannot but see i n i t t h e s e x u a l p o l i t i c a l program of the Great T r a d i t i o n .
d i s c l o s i n g such a programmatic i t i n e r a r y ,
If, i n
I have
l e f t a s i d e the i r r e d u c i b l e h e t e r o g e n e i t y of
Wordsworth's t e x t , i t i s a l s o i n t h e i n t e r e s t o f a
certain politics.
I t i s i n the i n t e r e s t of
s u g g e s t i n g t h a t , when a man (here Wordsworth)
addresses
another man (Coleridge) i n a s u s t a i n e d
c o n v e r s a t i o n of a seemingly
must learn
u n i v e r s a l t o p i c , we
t o read the m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l burden o f
the woman's p a r t . (136)
Although
Walcott does a t l e a s t attempt i n p l a c e s t o speak
the woman's p a r t , h i s attempts a r e such t h a t i t seems f a i r l y
86
c l e a r t h a t Spivak would p l a c e him s q u a r e l y i n the Great
Tradition.
Susan Wolfson's
Q u e s t i o n i n g Answers':
Prelude"
1993)
article
"'Answering
Questions
and
The I n t e r r o g a t i v e P r o j e c t of
The
(The Prelude, ed. N i g e l Wood, Buckingham:
Open UP,
a l s o examines the unsaid i n The Prelude, by exposing
e v a s i o n s and i n d e t e r m i n a c i e s i n what she c a l l s Wordsworth's
"interrogative dialectics."
Although she does not do so i n
her essay, she suggests t h a t "a wider a p p l i c a t i o n of [these
d i a l e c t i c s ] t o the s o c i o h i s t o r i c a l f o r c e s shaping both
n o t i o n s of s u b j e c t i v i t y and a t t i t u d e s about h i s t o r y as they
are
r e p r e s e n t e d i n , or excluded from, h i s autobiography"
(162, my
11.
emphasis) might be u s e f u l .
E l a i n e F i d o i n "Walcott and Sexual P o l i t i c s :
Conventions Shape the Moon," i n The L i t e r a r y
26.1
Macho
Half-Yearly
(1985) 43-61, f i n d s Walcott's treatment of women
throughout h i s work d i s a p p o i n t i n g .
She r e l a t e s h i s
d e p i c t i o n of Woman t o h i s use of the moon as
p o i n t i n g out t h a t i t i s used t o convey
symbol,
images of whiteness,
f e c u n d i t y , and w i t c h e r y .
12.
Life,
In h i s a r t i c l e ,
" P a i n t e r s and P a i n t i n g i n Another
Edward Baugh o f f e r s a thorough d i s c u s s i o n of W a l c o t t ' s
use of amber
13.
imagery.
The King Lear a l l u s i o n , of course i s t o L e a r ' s
87
exclamation
i n Act I I I :
"0, t h a t way madness l i e s ;
l e t me
shun t h a t " ( I I I , iv' 21) .
f
14.
Again,
Susan Wolfson i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o r e a d on t h e
i s s u e o f Wordsworth's use o f the i n t e r r o g a t i v e .
15.
The theme of d i v i s i o n i n Another L i f e i s d i s c u s s e d
i n numerous other a r t i c l e s .
"'A C r y s t a l o f A m b i g u i t i e s ' :
Pamela Mordecai,
f o r example i n
Metaphors f o r C r e a t i v i t y and
the A r t o f W r i t i n g i n Derek Walcott's Another L i f e "
27:1
(WLWE
[1987] 93-105), l i s t s the d i v i s i o n s as being
between d e s i r e s t o p a i n t and t o w r i t e , between
A n g l i c i z e d / c o l o n i a l / w h i t e and i n d i g e n o u s / b l a c k
view o f t h e world, between C r e o l e and standard
languages,
between p u e r i l e and mature a t t i t u d e s ,
between the r e a l and the i d e a l i z e d , between a r t
and a c t u a l i t y . (94)
In "Commonwealth Albums:
Family Resemblance i n Derek
Walcott's Another L i f e and Margaret Laurence * s The D i v i n e r s "
(WLWE 22:2 [1982] 262-268), C l a r a Thomas sums up Walcott's
division
i n race between England
and S t . L u c i a , and beyond
t h a t he i s l i n k e d by blood t o a remote A f r i c a n
past.
In r e l i g i o n he i s p u l l e d between h i s f a m i l y
h e r i t a g e o f Methodism, the dominant C a t h o l i c i s m o f
the C a s t r i e s he knew as a boy, and 'an atavism
s t r o n g e r than t h e i r Mass / s t r o n g e r than c h a p e l /
whose tubers gripped the rooted m i d d l e c l a s s /
88
b e g i n n i n g where A f r i c a n began / i n the body's
memory.*
16.
(265)
Edward Baugh p r o v i d e s a c a r e f u l r e a d i n g of the
poem's p a i n t i n g imagery and i n c l u d e s u s e f u l
information
about r e f e r e n c e s t o books, p a i n t i n g s , and a r t i s t s a l l u d e d t o
i n Another L i f e i n h i s a r t i c l e " P a i n t e r s and P a i n t i n g i n
Another
Life."
17.
The young poet i s brought t o t h i s
scene of s e x u a l
g u i l t by rowboat.
The r e g u l a r p e n t a m e t r i c a l l i n e s
section
s e c t i o n of Chapter 13) t o d e s c r i b e what
(the t h i r d
of
this
Walcott d e l i b e r a t e l y c a l l s the " p e n t a m e t r i c a l " rowing h e l p
t o connect i t w i t h another important rowing scene i n
pentametre, t h a t of Book I i n The P r e l u d e .
The l a t t e r i s
a l s o h e a v i l y imbued with g u i l t , which although o s t e n s i b l y a
g u i l t a t the " a c t of s t e a l t h "
(1.388) i s t o l d
i n language
which connotes s e x u a l i t y : " l u s t i l y / I dipped my
the
s i l e n t Lake, / And, as I rose upon the s t r o k e , my Boat /
Went heaving through the water"
18.
(New
oars i n t o
(1.401-404).
Jamaica K i n c a i d ' s The Autobiography of My
York:
F a r r a r Straus Giroux, 1996)
Mother
i s i n s c r i b e d "For
Derek W a l c o t t . "
19.
'I':
See Ashton N i c h o l s " a r t i c l e "The
Revolutionary
Wordsworth and the P o l i t i c s of S e l f - P r e s e n t a t i o n " i n
Wordsworth i n Context Ed. P a u l i n e F l e t c h e r and John Murphy
(Lewisburg:
B u c k n e l l UP,
1992)
pp. 66-84. f o r a more
89
thorough c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the r e l a t i o n s h i p between
Wordsworth's s e l f and h i s s e l f as t e x t .
20. See G a y a t r i Chakravorty Spivak's
i n The Prelude (1805):
21.
"Sex and
History
Books Nine t o T h i r t e e n . "
Merchant i n c l u d e s Dante's Commedia as an even
e a r l i e r a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l e p i c , c i t i n g Emerson's p r a i s e of
Dante " t h a t he dared t o w r i t e h i s autobiography i n c o l o s s a l
cypher, or i n t o u n i v e r s a l i t y "
(41).
22. Although Merchant s t a t e s t h a t "Chaucer's
Canterbury
T a l e s have no more c l a i m than Langland's poem t o be
classed
as a c o n v e n t i o n a l e p i c , " he i n c l u d e s them i n h i s
c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the e p i c
because
they are another c o n t r i b u t i o n t o the t r a d i t i o n
. .
. the simple d e v i c e of having them a l l on a
p i l g r i m a g e t o Canterbury, d u r i n g which each
p i l g r i m was
t o t e l l two p a i r s of s t o r i e s t o
b e g u i l e the time.
The r e s u l t i s a long poem w i t h
a d i s t i n c t o r a l c h a r a c t e r . . . and a g a i n the poet
has found a l o o s e s t r u c t u r e which w i l l
every contemporary
23.
Greeks:
c l a s s and custom.
In h i s Graduating Honours B.A.
accommodate
(43)
essay "Black
The Odyssey and the Poetry of Derek W a l c o t t "
( U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia,
1990), L a c h l a n Murray
d i s c u s s e s Walcott's E p i t a p h f o r the Young, p o i n t i n g out i t s
90
d i r e c t connection
with Another L i f e and n o t i n g t h a t i t i s a
long poem i n twelve cantos.
In an i n t e r v i e w with Robert Hamner, Walcott says o f
Epitaph
f o r the Young t h a t i t i s " s o r t of l i k e an U r t e x t o f
Another L i f e "
("Conversation with Derek W a l c o t t , "
L i t e r a t u r e Written
24.
World
i n E n g l i s h , 16 [1977]: 409-420).
See Note 21 f o r more on Paul Merchant's
c o n s i d e r a t i o n of Dante's Commedia as the " e a r l i e s t
epic
w r i t t e n i n the f i r s t person" (38).
25.
R e i Terada makes the u s e f u l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s
mimesis can be taken " t o mean the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
and
'mimicry' the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
that
of r e a l i t y ,
of a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ,
a
r e p e t i t i o n of something i t s e l f r e p e t i t i o u s " ( 1 ) , and he
p o i n t s out t h a t " f o r Walcott mimicry, with a l l i t s
ambivalent f r e i g h t , r e p l a c e s mimesis as the ground o f
representation
26.
and c u l t u r e " ( 2 ) .
Edward Baugh o f f e r s a b r i e f v e r s i o n o f t h i s b a t t l e
on page 45 of Derek Walcott:
Memory as V i s i o n :
Another
Life.
27.
T h i s c l a i m of the Romantic p r o j e c t as a r e -
f a s h i o n i n g of these meta-narratives
t o save t r a d i t i o n a l concepts, schemes, and v a l u e s
which had been based on the r e l a t i o n of t h e
Creator
t o h i s c r e a t u r e and c r e a t i o n , but t o
reformulate
them w i t h i n the p r e v a i l i n g two-term
91
system of s u b j e c t and o b j e c t , ego and non-ego, the
human mind or consciousness and i t s t r a n s a c t i o n s
w i t h nature
(13)
i s the c e n t r a l focus of M.H.
Abrams
1
Natural
Supernaturalism.
28.
T h i s i s s u r p r i s i n g l y s i m i l a r t o the image i n The
P r e l u d e of the f l o o d o v e r t a k i n g and d e s t r o y i n g the book
carried
( i n the form of s h e l l and stone) by the Arab i n
Wordsworth's f r i e n d ' s dream.
resonance
f o r the Caribbean,
The
"nothing" a l s o has
special
of course, r e c a l l i n g as i t must
N a i p a u l ' s well-known comment i n The Middle Passage
(Harmondsworth:
Penguin,
1969)
t h a t "nothing was
created i n
the West I n d i e s " (29).
29.
Susan Lohafer r e f e r s t o the space around each s t o r y i n
a c o l l e c t i o n of s h o r t s t o r i e s as an o n t o l o g i c a l gap,
for
which she uses the metaphor of a moat (Lohafer 52). A f t e r
l e a v i n g the
o n t o l o g i c a l space of one s t o r y and
before
e n t e r i n g the next, the reader must c r o s s the moat of the
"real"
world.
30.
Edward Baugh draws a t t e n t i o n t o Another L i f e ' s
" r i c h v a r i e t y of moods, and the s u b t l e t y , sometimes the
s u b t l e suddenness, with which the poet s h i f t s the
gears of the poem" (28).
emotional
T h i s sudden m o o d - s h i f t i n g f o r c e s
92
the
reader
again."
to
make a d j u s t m e n t s
or,
in effect,
to
"begin
93
Works C i t e d
Abrams, M.H.
N a t u r a l Supernaturalism:
Tradition
R e v o l u t i o n i n Romantic L i t e r a t u r e .
New
and
York:
Norton,
1971.
Ashcroft, B i l l ,
Gareth G r i f f i t h s , and Helen T i f f i n .
Empire Writes Back:
Theory and P r a c t i c e i n P o s t -
Colonial Literatures.
Baugh, Edward.
London:
Routledge,
New
A n x i e t y of I n f l u e n c e :
York: Oxford UP,
B r e i n e r , Lawrence.
Poet."
35.4
Life'"
83-93.
A Theory of P o e t r y .
1973.
" T r a d i t i o n , S o c i e t y , The F i g u r e of the
Caribbean Q u a r t e r l y 26.1-2 (1980):
Huggan, Graham.
the
1989.
" P a i n t e r s and P a i n t i n g i n 'Another
Caribbean Q u a r t e r l y 16.1-2 (1980):
Bloom, H a r o l d .
The
"A T a l e of Two
Parrots:
Uses of C o l o n i a l Mimicry."
1-12.
Walcott, Rhys, and
Contemporary L i t e r a t u r e
(1994): 646-660.
Ismond, P a t r i c i a .
"Walcott versus Brathwaite."
Caribbean
Q u a r t e r l y 17.3-4 (1971): 54-71.
Lane, M. T r a v i s .
"A D i f f e r e n t
'Growth of a Poet's Mind':
Derek Walcott's Another L i f e . "
Lindenberger, Herbert.
Conn.:
Greenwood,
Lord, George d e F o r e s t .
On Wordsworth's Prelude.
Paul.
Westport,
1976.
T r i a l s of the S e l f :
i n the E p i c T r a d i t i o n .
Merchant,
A r i e l 9 (1978): 65-78.
The E p i c .
Hamden, Conn.:
London:
Methuen,
Heroic Ordeals
Archon,
1971.
1983.
N i c h o l s , Ashton.
" C o l o n i z i n g Consciousness: C u l t u r e and
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